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F = [ p (E m)] = [ ( p + m) E ]
The energy source of the gravitational eld (F ): general relativity and quantum mechanics unied
Alexander Franklin Mayer Adam Mickiewicz University Pozna, 16 November 2010 11:301:00 Kampus Morasko
v 10.11.16 2010 A. F. Mayer

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Why is the unication of general relativity (GR) and quantum mechanics (QM) so important?

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Why is the unication of general relativity (GR) and quantum mechanics (QM) so important? Failure to unify implies that something is not quite right with our understanding of relativity, quantum mechanics or both.

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GR is a metric theory of gravity, which means:

Mass only communicates with spacetime. Masses do not interact directly with each
(i.e., Earth does not pull on the Moon).

other

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GR is a metric theory of gravity, which means:

Mass only communicates with spacetime. Masses do not interact directly with each
(i.e., Earth does not pull on the Moon). (diagram is to scale) Earth gravitational signal at speed c gravity exists at every point in space

other

Moon

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GR is a metric theory of gravity, which means:

Mass only communicates with spacetime. Masses do not interact directly with each
(i.e., Earth does not pull on the Moon). (diagram is to scale) Earth gravitational signal at speed c gravity exists at every point in space

other

Moon

The Moon does not receive graviton particles; a metric theory of gravity immediately implies that gravity is not an exchange force.
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If big-G is a universal constant (c. 1687) then this schematic is equally good for an electron or a star.
standard gravitational parameter

GM electron ~ 10 GM Sun ~ 10

40 +20

ms ms

3 2 3 2

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If big-G is a universal constant (c. 1687) then this schematic is equally good for an electron or a star.
standard gravitational parameter

GM electron ~ 10 GM Sun ~ 10

40 +20

ms ms

3 2 3 2

For the Sun, this single spacetime wave is made up of many (~1057) quantum-scale waves, so gravity (G) is an emergent (i.e., collective) property of mass.
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Fundamental interpretation of GR: Energy causes a deviation in the local geometry of spacetime, which produces a potential.

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Fundamental interpretation of GR: Energy causes a deviation in the local geometry of spacetime, which produces a potential. This relationship between energy and spacetime geometry must be independent of the length scale at which spacetime is observed.

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Each The

fundamental particle of a mass contributes to the gravitational signal. gravitational signal travels at the speed of light and therefore it must be in the form of a massless wave, similar to a photon. a photon, the production of this signal does not incur a net energy cost (e.g., a proton does not lose mass-energy by gravitating). each particle generates a long-distance signal, then the same signal must obviously have a similar short-range effect on spacetime with much higher local source energy due to E r-2.
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Unlike If

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Quantum-scale empirical phenomenon: waves = h/p Louis de Broglie, David Bohm and J. S. Bell imagined a quantum-mechanical pilot wave. wave energy is periodic ( |A|2)

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Quantum-scale empirical phenomenon: waves = h/p Louis de Broglie, David Bohm and J. S. Bell imagined a quantum-mechanical pilot wave. wave energy is periodic ( |A|2) Synthesis with GR: Spacetime in the presence of such a pilot wave must have a corresponding periodic geometry. _____________ The pilot wave is the gravitational signal.
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sin r A r pilot wave amplitude

= h/p (1 fm 1 )

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At quantum scale (e.g., for an electron), the pilot wave must look like this (i.e., the energy is periodic) so the spacetime geometry would not be smooth at this scale.

sin r A r pilot wave amplitude

= h/p (1 fm 1 )

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At quantum scale (e.g., for an electron), the pilot wave must look like this (i.e., the energy is periodic) so the spacetime geometry would not be smooth at this scale. It is like looking at a typical surface with your eyes or with an electron microscope. The geometry changes from very smooth to extremely chaotic!

sin r A r pilot wave amplitude distributed energy field (cannot be E)

= h/p (1 fm 1 )

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localized energy (mass energy E)

distributed energy field (cannot be E)

At quantum scale (e.g., for an electron), the pilot wave must look like this (i.e., the energy is periodic) so the spacetime geometry would not be smooth at this scale. It is like looking at a typical surface with your eyes or with an electron microscope. The geometry changes from very smooth to extremely chaotic!

Jagiellonian University, Krakw Scanning Electron Microscopy Services

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gold particles on a carbon support

0.1 micron (10-7 m) (103 or 108 fm across)

A red blood cell is ~70 times larger.

Jagiellonian University, Krakw Scanning Electron Microscopy Services

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gold particles on a carbon support

0.01 micron (10-8 m) (102 or 107 fm across)

1 pixel (center) is about 5 atoms across, which is about 500,000 protons across.

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sin r A r
2

= h/p (1 fm 1 )

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sine wave in background

The red wave represents the pilot wave energy with local zero-energy nodes marked in blue and local maxima marked in red.

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 sin r A r
2

= h/p (1 fm 1 )

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sine wave in background

The red wave represents the pilot wave energy with local zero-energy nodes marked in blue and local maxima marked in red. Spacetime geometry must correspondingly react to the presence of this energy with a mirror-image periodic geometry to arbitrary distance of equallyspaced potential wells (U 1/r2) at quantum scale.

