11. Simulators and games as interactive media 1.

1 Basic concepts Fifty years of growth The field of simulation and training games has expanded over the last few years to a point where it is often treated as a major training technique in its own right. Of course, simulation has for a long time been used in certain aspects of education. In primary schools in particular, the idea of learning through a game or dramatization (eg playing shop) is as old as education itself. Over the last fifty years or so, we have seen developments at the other extreme. Complex simulators are used to teach pilots to fly aircraft, starting from the wartime Link trainers through to devices which simulate weightlessness or high gravity loadings, for the training of astronoauts. We have also seen the birth of a variety of bussines games and simulations, ranging from role-playing in typical sales or interview situations to games which enable the players to take all the decisions necessary to run a complex bussines empire, in competition with other players (other companies) and under the control of a simulated economy (often computerbased) which feeds in the elements of chance and change. But only recently have we seen the use of these technique in secondary and further education. In technical training, special training exercise for psychomotor skills have been developed which often use simulated off the job training situations. Much pioneering work in this field is due to Seymours s work in skills analysis training (Seymour, 1996). In secondary and further education, three has been a rash of simulation and training games exercise which aim at developing socila skills or understanding of complex problem. Examples of the second type include role-playing of others roles to gain greater understanding of their problems (eg the Shelter simulation which investigates the problems of seven groups sharing an over-crowded house), or real games (involving boards, cards or dice, etc) which, some what like the game of Monopoly, allow participants to make decisions within a system and see the system work . However, the game of Monopoly may be seen as a not-too-good example of simulation when we examine it more closely later in this capter. What is simulation? Simulation has been defined as an attempt to give the appearance and/or to give the effect of something else (Barton, 1970). This somewhat wide definition would seem to cover such things as play-acting, disguise, models, even photographs and paintings. Certainly a photograph give the appearance of the real object and in some limited way it may also give the effect (otherwise how do we account for the sales of girlie magazines and posters). A computer-based model of the economy, on the other hand, certainly reproduces the effects of certain decisions, but the way it does this (paper print-out of data) has little resemblance to the appearance of these effects in a real economy (new jobs, rising prices, industrial actions, etc). There is on further aspect of simulation which our definition should include, all the examples we have so far mentioned have one thing in common: they actively involve the learners in making decisions, playing roles, adopting attitudes or operating the simulator. The learner learns by manipulating the model . If we use the word model here in the wide sense (ic a model of an object, or of a process, or of a complex system) then simulators are models which can be manipulated or operated in some way or other. We might therefore extend our definition of simulation as follows: an educational simulation 1. Requires a model (something giving the appearance and/or the effect of something else) 2. Requires that the learners operate or manipulate the model, in order to learn. What is educational gaming? The model is usually a simplified version of the real object, process or system under study. However, the extent to which one can simplify the models depends very much on the learning objectives. Those aspects of reality under study must be reproduced as faithfully as possible in

the model: aspect not under study may be omitted from it. Thus when learners operate the model the effects one would obtain in reality. Euducational gaming is sometimes considered as a branch of educational simulation. However, there are some differences. Certainly the well-publicized war games (in which army officers play out strategic moves against each other and a computer). Or management games (which pit executive against each other in similiar battles concerned with production or sales) are examples of simulation the participants make decisions and follow rules very similiar to those in reality. The computer (or sometimes a human adjudicator ) acts as a store of the sort of data which could normally be available in reality and sometimes also as a generator of the type of chance events which again may occur in reality. The value of such games to the participant is in direct relation to how well the games simulate the decisions that have to be taken in real wars or in the real business world. The main difference between these games and other simulations (such as computer simulations of a business structure or of an economy) is the element of competition which is introduced. Indeed this is perhaps the main discriminating factor between games and simulations. Some games may be simulations, others may not, but all games have an element of competition. This element of competition may be natural to the reality being studied, as in the two examples above, or it may be purposly introduced into the learning to make it into game. For example, during the period leading up to decimilization, or D day in Britain, several organizations used a card game similiar to snap . Some cards were labelled with various amounts in old currency. Players simply shouted snap when two cards of equivalent value were turned up. The objective was to improve trainees ability at identifying equivalent values in the two currencies. The game certainly worked. Trainees became quicker in their responses to such a degree that it was obvious that they were identifying the equivalents on sight rathet than by mental arithmetic. Similar games have been used for learning basic multiplication as an alternative to swotting up tables, or for learning foreign vocabularies. It is doubtful whether many readers would classify these games as simulations. However, they could conceivably be considered as partial simulations, based on very simplified models of reality. The decimal currency game, for example, deals with one skill that presumably was felt to be required for transition to the new currency. Whoever devised the game presumably had formed a model of how people would behave when the new currency was introduced. Rather than attempting a total simulation (such as playing shop ) which would involve participants in practising a range of skills, he singled out one skill and devised a training exercise for it. Because his exercise contains an element of competition and scoring, we call it a game. Fife key points on the use of simulations and games This digression into decimilization might serve to make several points : 1. Simulation and the design of special-purpose training exercises may be thought to lie upon a continuum. At one end we have reality, or a perfect simulation of reality. At the other end we have exercises designed develop specific skills or sub-skills which are required in order to perform in the real-life situation. In between we have exercises based on progressively more and more simplified models of the reality we are studying. 2. The benefit of a realistic simulation is that the learner gets an overall impression of the object, process or system under study. He may come to an overall understanding of the problem or he may practise the whole job . However, the complexity of the whole may be such that he learns little about the component parts. In-some circumstances this may not matter. In others, it would be beneficial to simplify the model and concentrate on simulating only those parts of reality which are relevant at this time. In still other circumstances, particularly where one component of the whole is particularly difficult to understand or to master, it may be beneficial to single out this component and design a training exercise for it.

3. There is no reason why a particular course of training should not include both special skill exercises and relatively realistic simulations of the whole job. A detailed analysis of the learning task is needed to decide on the best course structure. 4. If they contain an element of competitive fun, both training exercises and simulations tend to be called games. Sometimes the competitive element appears as a natural consequence of the reality we are studying. However there is no harm in injecting an artificial competitive element, provided it does not destroy the realism of the simulation. 5. Simulation requires an adequately realistic model of the reality under study (training exercises may be considered as dealing with only some part of this model). They will only be useful as training aids to the extent to which the model is correct. A mini case study At this point we might revert to considering the game of Monopoly. Is this a simulation? Is it an educational game? On face value it seems to give the appearance and some of the effects of property deals in the City. Also you can certainly become involved and operate the model. You can, for example, take losses now in order to reap profits later, or you can make decisions to specialize in, say, commercial property or to build up a balanced portfolio. However, even the most superficial analysis reveals that the rules and possibilities in Monopoly are very different from reality. Monopoly is a very poor simulation of the real property game: poor not in the sense that it is simplified to concentrate on certain aspects, but in the sense that it diverges from reality in many respects. It is doubtful how much a building property speculator would increase his skills by the playing of Monopoly. However, you might posibly expect enthusiastic players of monopoly to be more likely to develop a desire for real property speculation. There may be a motivational effect. One particular weakness of the game (considered as a simulator) is the disproportionate part the chance plays in the transaction. The benefits of simulations and games Among the usually quoted benefits of simulation and gaming exercise are: 1. They can provide the student with experiences and practice which are much closer to the real life situations he will encounter than might otherwise be possible in a training course. In particular they can reproduce the pressures and stresses under which students will have to work. 2. They can therefore be useful as methods of measuring how well students are able to apply previously learnt facts, concepts, or principles to real-life situations. 3. They allow one to simplify reality, controlling which aspects of a real-life situation a student should attend and respond to. 4. They are often economically justified as a substitute for on-the-job practice when it would be difficult to arrange this, eg expensive, easily broken equipment (medical simulators), remote situations (space-travel simulators or school geography games), equipment used for production day and night (industrial process simulators), etc. 5. They are often justified on safety grounds, in that they enable students to practise dangerous or threatening jobs without any danger (pilot-training simulators, simulations of highly-stressed personal situations such as dealing with discipline problems in the classroom, war games, etc). 6. A well-designed simulation or game is generally found to involve students in the learning task more than other available techniques, both intellectually and emotionally. 7. As a result of 6 (and also of 3) they have been found to be an extremely effective way of measuring, changing and reinforving student attitudes.