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Ask

the right question before beginning the process of answering the question.

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Ask

the right question before beginning the process of answering the question. wrong questions will never produce the solution to the underlying problem.

The

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Ask

the right question before beginning the process of answering the question. wrong questions will never produce the solution to the underlying problem. the right question and you can turn what may appear to be a very difcult problem into a much easier problem.

The Ask

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The right question to ask in the search for GR-QM unication is: What is the energy source of the (quantized) gravitational signal?

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The right question to ask in the search for GR-QM unication is: What is the energy source of the (quantized) gravitational signal? If one does not ask and then proceed to answer this particular question, then there is no hope of solving the underlying problem.

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Pilot wave superposition must produce a composite spacetime geometry (i.e., gravity).

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Pilot wave superposition must produce a composite spacetime geometry (i.e., gravity). Therefore, these two questions are equivalent: 1. What is the energy source of the (quantized) gravitational signal? 2.What is the energy source of the quantummechanical pilot wave?

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It is impossible to send a signal without energy; in the case of the gravitational signal, the energy is itself the signal, because it is this energy to which spacetime responds locally.

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It is impossible to send a signal without energy; in the case of the gravitational signal, the energy is itself the signal, because it is this energy to which spacetime responds locally. Earth (E) All of the Earths mass energy (E) is localized in blue (where the mass is).
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It is impossible to send a signal without energy; in the case of the gravitational signal, the energy is itself the signal, because it is this energy to which spacetime responds locally. Earth (E) All of the Earths mass energy (E) is localized in blue (where the mass is).
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NONE of Earths mass energy (E) exists here! Energy from Earth produces the gravity here, yet no energy curving space here ___ can be Earths E.

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What we learn from the preceding diagram: As a property of a mass, the energy E has no effect on any spacetime beyond the boundaries of the source mass!

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What we learn from the preceding diagram: As a property of a mass, the energy E has no effect on any spacetime beyond the boundaries of the source mass! If E does not produce gravity, per se, then neither does m or K.

E = m+K
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Mass has a hierarchical architecture of particles, which are all in motion. (6) molecule (5) atom (4) electron (2) nucleon (3) nucleus

p x
17

u
(1) quark

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The most important thing we know in all of physics is that everything is made up of atoms (Feynman).

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The most important thing we know in all of physics is that everything is made up of atoms (Feynman). There are ~1027 quarks per kilogram of mass, and each quark is oscillating at relativistic speed.

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The most important thing we know in all of physics is that everything is made up of atoms (Feynman). There are ~1027 quarks per kilogram of mass, and each quark is oscillating at relativistic speed. Mass has internal momentum (rest momentum) with a lot of equivalent energy ( p), just as mass has a lot of rest energy ( m).

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mc
1 gram ~ 1014 Joules of energy (~3.1 million liters of petrol) This is certainly not obvious!

2GW 14 hours Hoover Dam flow of ~1014 grams

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If one heats a mass, its rest energy goes up because the energy equivalent of the internal momentum (i.e., rest momentum) contributes to the rest energy of the ______________ system of particles. pc (i.e., mvc), applies to all particles and the c implies a non-intuitively large number.

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If one observes a mass at rest in the laboratory and imagines that it has no momentum relative to the lab, this is a similar mistake to being unaware of the rest energy (m ~ 1017 joules/kg).

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All of the energy associated with a source mass is represented in this simple equation, where m is the rest mass (energy for c = 1).

E p c =m c
2 2 2 2

[ c = 1]

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All of the energy associated with a source mass is represented in this simple equation, where m is the rest mass (energy for c = 1).

E p c =m c
2 2 2 2

[ c = 1]

This makes our search for the energy source of the gravitational eld very easy, because there is nowhere else to look for the energy.
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A mass is an emergent system of particles at quantum scale (quarks, nucleons, nuclei, electrons, atoms, molecules).

E p =m
2 2

E = En p = pn m = mn
n n n

n 10

27 52 57

kg

n 10 n 10
23

1 1

(Earth) (Sun)

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The prior conclusion that E has nothing to do with the energy source behind the force that binds the Moon to the Earth makes the search trivial; we have denitely asked the right question.

E p = m
2 2

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The prior conclusion that E has nothing to do with the energy source behind the force that binds the Moon to the Earth makes the search trivial; we have denitely asked the right question.