8. Finally, simulation can of course be used as a research technique. The model being used in the simulation should reflect reality. If we understand the real-life phenomenon under study sufficiently, we should be able to construct a valid model. If, however, we do not fully understand the real problem,we construct a tentative model a model which reflects our hypotheses about the problem. We then operate the model and observe the effects, comparing them with the effects we obtain in reality. Any discrepancies are analysed and the model is redesigned, and our hypotheses changed, if necessary. The study of complex systems such as political systems, nervous systems, sophisticated electronic systems (ie the science of cybernetics) relies heavily on simulation as a research techinue. 11.2 A schema of simulation and gaming techinques Several types of instructional techniques are commonly classified as simulation, gaming, or a combination of the two. They include case studies, role-playing, full sinulations, educational games, instructional games and simulation games. In order better to define and distinguish these categories as illustrated in figure 11.1. The diagram attempts to show that all the techniques mentioned are based on the extraction of data or situations from the reality which the learning is concerned. Case study, role-play and simulation Case studies are based on data extracted from a real case and adapted to ilusstrate better a specific phenomenon or to practise a particular decision-making process, roleplaying exercises may use some data about a real situation, but also include a specification of the characteristics, or roles, of the people involed, thus in some respects mirroring the reality more closely than a case study. A full

Figure 11.1 Relationships between games and simulations used in education and training. This schema shows how the various types of simulations and game are related to each other and to reality . (From Romiszowski, 1981, 1984)

Figure 11.2 Another view of the relationship between games simulations and case studies as overlapping sets . (Percival and Ellington, 1980)

simulation is even closer to reality, being based on a model of certain aspects of the real situation under study that the learners may operate in a interactive manner. Educational and instructional games On the other side of the diagram there are games. First there are educational knowledge. Then there are instructional games, based on specific objectives that the learners should achieve and are therefore more directly based on the analysis of a particular real situation. Games, whether instructional or educational, do not specific steps of a much more complex real-life procedure. They do this in the context of competition, either between learners, or against some standard of performance. Simulation games At the bottom of the diagram is the simulation game. This is a learning exercise that combines elements of the full simulation exercise with the competitive element of games. This last category has become more generally used in recent years, at all levels of education and for all categories of objectives. We shall study several examples of simulation games later in the chapter. A somewhat different view of the relationship between games, simulations and case studies is presented by Percival and Ellington, who conceptualize these three pure types of instructional techniques (Figure 11.2). This may be quite a useful way of

classifying example of the many types of games and simulations now used in education. However, it is importan to emphasize the part that role-playing has as a technique in is own right and also as part of many simulations. It is also useful to draw a distinction between the educational game, which has broad, general objectives, and the instructional game, developed to lead students to the achievement of sfecific, often job-related objectives. 11.3 Applications of simulations and games It is possible to use simulations and games across the whole spectrum of learning categories, although it may not always be desirable or particularly efficient to do so. We shall examine some specific examples of the application of simulations and games later. We will also discuss the factors to be taken into consideration when deciding whether to use them in particular situations. Analyse the reality and the objectives As in all other cases, the particular application must be analysed from two viewpoints: 1. Analysis of the real phenomena, situations or skills that are to be learnt, in order to be able to design an appropriately realistic model or exercise. 2. Analysis of the learning tasks and difficulties involved, in order to decide how much simplification of reality, or how much breakdown into simpler exercises, is appropriate. Once this analisys is complete, the next steps will depend on the type and purpose of the proposed simulation or game. Using our four major skill categories as a basis, we can distinguish the principal uses of simulations and games. Use for cognitive objectives Cognitive domain. The learners should demonstrate an understanding of the phenomenon being simulated (the conceptual knowledge) and should use this understanding to explain the phenomenon, solve particular problems that involve the phenomenon, and invent new ways of using the phenomenon, etc. Most simulations and games may have two separate functions in this domain: a) The transmission of new knowledge and/or the formation and restructuring of conceptual schemata; b) The development of logical thinking, memorization, analytical, creative, and other cognitive skills. Use for psychomotor objectives Psyhomotor domain. Any well-designed off-the-job training exercise is a form of simulation of the real job situation, or of a specific selected part (one sub-skill, for example). Occasionally, special exercises for the development of perception, or dexterity, or strength and stamina (which are of general use and not related to one specific job situation) may be organized in the form of games. The more complex total simulations in this domain, such as driving simulators, the Link trainer for pilots, or the simulated space capsule for astronauts, often involve the development such cases, the simulation exercise may also help the learner to acquire and organize relevant knowledge into effective planning strategies. Use for attitudes and values Reactive domain. In many simulations and games the main objectivies are that the learners should emerge from the experience with a changed attidude, or with new values. Many so-

1.

2.

3.

called social simulation fall into this category. Learning may involve the development of selfcontol skills, as in the case of a simulation of the case of STARPOWER. Use for interactive objectives Interactive domain. In this domain, simulations are used to develop the learner s perceptions of other people s feelings and attitudes and their interpretation of other people s reactions and underlying motives. Some simulations in this category aim to develop the learner s skills in managing other (leadership, selling, motivating, persuading), while other examples are more concerned with the knowledge structures that explain the behaviour of others.

4.

Note: the examples listed are those discussed in this section and in other parts of this chapter. The positions on the grid are only approximate. In certain cases, a particular form of exercise may step outside the bounds indicated here. Figure 11.3 A Schema for the classification of games and simulations according to area of application/objectives achieved.

11.4 Some examples of simulations and games 11.4.1 The in-tray exercise: a pure simulation How the in-tray exercise works The in-tray exercise is used very widely in the training of executives and decisionmakers. The documents placed in the in-tray simulate the flow of data that normally occurs in the trainee s job envinronment. The trainee simply works through the pile and takes decisions on how to deal with the situations that present themselves. These decisions are feed back to the exercise co-ordinator, who analysis them and, on the basis of this analysis, feeds other data and documents to the traince, thus simulating the dynamics of the real working situation. When to use an in-tray exercise Almost any bureaucra ic decision-making process may be simulated in this manner. The realism and the instructional effectiveness of the exercise depend on the care and accuracy with which the real process is analysed and its essential element identified and included in the model that governs the decisions of the exercise co-ordinator. It is essential that the consequences of the trainee s decisions are as similar as possible to those that would occur in real life. However, the danger element which may exist in real life eliminated. Time is compressed in the sense that. In a few hours of the exercise, the trainee may live through the stages of a problem situation that would take days or even months to develop in reality. The in-tray exercise and its derivatives are examples of pure simulations. They do not include any gaming element, but to a high degree they do reproduce reality and the operational model that makes that reality reality work. 11.4.2 Group games and activities for communiating and analysing cognitive structures Many exercises have been devised to promote introspection, analysis and the restructuring by an individual of his cognitive schemata. Perhaps the best known is brainstorming and its many derivatives. Brainstorming is not, however, a game or simulation; it is the organization of group activity for the analysis and solution of a given problem. Some practitioners, however, have injected a game element by organizing problem-solving competitions between groups engaged in brainstorming sessions. The use of cards to picture cognitive structures One very useful way of controlling and documenting a brainstorming sessions is to write down all the comments and contributions made by the participants on separate cards. These cards. These cards can later be displayed on a table or wall, and the participants invited to organize and reorganize them into groups or structures that reflect the way that the ideas are organized in their minds. New classification concepts may emerge and new ways of viewing the topic generated, and a visual record is left of the deliberations of the group. The COMMUNIKIT Another interesting apporach to the analysis and communication of cognitive schemata is the kit of hexagons, called COMMUNI-KIT, developed by Anthony Hodgson and his colleagues. This consists of a set of hexagon shapes made of plastic, on which it is possible to write with a fibre-tipped pen. These are used in a way similar to the cards, but have the advantage of having many edges and can therefore be organized into more complex shapes, which better communicate the structure of the ideas being discussed.

11.4.3 A management game based on a physical simulator Most management games are paper shuffling exercises similar to the in-tray exercise described carlier. The players make decisions on the basis of data presented and the results of these decisions are then received by the exercise co-ordinator. The latter hands out further information or poses new problems, following a conceptual model of how the real management decision process being simulated actually works. More sophisticated games use a computer-based model of the organization, which may enhance the complexity and the speed of reaction of the model to the decisions being taken by the players.

A model as a simulation of the physical reality of a job I was involved in the design of quite a complex situation of this type, as part of the design of a course for production line managers and supervisors in the motor industry. A large model of the real production shoop floor was constructed on a trestle table. The production lines were represented by motorized moving belts, running the length of the table. The speed of these belts could be adjusted to simulate actual production rates for different production processes and machines were indicated in their correct positions, by labels or actual wooden models. Wooden block were used to

simulate the units of production (say, 50 door panels). These blocks would be placed at the beginning of a belt to signify the decision to manufacture a batch of the given component represented by the block. On reaching the end of the line, the blocks would go into store or be re-routed to other lines where they would be used in final assembly. Operating the model Trainces worked in groups of four players, dividing the normal duties of shopfloor management. All normally used prosedures and control document were employed. The speed of operation of the model was adjusted so as to simulate, in two hours of play, a protocol of critical incidents, such as machine breakdowns, delivery failures by component manufacturers, strikes, etc. These incidents would be brought into play at predetermined moments, halting production on certain lines for predetermined periods of time. The players had to deal with all incidents and keep an eye on the movement of parts along the belts, while at the same time performing normal stock control and production scheduling tasks. The simulation of reality was as complete as possible. Scoring the results Scoring was in terms of the production figures achieved in a session. Various groups competed against each other during a course and could compare their scores with the best results of other groups and of experienced production managers who set the standards in early runs of the game. Several runs could be attempted, working under different schedules of critical incidents, until production rates approached the standards set by experiented managers. 11.4.4 Rust-or is it snap ? The card game of snap can be adapted to many instructional purposes, by the preparation of special packs of cards. One popular application is in the drilling of foreign language vocabularies. One player turns up a set of cards with English words and another has a set of cards with the same words in another language, say French. Whenever two cards which are equivalent appear on the table, the first player to shout snap wins the cards. The problem-rust One practical teaching method based on snap was developed by the author some years ago as part of a project in Brazil. Brazil s coffe production is concentrated in the state of Sao Paulo. In the 1970s, the coffe plantatioas in the state were damaged by a disease called, colloquially, ferrugem, which means rust . The name refers to the rustlike deposits that form on the leaves as the disease develops. Once rust takes root, the only cure is to burn the infected plants and start again. Whole plantations were wiped out at this time. The initial plan... The institute in Sao Paolo where I was working was asked by the coffe research Institute to produce a series of television programmes to teach coffe plantation workers about rust and show them how to diagnose it in the early stages, when only individual plants might have to be destroyed and hence the plantations it self saved. ...and its inadequacy Why televisions? Well, we needed to show the coffee plants and the symptoms of rust. We could not use books, as most of the plantation workers were illiterate or, at any rate, not accustomed to learning by reading. The media experts and the instructional designers go to work, and it was soon obvious that the choice of media was not ideal. The photographers moaned that the quality of colour and picture on TV was not sufficient to show the fine differences between a healthy coffee leaf and one attacked by the early stages of rust. The media experts estimated that fewer than a third of the plantations in the state received television signals and that over half did not

even have electricity. Complex plans were launched to produce slide/tape audiovisual programmes, which would tour the plantations in a truck with a generator. Costs were mounting and time was running out. The game of Rust It was at this point that suddenly snap! or rather, rust! the light dawned. There was very little, in general, that the average plantation worker needed to know about rust hat he did not already know (from news programmes and the gossip grapevine that existed). The only importan thing to learn was to recognize the early symptoms of rust reliably and fast. We searched through the photographs already taken and selected a collection of photos of coffee plant leaves, some at various stages of the disease, other with defects that had nothing to do with rust, and healthy leaves. This collection of photos was printed to form a pack of cards. Instead of shouting snap . The players had to roar rust whenever an infected leaf was turned up in the game, (They roar because you can only roar out a word like ferrugem! ) The packs of cards were circulated to the plantation owners, with instruction to put up the bank money to get the first game started. From then on the game took over. Everyone wanted to play, even after totally mastering the recognition skills involved. Months later, one would hear disembodied voices from amidst the coffee plants roar out, Ferrugem, I ve won! , indicating succesful transfer of skills to the job. 11.4.5 Simulators for psychomotor skills Simulators complex and simple Simulators The usc of specially built sinmlautws Ihr afar practice of practical skills is well CUWPIQX known. Those include driving sintuluzurs. Shah: simulators and thc oven more and Simple compltrx space (iight simulators;. Howrsvr. rmt all simulators nord to bu vt-ry , complex, .\s examples ufthv simplicity possible. thrrc Ralluw smut- simulation exercises dcx<|0p<<l {ltr thc training <>I`sh<<t mcznl .vmk<rs in tht- motor imltmtry (Figures ll.(S l l.|()). [Cach tn(`th<v<iingr:1ms is accompanied by za short description 0{`thc ohjcctivcs nl`th<* exercise, thv analysis that lcd to thv <l<_sigu <>|`tht simulator and tht: m<t h0d (1 _S(THl(`\'2l|\HUi(}II that thc trainee may usr to mtmitnr his own I< :1rt1iug. The examples nrc tzxkvn lrum n longer sequence 0I`su<I1 simulation exercises that were prntlntttrti to <Itxt|up thc necessary skills one- nt ; thm-. uml . than in c<>nt|>itmtimt. rather like mi<tr0t<*:u hing in somc rcspouts. . \s thc exercises , arc pmtgrcssivc um} sclilttnrrcctittg, thc zxppmnclt also exhibits mzmy lbuturcs of [N`(\}{l'ilH1D`|('(i S(TH;il)Sl!`l|CIif}l\. Ar tht- time <>|`th<Er development (If)li3~(}~) wv called thvm `prtngrztnumdgirmxizttors`. Application to sheet metalwork skills Application 'l`lu- first <r:<rtis<: in tht- series (Figurv I US} d~.lnps thc skills <|`using :1 t Shcm hnumwr to hit :1 givrn point accurately nucl squztrcly. Any error in thc strikes on metalwork . . . . _ . . . . Skins tht- rt::1| y0I> may Inc tcicnuhcd by thc Btu that thc com tn 1htslucto{ metal. whtch should lx- vanishing, is instrztcl gctting bigger. However. t}1< j<>|> only supplies delayed and intermittent ftxcdlmck. Tho simulation v:<crcis< givrs itnmtrtiintv zmci accurate |}:<tH>:1<:k utter every strike uf thc Iuunnzsr. Aplication to gas welding skills Application Thr welding simuintor (I`i;;urc I 1. IO) is rather more complex, in that scvvrztl to Q3? skills ure being practised nt cmcc. Thc operator is controlling tht- distuncc nftlw ggllgmg welding torch from thc work. thc speed of motion of thc torch along tho scum hating welded (which should bc constant and slow) amd thc motion tntthcr other hand, which is lbcding in extra metal, in thc Ibrm 0F:t welding md. in rapid zmrl erratic movements. Onct: again, there is il ctmsidcruhlc ctyordinutitm skill to

master here uml thc run] job situation docs not provide adequate lbcclhack cm wlttethvr tht: skill is hcittg sutisiltcmrily dtrvclopcd. The simulator provides such lbtrcllmck by mc:tns?>!`cl0cks and counters. In thc rcul job situation. thv distance and speed <>|`mutitm ofthe- torch and thc ` mtwcmttnts ofthe welding rnd nrc all controlled by thc upcrnt<1r`s ptr< ptitm ofthe temperature >l`t|1: work ht- is welding, thc state ufthv molten metal hvlnw tho torclt, vte. H`. nt tho time nl` trying to learn to interpret {hr rrrtl work und nwvr thc tools accordingly. thc operator docs not yrrt control thc mules. rm mu- run really any il`his poor \\ (lf`kf\\ill\ hi[) is thr result <>I`l:tck ofcnmrciitmticm skills or Iaurk nl` ptr<:tptu:,t{ skills, or sorm: combination u!`tlusc. The simulator separates these two skills, providing practice in thc ctw-nrdinntitm aspects <n|`tht: musk without thc twctl {hr at hitglt Ivwl U"I)<`l`((")(\l1\l skills, Once il prctlrurmin<ti rateuulzxrrl t|`p<rhrm;1uc< is rezsutltccl on tht- ximu|;tmr, trzmslcr tt>tl1cr<:xljuh gives practice in tht- p<r<t<ptt1;1l nsptrcts and makes tht- lcztmcr compvtcnt in his pcrltwmnncc in at much shorter tntztl Icnrming time. I

1. Use of the hammer Objective: To strike accurately and squarely. .2rt.zlv5is. Points ofdilliculty to learner no obvious feedback either on accuracy or squareness, as hammer rebounds too quickly. Only difficult-t0 interprct leedback such as sidewaysjump of hammer is present naturally. Training dartpt: (a) Accuracy: soft workpiece, pointed hammer. Mark circles of decreasing size as targets. Aim lor centre. _ . la) Squareness; soft workpiece; shallow pyramid point on hammer. Strike at a series of targets (eg along a line) Ifmzt/utiwt. (a) Student selfiiudges progress hy position of marks relative to centre of circle fknowlerltre, oferror). th) Square strike leaves xt square indented pyramid. Any irregularities in indent point to speeilie errors in strike. Student refers to sample errors (knowletlge of error) ur ittstrutttor ctwrttcts Strike (Rwctttl response). I l 3 l I I .S=tntu/nlm.: and (}mm.t 277

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2. Use of the chisel ()bjective. To use_chisel at the correct cutting angle. A Anntvsisr Points of clilliculty keeping angle constant and correct while hammering. Control olchisel angle is part visual and part kinaesthctic. Training design: (ii) l`irst stage guidance (hy Forced response). Chisel held in groove, Bred at correct angle. lt cannot wander. Student concentrates on hammering. (hl Second stage (visual guidance only). Correct angle is demonstrated hyt ne * chisel in slot while the student uses another freely alongside. (e)"l`hird stage lree practice. Ifztalzmlirmx First stage: No chalice ol`error. Student learns `feel`. i Second stage: Self-evaulation against a visual guide. 'I`hirtl stage; lnstruetor must evaluate both method and resultant quality ol`v.ork. { f~

Figure 11.8 Training device for use of the hacksaw

3. Use of the hacksaw O/2jeclizc: T0 cut straight, vertical slots accurzttcly. /lruz{v.ti;. Student must lcarn new skill oimoving hands in tmc plant:. Thcrc is action lbcdback prcscnt in thc job {cg thc bending or bowing ofthc blaclc) but thc strongest control comes from thc kinacsthctic scnsc (ic studcnt must Icarn tht: icc!). Training rlrsrqn: (a) First stnqc {physical rrstriction). Usc a Iiacltsziw with blatlc wrong way up, in an accurasciy prc-formed saw cut along thc widc cdgc ol wurkpittcc. (ln) Repeat in anotht-r cut along narrow cdgc. (Loss physical rcstrictiottf) /Cm/un!imi. Bcntling olblatlc pmduccs nnisc oftccth 0:t sidcs. This urtinciul action i?<<lbat:k brings to stnclt-nt`s attvntion his crror and thc loss obvious natura|` action lctttllizutk o|`tht blatlc bcntliug. l rot;rtssix rvtlnction oflcngth ofslnt rt<lt1ct,;t;ttidz\nt c. instructor mustjtttlgc whvn to cltangv slots. ()nt: t{<;tkmss tlvvicc docs not simulatv the- ncccl to prcss ltnrtlvr on lbtxv:tr<l stroltv than on bark xtrokv. 7 I

4. use of dolly and spoon ()bjcrlizu: To boat out small dents in mctal shcct. . Annlvsis: Dilhculty in lcarning to strikc so that dolly and spoon arc exactly at thc right spot. Slight discrcpancics can makc thc dcnt worsc. This knowlcclgc olcrror _ cannot hc rclicd on in training as only scvcral wrong strikcs (ic practising errors) will makc ncw dttnt appear obvious. ` Training design: Shcct olstccl lor practicc has carbon paper and tracing paper intcrlcavctl as shown. Targct crosscs marltcd on top shcct oltracing papcr. ~ ~ Student strikcs with spoon at a scrics olcrosscs in turn, holding thc dolly hclow. l Emlua1imt. z\l`t<;r cxcrcisc (say 8 strikcsl cortplctc, tracing paper is rcmovctl. Student can scc tht: rclativc positions olcross. upper impact ml lo .. t intpact (knowltrclgt: ol`trr). Ho can .1ttct.1pt to corrcct crror on ncxt txcrcis<. Stxtra| I \ C|mmCU.riS(j( lylwx (,{`(-,-ym- Cxigt (pg (l()ll)' ulwggyg to Irl}, or llncs olintotlon olltltrlly antl spoon always at a lixvtl anglv). V I

5. Use of welding torch Objective: To move torch smoothly at constant speed along scam, while other hand is irregularly feeding in welding rod. Analvsirs Co-ordination ofuniform movement of right hand andjcrky movement of left hand dilhcult to learn. Both speed of progress and distance from metal ofthe welding llamc are critical. Training rlesiqns As in diagram. Welding torch is moved right to left in step with the clockwork pointer. Loop on torch nozzle must not touch horizontal wire. The other hand feeds in theirod to touch the loop as often as possible. Each touch ofwelding rod on loop registers l on counter A. Time of contact between loop and horizontal wire registers on counter B. r Evalnnli0n. Object is to maximize score A and minimize score B. Scores act as terminal knowledge of results, and as a measure of progress against pre-set stantlartls. This tlevice is more ofa full simulator than the earlier examples. as sevrratl skills are practised in tto orclination. One can in training break this down and lirst practise the right hand alone, then add the left. The scores can be ttscd with some degree ofobjectivity, as a measure of the skill. Although the lowest scores on counter B did not necessarily make the best welders, it was lound in practice that scores above a certain maximum ceiling indicated the futility of attempting to train the intlivitlttafas at welder. The device has been used to aid selection as well as training. _

11.4.6 A simulator for changing attitudes . A |H'Ul)lCIT\ Ont'!} (fl\CU\111|('I'(`<{ il! IUC Inlillillj: ufA;uh|{! . mkghi br < ;H< <] Nw `(lUU||lilIg ]`h(l|1\21S s)'|dr mn<".Tfui11<tcs<h1u>: Sun n .: gxvxrn mpiai S2\U$]3l(`l()I'H}' bccuusc they do not rczxlly bclicvc that il has any rcicvzmcv xo their ron!-liib siauaxion, or that it is truc anal!.Thepr<>p<>mn1s<>f:mclmgugy thc scia-nec of adult lcarning urguc than it is much ll'\UI`( iH}])UTl1U\l ilw uu nduh than Rn 21C}lil(1 to scc the r<rlcvamc< or ahv usc!`ulu<ss ul`wl ;u 1-4- A mlm! w h;uu. (>1I-is<, All mzumcr u[`|,urricrs lo Icurninng spring up. The Sumc ycars ago, 1 was involved in planning and aczxchug wurscs on suuisrics P*'b|' _ {hr industry, with particular cmphusis on suusazcu! quuliay control. }l<rv, mlnvru g{t?tZ%?W was aa casc 0F doub1ing 'I`hom:1scs` with u V(`Ug('L1?lC('. I was ueuchiug mi<-ur;ui<m ' to yearning courses about statistical quality comm! no supcrvnsors and forcmcr} und may ` confrumcd with disbclicftluxt the pcribrmuucc uf smnv `m;uhm1;m<;x| nmgnc on n small sample 0!`a batch of products could bc us dlbcxiw ; menus ofquulixy control as thc traditional inspection ofthc whole bauch. The solution T0 ovcrcomc this rcsisumcc, a simulaxcd prmducxiun Bmw was umsarucuzd. A ia 'a"$ti special batch ofdcflvctivc washers, with cho hoic in zhc middle punched sx HuhSlmulawr 0fccmrc, was pro luccd. The dcfccn cnuki bc ;;iig. eci by rho naked 4-yo. The production linc was simply fl motorized bei:. A mppvr zu one cud ibd rho ` washers on to thc belt, and they moved pass nu inspector stationed uluug xlmc line. ' The inspector had to identify and remove Unc dcfcczivc washers from thc heh us ` they cnmc past. The hoppcr was fillcd with a mixture ufgood und <iofcrivc washers. The proportions 0{`dvV<c1ivc washers ir aiu mm! lunch could Iw v;ui<d us ' required. Thc instructor, who prepared the mix, was mln-rchurc the only person who knew thc rcal prbportixm ofdcfbcts in thc bench. Then dw simulator was set in ~ motion, with thc most Rxrxhright `doubming Th<mms` ns inspector. /\n<| <r person took Z1 handful ofwaxslxcrs out ofthe hopper, pux _lh(`ID on ax siclc naxblo ;u1<i;11mlys<<} the sample. The inspccmr busily chcckcd thc wushbrs in tho hutch us xhcy; travelled past him and removed ull tI1c<!<fcc1iv< wuslwrs idcmificd. \\'i1ms uiuir1spcC\0r's surprise when his cUbr\ proved uu.mn nccurzuc than (l\('5lQlli5Ii(`L\l csnimumc, performed in :1 Fraction ofthe aime. Iuspc1ms always miss smnv dcfcctivc products, and sometimes also uccidcmully rvmuva- good washers. 'l`}< simulator could bc operated at various speeds, uml en gmpln muy hc cimwn slamming Inow this type ofhumzm error increases ns thc wurldng pace- incrc;ns4s. Hy mmrusn, _ lhv statistitul method guvc Consistently accurate results. . Some ofour Thomascs` accused thc instructor of`flading dum no rho statistical quality controller, so wc built in a sophisticuxccl element. \\ c mugncuizcd dw dC[`('CliVC WZISIICTS and COUSIFUCICG 21 l:1g|1cliC;nHy <>p<r;n1rd Allllllllllliitf 5('!)2\l`ilIiU|I device at thc cud ofthe production linc. As thc waxslwrs nuuno to alnc end n{`xlu bclt, thcyfcll down a chute and were automatically guiclud no scpuruncc<m1:1iu<rs for thc good and the dcf`ccrivc products. Any dcfucxivv washer missed by me inspector would bc caught by thc magncts. We could now mix up lxuclws biindfoldcd, so that nobody knew thc real proportion >|`<ic!kczs. That did thc nick. 11.4.7 Microteaching as an example of role-playing }N}]Y I Thcrc arc many variations of exercises For the- dcvclc>pm<e11x of Lcaching skills that " ' 7 gc by the name 0f"n]icr0tcaching', The original system, dcvclopcci Z1[Sl2lHR)K`d _ University in thc USA, could merit thc label 0F`micrc` for two distinct reasons: Hrst, thc trainee teacher would practise only one or two ofthe skills normally used in 21 lcsson during 21 session, and, second, thc session izslfwus much shorter than thc normal lesson. Thus, rho microtcaclhrxg session rcscmblcs u lesson, but is much

less complex and vcry much shorter. Other aspects ofthe session vary uccordingjo thc application. Sometimes, thc trainee teacher works with a small group of rcal students (thc reduction in group snzc may bc another reason For thc label micm`), bun often thc other uuxiucc wuchcrs adopt the rolcs ofxhc stuclczmsg (his xmulc <>f`wm k is culled poor l(`1l(iI\illg.

Why role-playing? WNY Some aspects ofthe real classroorn teaching situznion are simulated, but the "lY inicrotcaching sessions bear little resemblance to real lessons. They are more 21 sci playmg? oiscpurzue exercises, which only at ax later smgc are weklecl together imo realistic classroom teaching. However, thc essential elements ofa role-playing situation are present. The scenario s liuxed on reality. Real topics (ruin the curriculum nrc used as the vehicles for the exercises which are enzncicel in u realistic clussroom euviroinncnt, with all the necessary tezxcliing aids nvnilulile. 'l`lu roles ure huscd on rcul touching behaviour, and the skills lo be prauctiscxl by the u:iim< tmnchers are clerivecl from an task analysis of typical teaching. The micro-teaching procedure The The classical rvroceclure lor ax rnirrmerxclninig sesshm runs us follows: tghcoiging l. The instructor demonstrates the skill to he practised. This demonstration P' d*' may be acted out oy the instructor but more often, it is prerecorded on videotape (readym:ide denionstrsuioii Elms may be- bought or hired). _ 2. The group members select topics or situations from u list und prepare xhc session (of five to eight minutes), in which {hey will practise ilu- particular skill that was clemonstrzucd. A 3. One ofthe group takes on the role ofthe t<:ai ch<r, while the m l1crszt<lup1 ' the roles ofthe students, and the sessionlis 4uuc:u<.l. (When real suulcms are used, the other trainee tcuehcrs uct as observers and vvuluumrs.) LY. The progress ofthe session and the performance ofthe `1eucher` are evaluated. There are many possible ways oldoing this. These include , obscrvationsiand comments by thc instructor und ol>servu1i<ins and comments by the other trainee teachers, supported by notes made on pre-prepared evuluzvitm ctlnecklists or zi video recorcliug of the perlormzunec, which can be analysed by all, including the perhnrmer being cvuluuwd. 5. {fthe trainec`s pcrhrmancc is not up to the expected standard, he may prepare a second topic and try again. This `1eachevuluate-rcneucli' cycle may be repeated as often, within thc limits ofthe time available, as is necessary to reach mastery in the skill. Usually, ull the mlnvr trainees will have a chance to perform once, bcharc the rciench sessions am- held. (i. This procedure is repeated lor each ol` the s<pz1r;m husic skills cmnsiclercd important for the acachcr. Models differ: the original Snanhird University ` model comprised I6 separate skills; other models zuje restricted to 12 or ` lewer. l 7. \\`l1cn the separate skills have been mastered individually, Furtlwr practice - is arranged on somewhat more complex topics and in sessions that muy be , about I5 minutes long, during which several ofthe skills are practised in combination. _ 8 Finally, when the instructorjuclges that the separate skills are sufiicicmly well mastered and integrated, the trainees continue their practice in supervised real~lil`e classroom situations. variations on the basic procedure Variations There are many variations on this basic routine. Although very commonly used, 3:*8 basic video feedback is not an essential element ol n1icrma:<tlni1g. What is tvascntianl is pmcedwe the practice ofrcal skills in simulated and simplified situations. Video Ieeclbznck is most cllcctive and tends to enhance the learning elhciency of che system but we can get by without it. The custom ol`vide01uping whole lessons in the rcul classroom and later analysing the 1eacher's performance is sometimes passed uIl`us microienchiug, which itis not. lt may be ax uselul exercise, but there is no cllort to

simulate the essential elements ofthe process, and absolutely nothing `micro about its execution, The greatest variety appears in the means ofsupplying feedback. Some instructors like to get all the participants to act as evaluators ofeach other; others prefer not to do this. Some use complex performance inventories or interaction analysis questionnaires; others usc the minimum 0I`insuumemazion. Some rely heavily on video feedback; others do not. We have singled out microteaching because it is za representative example ofa range of roleplay exercises for the development olspecilic interactive skills. Other l Other application of the principles Other _ applications ofbasically the same methodology occur in the training of g?$L'at'"$ interviewers, bank managers, shop assistants, salesmen and many other types ol` principles prolesstonals lor whom interaction with the public is part oftheirjob. In all such applications, the essential mtcr0` elements ofscparating out the principal skills into separate exercises, thus reducing the complexity and duration 0l` the exercises in the initial stages oltraining, are preserved. Some applicatitms may be more sophisticated than microtcaching in terms of role~playing. For example, in one approach to training bank managers in thc skills olinterviewing clients seeking loans, the various clients were impcrsonatcd by professional actors, each with a well dclined character role. 11.4.8 I m not Nebuchadnezzar a versatile knowledge game One knowledge-quiz game that is not well known but which is worth discussing is l`m nal IVl bIll`/I/7l{Ilt .IIl'. lt has the great advantage that it can be played anywhcrei at any time, with any reasonable number ofplayers (say two to twelve), and can provide practice lor and reinforcement oiany body ol` knowledge. lt has suliicicnt appeal and simplicity to be adored by children and sullicicnt potential lor complexity to be a don s delight. Structure of the game Structure of The game`s structure is quite simple. One ofthe group of players is being me Qama interrogated by the others, who, in turn. ask questions ol`thc type Did you use jewish slaves to build the Tower of Babel?`. The central player must identify the person to whom the questioner is allnding antl reply, in this case. with the phrase, `l`m not Nebucltadnezzar`. The central player is, indeed, someone ol. his own , `choosing` (let us imagine he has chosen to be Moses), and ifonc of the questioners happens to guess who he is, by asking lor example. Were yott lound in a basket ` lloating on the Nile}`, he must admit that he is linund out antl change places with the player who posed the question. The central player usually selects the subject on which the questions must be based. The topic in the example above may have been people in the Old Testament. The object ol`thc game is to remain the central player hir as long as possible. The other players may gain this position by correctly guessing the current central player`s identity, or, more olien, by posing a question that the central player lails to answer correctly. Had the player in the example , above replied `l`m not Goliath`, he would be challenged bythe questioner to give up his central position in the game. Sometimes arguments arise. For example, il` the reply giyen to the question, l)i<l you nearly conquer Europe but hailed because your luck changed in Russia? was `l`m not Hitler`, and the questioner had in ` mind Napoleon (the correct answer), a discussion might arise that would normally V be put to a vote to decide whether the question was ambiguous or whether it was sulliciently precise td accept only the desired response. ll` the players are unsure, om resorts to encyclopaedias and other resources in order to resolve any

dillerences ol` opinion. ' the use of the game The use The beauty ol` the game is that all players are constantly involved in recalling Of the Qame and reorganizing their knowledge on a given subject, and all players may learn new lacts at any point in the game. The topics may be selected to suit any special interest and the complexity ol`thc questions adapts to the intellectual cap:citics ol` the players. Thouyrh simple, tlze ga ne is captivating. The game has obvious educational value as a means ol reinlorcing areas ol general knowledge. lt can also be used in an instructional context. with the instructor dclining the topic in the light ol` his teaching objectives. The topics are not limited to people, antl the game can be used in the teaching ol` many tlilllrent <list lplint ra. 11.5 Using simulations and games effectively We have seen that, depending on the category olobjectives, tlillerent approathes may be necessary to the $tl"t1Clut (t ol`simulation exercises. F Three component techniques Tansey (1972) Suggests that there are three basic tecltniques used in simulation; Three l. the case study mP9"m 2. roleplaying thmqus Il. gaining He argues that although thc plain case study would not he ronsiclererl by some as 1111 cxttmpltf 0fSltTtulullOt`t, ll Clttcs in l`;tCt pftfsttttl the lt ;tt tttrs with :t nttttlel olizt real~life situation. He also suggests that some lornt oft;tse study is usually iitipltetl in the instructions for a roleplay exercise. Experience would seem to bear out that cognitive objectives ofa simple nature do not necessarily need simulation exercises at all. Cognitive olijectives at the tlotttlcpt, Of principle level, und purticttlurly at the prul>lertz st:lx it tg level, Czttt he tackled effectively by case studies. Role-playing or gaming would not necessarily ` be essential, but may nevertheless be included to add interest and motituuion to the CXCt Cl$e. Some Qogttltivc Objectives, such as learnittg to apply a ptxrticular interview procedure, may demand role-playing by their very nature. Affective objectives, on the other hand, are most likely to he achieved by realistic role-play exercises, coupled to a detailt-d tlisetissitin at the end. How much value there would bein trying to inject an elenient tifgantizig {an artificial element) is debatable. In the author`s opinion, anything interfering with the _ ` realism ofthe simulation might have an adverse ellect on the attaiiintent of affective objectives. Finally, for psychomotor skills, some form ofsimulation is dictated, iflearning _. V on tlttjob` is impractical or too difficult. Rolepl:tying is used in the sense that the learner is playing his own future role (there is no point in learning a psycliomotor skill ifone is not going to use it). Gaining is rarely used, though `against thtclo<rk` ` or `against the target` exercises which simulate the pieeework situation in industry have been found to be very effective (these, however, are examples ofcontp<titivt elements tltat exist naturally in the reallifc situation). . To complete this chapter 'et us look at some research results and at the way that some practitioners sct about planning role-playing and gaming exercises, and finally conclude with .t detailetl consideration ol`psyelioumtoi skill training. , 11.5.1 Research on the use of simulations and games ` V '1`here are wcll over 1200 different simulations and games on the eclueational market. There must bc zt similar number ofunpublisliecl products used Rir

` in-company training and development. Two directories of simulation games are: Handbook o/`Simulation Gaming in Social Education (Stztdsklcv, 1975) and R E Horn`s 4 :~ T/tc Guide to Sirnulalions/Gamcrfvr Education and Training (3rd ed) (Didactie Systems, Inc, 1977). Most of the research is poorly designed Most ofthe There has been considerable research, but a sizeable part ofit has had such {ssiagah limited objectives as to be oflittle value. Can simulation gaming transfer factual dcgigneifj information tothe student? It turns out that the answer is, Yes, but not much better than if the facts are laid on the student by lecture or, even better, by dittoed handout . But a lot ofpeople have suspected for at long time that trying to pour facts into the student is not an especially appropriate use ofsimulation gaming (Coombs, 1978). 1 Much ofthe well designed simulation gaming research that has been done has been conducted by t|~e'Academic Games Program at johns Hopkins University. Before federal funding for t_hat project ceased, almost 40 reports were issued. (The results of these reports are summarized in Staclsklev, 1975.) The problem is that much of this research is validation ofa particular game. _ What actually is being evaluated is the play, one or a fcw times, ofthe game. Fred 1 _ Goodman has made that point and gone on to say he doesn't much care about gaming as gaming, but it s an cwraorrlinary way o study learning'. ln his words, We should stop concentrating on Docs gaming work?` and concentrate instead on what gaming docs and why it does it` (Coppard and Goodman, 1977). Some of the conclusions Simulators and Canis.: 289 Some of the lfroru zlwe anrk ~ < *.en tle.~:tt. what do tw know? : "" S :` rei. ..< tran s=:nu*.t: et . et; -.i~t:> rot scent ie 2-e .t txtttttttlat gtxxl wa; to teach cognitive skills. Coppard and Goodman (lS)77) sum up other aspects ofsimulation gaming as follows: _ _ Evidence in support ofalfective learning is also sparse, although somewhat more promisittg. Also, in spite ofthe wide use of simulation games, and the testitronies ofteachers aud trainers, there is little evidence to support claims that simulation gaming has any speeial_utility in developing competencies. Simulation gaming may, of course, he useful in these areas but evaluative studies have yet to confirm it. More convincing evidence is availahle in other areas. There is a growing body of researclt that suggests that simulation games alter tlte cltaracter ofthe classroom in it positive manner. Convincing evidence is also being gathered which suggests that simulation gaming improves the motivation ofstudents} One of the leading practitioners, Gary Shirts, in a highly signihcant article looked hack on a decade ofdevelopment: _ I `l am not suggesting that simulation games have been a disappointment. l believe that they create opportunities lor learning which cannot be duplicated by any other petlxtgogical technique. For theiuser, they have high lace validity. lftltere is one cottsistent finding in the research, it is tltat students and teachers rate them highly as interesting attd worthwhile experiettcesf (Shirts, l)7lSr1) _ but Shirts` overall assessment was properly cautious. Tltere was still ttot a reeogttixable `body oftheory`. _ `Many ofthe problems are caused by their uniqueness. by the lact that they do not lit easily ittto tlte time and space reqttirements of the school, tlte teaching styles ofinstructors or the marketing system ofmajor pttblislters.`

(Shirts l97(i/i) Much research must yet be done Much Shirts has also drawn up a list ofnine major areas for research, which he termed "$ a"h /\n inventorv of ltnnches about simulation as educational tools` (see Coombs. r must yet ' be done l978). There is ntuclt yet to be done. But as Taylor and Walhird (l979) remark: . . . it is important to remember that a great deal ltas been developed and achieved in a short space oftime, Systematic review ofthe wealth of subjective comment from regular practitioners can be ptlt alongside tlte comments of critical observers. This comparative alignment ofassessment encourages ptrseterattcc antl litrther work. We can expect more and varied experimentation with some ofthe simulation ideas attd structures that have already proved their durability; what we need in the next ten years is not so rnnch the introduction of new base models, but more a willingness to rehne tlte good ones among those that already exist. We also need to look at these models in wider educational contexts, since it may he a change in the sequetteing of work, or tlte use of * *e simulation in a different context which reveals tltejill potential ofan exercise already popular attd lrequeutly misused, ._ Tltere is utidottbt that simttlation is often misttsed, sotnetintes even by those who are its greatest champions. lts power is such that we should be wary of its indiscriminate use, precisely because its elegance and power can be sedutstive but unprolitable in the long run. Much practical know-how has been built up Much The key to future development may well lie in tlte fttll utilization ol`the P' Yl l knowledge tltat alreatly exists within tlte system. but which is recognized by hgglglgaw only a lew - and even by some ofthem its importance may not be fully bum up appreciattetl. Matty more teaelters and students. managers and workers, . citizens and adntiuistrators need to be made more aware ol the tecltnology l EQU Media ru Instructional Sivslcnts within their grasp. The expertise ofthe comparative few must be diffused to - the grass roots ofeducation, both adolescent and adult.` The remainder ofthis chapter is devoted to presenting, in condensed form. some ofthis existing knowledge. 11.5.2 Using role-playing exercises Peter f\ l(Il)l12lll (1972) suggests six factors wltich one should consider wlten planning a role-play exercise, A good role-play exercise should: (a) have a clear purpose or purposes relevant to the needs ofthe participants; (b) use a situation which is real to those participants; (c) include only thc number of people who eatt actively ttontributtr; t (d) be conducted in physical conditions which make it easy for those { role-playing to accept the reality ofthe situation and identify with it; (e) have enough time allowed to let it run as long as the motivation lasts; and above all ` ` (f) be nomautltoritarian in organization and practice. Ht- then contrasts the procedures which one would use to build role-play exercises depending on whether one was attempting to establish a particular skill such as selling a car (cognitive objectives), or to help people to take into .

consideration others needs, feelings or interests (affective objectives). ln briefthe procedure he suggests for the rvgni/ive do_main runs as Rillowsz Considerations for role-play in the cognitive domain Considera- l. The organizer states what the skill is which the role play is designed to tl"$ f' impr0ve. He may expand ltis introduction by showing a film or video-tape xlsgglay 7 to demonstrate skilled or unskilled performances. cog,-mgw, The situation or situations to be role~played are selected hir their _ domain relevance to acquiringthe skill in question, preferably in consultation . with the course members. _ 3. The course is divided up into role-play groups. l`or most situations small groups of5 to l0 are best. 4. The amount ofdetailed information required hy participants before they can respond tt a situation will vary according to their experitnt t and the particular situation. Nevertheless. classical roleplay allows maxirnum freedom to those taking part and it reaps great motivational and learning benefit from doing so. The participants play out tlteir roles. Tltose who cannot have actitr parts .1trc asked to observe tltc prineipafs solution, tzvaluate it and decide what they would do in tis positit n. ` 6. As long as the participants are interested, and tltere is time, other members ofthegroup can be asked to play out what they would do rather thanjust talk about others performances. 7. The organizer ofthe role-play discusses in detail with the participants tlteir approach to the problem posed and the role play solutions to it. lf he has a tape recorder or, better still, a video-tape recorder, a record of the proceedings will clarify exactly what individuals said and did. 8. When the role-play situations are simple dyadic (one to one) encountersfor example, where interview technique is practised by A interviewing Ba valuable feedback technique is to reverse tltc roles and try the whole exercise over again before further discussion. ` 9. Towards the conclusion ofthe course it is valuable to hold a plenary session where course members are encouraged to give their impressions of the course - to be uninhibited in their criticism. 10. After the plenary session some roleplay organizers talk to the whole course about the insights which have been gained and learning which has taken place. V Role-play in the affective domain Rctsptay For q[/kr/ive objectives. particularly ones associated with teaching people to get in fh_ on with others, he suggests: , affective domain l. A conflict situation is chosen for role play, preferably by the game members themselves. 2. The situation described, with support from cartoon, straight drawing or photograph, is read and seen by the group. To make the impact even more vivid it can be actetl. fi. Iwo participants naturally inclined towards the points of view in conllict are asked to play out what they would do, while the other group members watch and decide how they would reach 4. The conflict roles are reversed and the participants take the place ofthe

other and play out what they would do. 5. Both participants then revert to their original roles and play out their final responses. Wide experience suggests that the final responses are more considerate than the behaviour origim ljr suggestci and that this experience can, in many cases, aIl`cct peoplc`s life styles. 6. Other members ofthe group should be encouraged to criticise what they have seen and play out their solutions as long as they are interested. 11.5.3 Games Is a game appropriate for your course? ls a game Rex Waluird (l972) suggests that belbre deciding to use or design a game you . 0P*P'l should consider at least three points: for your course? l. Is this tht- place in my classes where l really need a game? ls the game going to teaclt about at protiess or t cprt $Cnt 11 dccisiott-makittg Situation more ellectively than other teaching modes? Do I know why I am choosing 4 to use a game? ZZ. ls the game that I choose to use, or adapt, or build l`rom scratch, one that is a reasonable representation ol` reality? The game may be wtll built, and gootl lim antl exciting but is it `real`? (In this sense, an educational game _ may have dillertnt objectives from a commercial, entertainment game.) ll thc game is not Riuntled on some kind cI` reality, it may be a pleasant interlude in class but a source of` misconceptions at thc same time. 3. Have I learnt enough about this game to run it properly? Do I understand tht- basic intentions ofthe game, antl can I manage it reasonably in my ` own class situation? Games require a tlillerent kind ol`tcaehing technique. . and the teacher who uses them needs a degree oi managerial expertise. He goes on to outline a procedure For the design l` educational games as follows: Design factors to take into consideration Design l. What is the basic idea ofthe gam .1 factors 2. What is the context ol`tht: game? *0 mlm lm? 3. What style ol` game will be most suitable? $?der` Style can reler to the type ol`equipmtnt needed (hoard? counters? or_just talk?); tht- tltvtlopment olgroups within the game (individuals? groups ol` livt or six? larger groups?); the amount ol` competitiveness desired: games can be entirely co operative iirequiretl. 4. Who will the players represent? 5. Are there to bt- tlefined objectives for the players? Sometimes sutth definition gives the game urgency and purpose. .\t other times, it is instructive to let groups work towards the definition ol`their own objectives which may difler. 6. What do the players do to make the game work? What interaction is needed to move the game on? Talk? Or the throwing 4 ol` a tlitte? Or a planned tnove on a board? 7. How does this become a game reality? 8. What limiting constraints are needed to make the game playable? 292 jlltnlia as liutruclianal Svtlcnu 9. What are the operating instructions for the players? At this stage comes a self-testing device. ls it possible to set ottt rules in a - 'How to play` framework, and make sense of them? The eooperation of someone so far uninvolved in the game is ittvalttable here. The rules, however, are not necessarily those which are givett to players; better tltat

their substance is explained in the classroom. lll. lloes the gatnc matclt up to reality? At this final stage, the model is held up to its sotttee, lt may be possible to have a playable, exciting game but one which is not xt replica ofthe 0 factors that actually exist. ln the desire to motivate or to be `lair to all . rules and interactions may have become detached from real-life sources. However good this game may be, it is not :1 simulation. Hack to the drztwing-board and start again . . . further readings , .... Further Games may again bc sub-classified into those which aim mainly at cognitive { fcadlllgs objectives and those which are concerned with allective oljeetitts. Examples ofavailablc games in tlte cognitive domain include .llun in His . Environment, a game devised to helpistudents understand some major ecological principles. This is produced by the Coca-Cola Export (Zorporation. 'l`he Sellotape Airline .ldurnlurz Gam: (produced by Sellotape) is a_game about the operation of P . airlines along international air routes. . _ A Examples of games which at least in part aim at nge:/ive objectives are .S`lneli silt A/read, a game designed to help children lace and understand the problems oleity '_ , life, by the Humanilies Curriculum Project, and Crisis in Lngiri ~ a simulation on ' aspects of war and society. Further examples may be found in Horn (IU77), Taylor ` and Walhird (l979), and_]aques and Tipper (l98~l). 11.5.4 Psychomotor skills training simulators ln the remainder ofthis chapter we will be specially conetrntd with devices which comntunittate through the sense oftonch and the kitntestltetie sense. Such eoneepts as hartl and soft, ltot and cold, rigid attd flexible are estztblisltetl (at an early age) . by confronting the learner with a series ofobjects, some ltztrd, some soft, and identifying tltem as such. The child learns to diseritttinate lirst between vt-ry Itattl Early objects (like the floor he falls on) and very soft ones (like the porridge ltespreatls P "?PWal over the floor). ln time he learns to classify objects as hard or soft with int:rt;tsntg l"l" "9 preeisiott. Early perceptual learning At a later stage ofthe learner`s development, when he can tmderstand a certain amount of verbal communications, you can cut corners. You ntigltt for example succeed in establishing the concepts flexible and rigid at that stage by simply " saying: Flexiblti objects bend easily; rigid ones do not.` The intelligent student (or rather the one who is sufhciently prepared verbally) will probably straight away be able to classify thc broomstick as rigid and the broom`s bristles as flexible. He may still need quite a bit of practice, however, to classify tliflirrent bristles according to llexibility. Whereas he may even distinguish visually between the flexibility ofa broom handle and the bristles, the fine discrimination between dillerent bristle types may _ require a highly developed sense oftouch, or a kinaesthetic sense, or both. Such precise discrimination skills often form part ofindustrial tasks. The training of such skills is often aided by special devices or siinulators. Another class ofskills which rely on the kinaesthetic senses are skills of co ordination - either the co-ordination ofthe position ofthe limbs (as in panel beating) or of movements as in many sports, driving or high-speed industrial operations. Again the learning ofsuch skills is often aided by the use ofspecially _ designed devices. We have seen the extent to which man relies on verbal communication. Visual t and audio-visual methods tend to act as aids to the basic process ofverbal

communication. We did see, however, that certain information cart only be effectively communicated by the use of nonverbal methods: characteristic noises or postures of mating birds, for example. We are now about to consider information which can only be communicated by tbehel of the subject, or the feel ofa certain action pattern. Information used in learning a skill information Generally, one perhnrms an action in order to achieve Il specific result. A golfer`s yesfijlrh drive has the objective ofgetting the golfball to move a precise distance ina 3 ZW; g precise direction. The novice soon learns this. He may then practise driving a golf ball down the fairway. Where the golf ball actually goes gives him an idea ofhis progress. Thus we have two forms ofinhirmation in use: information on the pttrpose ofan action (objectives. ifyou like} and information ofthe results (knowledge of results, or feedback). Feedback This is still insulheient for efhcient learning. The novice may note thatone attempt was better than another, but will learn little unless he takes note of information about his actual movements. This may come either from some outside source, such as guidance from a trainer. or it can come from inside the learner. He V may note the feel` ofmalting a stroke which produces good results. A man may learn to drive a ball accurately without formal training. His technique may turn out to be unorthodox, but the results may nevertheless be quite good. instruction and guidance by an expert may improve results or reduce learning time, but are not absolutely essential to the mastery ofthe skill. What is essential however. are Feedback the two forms of inuirmation feedback - knowledge of results (or extcmn/pe://mik) and knowledge ol the feel ofthe action lm/ernnlfedbncl:). ll either is removed or intpaired, learning is inelhcient. People who lack eo-ordination` do not generally develop any high level of motor skill. lfthrough illness they are completely lacking in the use oftltcir kinttesthetic sense, they have difficulty in walking or in performing any controlled tnovemcnt. They rely on visual information exclusively to control the position oftheir limbs. Similarly, learning to drive a golf ball in the dark, without knowledge of results, is not very effective. One might expect the learner to develop and practise a bad habit to perfection in these circumstances. The perfect slice! . There is strong evidence hir thc need lor these two types of litYl>;.t L. l mentioned ea. lier the experiments ol`Thornt|ike (l927) with groups ofblindlolded people drawing lines on paper. linotltdge or results. in the lorm ofsaying right` or wrong` improved accuntcy. Groups without knowledge of results lost accuracy. Further experiments on these lines indicated that tlte type ofleedback supplied ` also alheted accuracy. lieedlmck on the size of error was better than just `right` or - wrong`. inconsistent liedback was worse than t o information at all. Finally, persistent practice with no feedback resulted in progressively more consistent errors from the desired length. A `bad hubit was being elliciently learned. This illustrates an important change that occurs in the learning of a skill. ln the early stages the learner relies heavily on external simuli. He must look downto lind the gear lever. He IUUSK observe the ball in llight. As skill develops. iniernal. kinaesthetic stimuli increasingly take over control. He linds the gear lever ~ `instinctively` whatever gear he is in. He_ can tel' whether ltis drive is successful almost beuire his swing is complete,just by the feel oftt. How to teach skills How to Tltorndike`s experiments indicate one way ofimproving the conditions of

teach Skills learning a skill. lfknowledge of results is not actually present in a particular task, some way ofsupplying it might be devised. For example, when tapping a screw thread in a ltole,it is important not to put too much pressure on the tap. lfyou push too hard, the_tap will break. The problem is to learnjust ltow hard is too hard. ()ne tnethodtis by trial and error which takes a long time and may be costly in replacement taps. lfyou can arrange for the tap to `cry ottt`just before breaking ( point, then you might expect learning to be more ellicient. You would certainly cut `down on breakages. Another tnetltod might be by guidance. The instructor may guide the student`s A V hand while perlortning ajob. or give him hints n what to watch lor. ln teaching a student to use a file. the instructor lirst imp" .s the correct stance and tlte correct way to hold the lile. He may demonstrate the motions and then supervise. correct and even guide the student`s motions. The golfer`s swing is sometimes taught by _ strapping the novice in a harness, which controls the extent and direction ofliis _ motions. Action feedback \\`litn designing training tasks both the factors t>f`ft<cll>ac*k and guidance shoultl be considered. They are not as simple as they appear at first sight. Any feedback won`: do. Some guidance methods are better than others. Action There are two types offeedback which may he present in a task. ()ne_tells the iggdbagk learner how well he has pcformed kiwwlezfge af results. The other tells him how he is performing right now know/czfgc v_/`jzcjmmuzce. This secoticl ftcrmed urlimi J/bdbarkiis ofimportance in continuous adjustment skills, like steering a car along a mad. You are continuously using the visual feedback from the road to adjust your actions. However skilled the driver, he is technically outof control if all his lights fail on a clark night. Knowledge of results, on the other hand, only becomes apparent once the action is complete. Steering into a skid produces (generally) desirable M results. Action feedback (in the form ofvisual and kinaesthctic inhirmationl tells us we are skielding. Previous learning tells us to steer into the skid. A comparison _` ofthe extent ofour corrective action with the result it produces constitutes the basis fbr learning skid correction. Knowledge of results is tlierefore sotmtimts called i Iscmirzgjedmck. A ` learning feedback Learning l..<:zming feedback is vital for efficient learning. Action feedback does llill help feedback much na all. This was demonstrated by an experiment performed by Annett and Ray (ESS?}. Subjects were told to press down with a certain pressure on a spring balance. lftlney were allowed to see the scale while pressing (action l2tdback) they ofcourse performed perfectly. lfthey were only allowed to see tliescale after they had applied pressure (learning feedback) they initially made errors, but improved with practice.When, after an equal number oftrials. all feedback was removed, the group that received learning feedback perkirrnccl adequately for some time, but - the group who had received continnuous action feedback immediately tlttttioriatecl. They had not learnt the ftel` ofthe correct pr< ssure. The learning leeclliack tgruup`s performance also tends to det<rioratt in time ifthe feeclback is withheld, but this happens more slowly. We might say that the group is Rirgetting` the feel ofa two-pound pressure. This finding is important as well, as it indicates the limitations which some training devices may suffer from. _ lfthe knowledge of results a training device supplies is quite different in Rmn from that found `ott the job`, the learning may tml be pct matttnt. Goldstein and Rittenhouse (1954) found that in training aeroplane gunners to aim on a

simulator, performance could be vastly improved by supplying knowledge of results in the form ofa buzzer whcncver the gun was on target. When the aid was removed, however, performance rapidly deteriorated until it was much the same as . ,, people trained by normal direct methods. There seetnecl to be no longaerm benefit -.i whatever from using the extra artificial feedback. Seymour (1954), on the other hand, used training devices successfully to teach the amount ofpressure permissible in picking up fragile electrical insulators. He as used dummy insulators which were spring loaded against micro switches and wired so that too much nrczure gave a red light, the correct amount gave a white light and insufficient n essure gave no light at all. Other experiments have also given good results from the use of not normally available or artihcial knowledge of results during training. The evidence is conflicting and more research is needed, but it seems that success may depend on wha! mr! ofartificial feedback you use, V and how you use it. How similar is the artihcial feedback to that actually present in the task? How is the transfer 0fc0ntrol' from the artihcial feedback to the natural feedback effected? . A For example, Annet.'s experiment with the spring balance gives better i long-term learning ifthe subject is allowed to check his results only at alternative _ trials. Thus he follows each trial with artificial, feedback by a trial in which he must rely on the natural feedback present in the task. Seymour s work shows similar results. Artificial fecclbackis supplied at progressively longer intervals till the learner does not reed to rely on it at all. ` The gun aiming experiment described did not support this view. intermittent supply ofleedbatzk was no better in achieving long tcrm learning. Perhaps the difference lies in the type offeedback and the inlormation it gives. Gun aiming is a . skill where there are degrees of error. You must recognize these degrees oferror to apply appropriate degrees of correction. A buzzer is either on or off lt does not inhirm of the tlqgm of error. i Tlte scale reading in /\nnett`s experiment docs inform ofthe degree oferror, and appropriate adjustments ofpressure result in appropriate reductions oferror. The artilicial and natural feedback. although received through different senses, give the same sort ofinhirmation. Seymour`s experiment is not so clear. The white light indicates a range of prt-ssure which is sale. Tlte learner may expr iment for himselfin adjusting pressure throughout the safe range. Periiaps, as in Annett`s experiment, he can practise adjustments in pressure, and therelorc the natural kinaesthetic feedback plays mort- ofa part in the learning right front the start. It may on the other hand all boil down to the fact that most kinacsthetic skills are poorly developed and so show marked response to training, whereas the visual skill ol`gunners may be less prone to improvement. These last observations are conjectures which could act as the subject for exptrrimcntation. However, we may make several practical suggestions on the basis ofwork so lar completed: how to train a psychomotor skills HOW to l. When training a skill. examine whether the normal method oftraining tram 8 provides sattslactoryfknowledge ofresults. psycho- 2. When doing this, do tlttt confuse action lecdback with knowledge ofresults. m9*0' 3. ll`tht natttttally present knowledge ofrcsults is not easily observable bythe Sklll student (ie it uses undeveloped kinaesthetic or tactile senses), consider the possibilities ofa training device which supplies more obvious leedback.

4. Try to arrange that the artificial feedback supplies inhtrmation ofa similar nature to that supplied by thc natural leedback. Try to arrange training so that the trainees occasionally rely on natural .lectll>ack alone, and progressively withdraw the artilicial aids. Types of guidance Types of \\ t might guide tht- student in at learning task in a number of ways. We may 9i<l give verbal guid:tntt `Use your body weight!' We may demonstrate an action visually. Wt- may atrtivrly guide tht- physical responses ofthe studtjnt. V 'l`ltt lirst two types tifgttitlttttcc arc rcttlly supplying prt:-kttowlcrlgc; what to do and how to tlo it. Tltc tt t httiqttt s ttrtt lhost tlixtfttsscd in thc t?1tt litt sertions. For cxampltr, when tlttttou::tr:ttittg ana ctiott it is best to dctnonstrate it as seen from tht- learnt:r`s viewpoint; hence one value oflilm or television in training skills. The decisions on what verbal knowledge is required to perlorm a task and how it should be taught spring lrom tltc task analysis. lt is the third typt ofguidance, actual physical control that can be built into training devices or simulators. that is our concern here. This can be achieved in two ways. You can physically `fotce` the correct movements ottt ofthe learner (lorced response), or you can allow thc learner to make his own motions. bttt restrict the direction or extent oftlncsc motions (physical restriction). Both methods are ttsttl in training devices. We have already mentioned the harness usetl lor training a gollijr`s swing. This is an example ol`physit::tl restriction ofthe lt:arntr`s movemetits. The learner makes his swing bttt he cannot deviate from the correct path. ()l`cottrst, hc may still produce at poor swing. He may not Iollow tltrouglt as litr as hc should. llis tttovrtttents may be even more restrictrtl than the harness allows. Matty golfing coaches tlterclore employ the lorccd response techniques, by standing immediately behind the learner, holding tlte learncr`s wrists or club, and physically guiding the stroke every inch ofthe way. Such tnethods are ofapplication to motor responses, where the extent ola movement or its exact path arr critic:tl. Pltysical restriction is ol`tcn employed in trainingtltvicts and simulators, by the use ofstops at the cntl ol` a machine hed. lor example. l`orced response tecltttiques are more often employed by instructors. They are l ` `W l 296 rarely employed in training devices as it is clillicult to construct zi meelmnism that would adequately simulate thc required complexity ol`tnovtmnt. How effective is guidance in skills training? How cH0c Bnth methods ofguudance do produce training results. 'l`hey ltnvc been tivo cntploycd Rir simple tasks such tts the pencil tracing olimztzcs, and lmve been lg gzlgsnw Rmnd to reduce training time appreciahly. llol<ling (l 9t35) describes an interesting training? series ofexperiments on the use of physical guidance. Ihese are un ettlaptution ol 'l`horndike`s earlier lint--drawing exercises. ln this case:1 knob had to be movctl xt clistunce ol`Rur inches along a rod. One group acted sts control, rt<:<iving no guiclunce or iced back. Another received forced guitlunee by means ofa spring that I towed thc lcarner's hand through the appropriate distance. A third received zi mixture of forced guidance and free practice. The fourth group practised in a physically restricted sctup a stop was fixed at the 4inch point. The lust two groups received no guidance, but did receive knowledge of results Et la 'l`h<>rnclikt`. Group 5 had `ycs n0` {feedback, and group 6 had l2tcll>:tck on the nmgnituclt and

direction ofthcir crr<. rs. The rcstrictcd response method using u stop gave most ellective learning. Then camc: full knowleclge of results, yes- n0 {eecllmck, und hnally forced response and the mixed method about equal last (but still producing an appreciable amount oflcarning). Holding argues that the r<lzttively poor results ofthe forced response in this case were because the simulation was inappropriate, lx Instead olpushing the knob, the lrarn<r`s hand wrs facing pulled hy the spring. .\ , Zi rocli.ieJ experiment where the Html task involved the pulling ofa handle, I produced much bcttcr rceults for the Rirced response technique superior in fact to the restricted guidance method. e., The lessons for the training ollicer or instructor therefore ztre: i. Restricting thc possibilities For motion or forcing the correct movement can produce cflcctive learning. 2. lltfslfltilltlg (lu': Cxlcnl of tlirttillott olitntititttn (et; lxy ships or ]_[l`(l(l\'(`S) is easier to apply appropriately and can he cxpectetl to train ats ellectively as methods based on the supply olknowledgc of results. . 3. Forcing the response is more clillicult to arrange (except by ciircet htnnnn cflhrt) duc to dilliculties in simulating the exact condition. lt can he ztx elltcctivc us restriction: or lectlbuck ilztpplictl well, litit inztppropriute lorttintg (eg pulling instead olpuslting) reduces vllkrtctiveness tlrastienlly. Simple training devices and simulators Sirnple Training devices need not be complex electronically controlled simulators, such g;:?;;2 m as flight trainers. The complexity ofa training device will naturally be zi tulectic-in Simulators ofthe complexity ofthe task being trained. The olnect ofa flight simulator is to give thc pilot every possible experience ofllying without risking valuable lives and equipment. You thcrcforc arrange for every possible relevant stimulus to be led to ` Q the pilot. The ideal flight simulator would rczict to the pilot's responses in every l detail instrument reading, noise, vision through cockpit and the feeling ofgravity changes through the scat ofhis pants. Simulators ofsuch complexity are used in t thc training of astronauts, but the cost precludes their more general usc. For many purposes 11 partial simulation suffices. When a full task analysis is carried out, certain skill elements are often found to bc particularly difficult t0 master, Such elements should be isolated and trained separately, irrespective ofwhcthcr il progressive-parts training technique is being used for the whole task, or whether it is being practised all at once. Very often, simulation can help in training these elements. The learning problems associated with the difhcult element must he identified. This may involve detailed observation and questioning ofskillctl performers and learners. The questions to consider arc: V 1. How is the element learnt? What sort ofa task is it? What senses are involved and liow? 2. What is making the learning difhcult? Lack oluptitude? Unclertleveloptrcl motor skills? Conflict with previous learning? Fear ofequioment? 297 lfthe dilhculty is clue to certain defects of perception or muscular co-ordination, then the possibility ofa special training exercise should be roi s clei-d. This may take the form nl rye-Iocusing exmcises For inspection skills, or a special bit oi equipmentlor scn:~:ory mot0r skills. As an example of the design oltraining devices, let us consider once more the sheet metal and welding simulators presented earlier in this chapter (Figures ll.9 and ll.l()). These are extremely simple devices, yet they have very signihcant eflects on the rate oflearning ofthe skills by novice trainees. This is the result ol: ppropriate design which applies

basic printiplts ol`l<:u ning through guidanctz and leecllmaek, as rleserilnecl above.