E p = m
2 2

The energy source of the gravitational eld is incorporated in the energy equivalent of momentum or the momentum energy ( p) at quantum scale (i.e., internal momentum).
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photon (m = 0)

E p =0
2 2
A photon, which has no rest mass, but carries momentum and equivalent energy, demonstrates that momentum energy ( p) exists independent of rest energy (m).
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photon (m = 0) INCORRECT MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS! 2 2

E p =0 E= p

Both the mass energy and momentum energy are Lorentz covariant; consequently, the two real-valued ________ energy magnitudes must always be on the same side of the equality!
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Im

(c = 1) |Ep| = | p|

Ep 45 p Re

Ep p

The energy and momentum components of the energy-momentum four-vector are of equal magnitude. They are not mathematically equal (Ep p) for the same reason that i 1.
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Im

(c = 1) |Ep| = | p|

Ep

Ep = ip

Re

When relativistic momentum is expressed as its energy equivalent in the context of special relativity, an imaginary coefcient is required This diagram makes it completely obvious.
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photon (m = 0) CORRECT MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

2 2 2 2

E p = 0 E + ( ip ) = 0
Keeping E and p on the same side here shows that there is a mandatory imaginary coefcient associated with p.

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Lorentz invariants are independent of the reference frame. space-time interval particle rest energy

Lorentz covariants are dependent on the reference frame.

ds = dt + dx
2 2 2

m = p + E
2

i2

The minus signs have the same mathematical origin (i2), dating back to Minkowskis 1908 lecture, which Einstein (unwisely) called superuous erudition.
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Energy that is not directly measurable because it is traveling as a wave at the speed of light is fundamentally expressed by an imaginary number.

E = ip
(The imaginary coefcient allows for this equality.)

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Energy that is not directly measurable because it is traveling as a wave at the speed of light is fundamentally expressed by an imaginary number.

E = ip
(The imaginary coefcient allows for this equality.) Energy that is measurable in the form of mass is fundamentally expressed by a real number.

m = ip

(mass-radiation equivalence)
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Canonical mathematical physics typically calls this calculated number the total energy.

E= m +p
2

The term total energy for E is very misleading because it gives the false suggestion that there is no more energy in the system.
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m = 4 blocks
33

p = 3 blocks

The total distance travelled by the taxi, which requires energy, is S = (m + p) = 7 blocks. It is certainly not E = 5 blocks, although this is the net distance. If we cannot call E the total distance, then we cannot call E the total energy. ks E is the net energy. oc bl 5 2 2 = E E= m +p

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This formula represents an energy system.

E p =m
2 2

E is the mass energy, which can do work. It is the net result (i.e., extractable energy) produced by combining the two fundamental energy components in the familiar form of a magnitude (| z |).

E= m +p
2
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E derives from fundamental components m and p.

E p =m
2 2

S is the actual total energy of the system being the sum of the two energy components.

S= m+ p

SE

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particle ( p = 0)

rest energy:! m momentum energy:! |ip| mass energy:! |E| kinetic energy:! K systemic energy:! S

=4 =0 =4 =0 =4

energy system schematic

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m=4

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c p x x particle in a box
(+3 units of p)

rest energy:! m momentum energy:! |ip| mass energy:! |E| kinetic energy:! K systemic energy:! S

=4 =3 =5 =1 =7

energy system schematic

37

m=4 |ip| = 3 S = (4 + 3) = 7

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c p x x particle in a box
(+3 units of p)

rest energy:! m momentum energy:! |ip| mass energy:! |E| kinetic energy:! K systemic energy:! S K=1
2

=4 =3 =5 =1 =7

E = 4 + 3i E = 4 +3 =5
2

ip energy system schematic

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m=4 |ip| = 3 S = (4 + 3) = 7

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E + ( ip ) = m
2 2

Complementing rest energy, p contributes a basic energy component to the dual-component particle energy system.

E m
38

ip

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E + ( ip ) = m
2 2

Complementing rest energy, p contributes a basic energy component to the dual-component particle energy system. K is not similarly fundamental; K is a subset of momentum energy.

( E m) = K

K ip
E m
38

K=1 ip

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E + ( ip ) = m
2 2

Complementing rest energy, p contributes a basic energy component to the dual-component particle energy system. K is not similarly fundamental; K is a subset of momentum energy.

( E m) = K
F = ip K

K ip
E m
38

K=1 ip

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E p =m
2 2

The relativistic kinetic energy (K) clearly derives from the elemental momentum energy term (-p2) appearing in the momentum-energy equation.

K = E m
|E | m

ip = K + F
|E | F K m |ip|

ip

systemic energy budget (S )

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Because F does not participate in E, and therefore is energy that cannot do work, it does not appear in conservation equations limited to mass energy. However, energy cannot be destroyed, so F must

be somewhere and it must be doing something.

K = E m
|E | m

ip = K + F
|E | F K m |ip|

ip

systemic energy budget (S )

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Recall that we have established three conclusions: 1. Because the kinetic energy (K) is a subset of E, which is localized with the source mass, K does not play a role in producing gravity (#15). 2. It is the momentum energy ( p) that produces the gravitational signal (#23). 3. The momentum energy incorporates K (#38). It logically follows that the gravitational eld energy is F = p - K, or equivalently,

F = [ p (E m)] = [ ( p + m) E ]
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Slide 15 review: We need energy that is produced by Earths particles, but which plays no part in E. The eld energy [ F = (m + p) - E ] is the answer!

Earth (E) All of the Earths mass energy (E) is localized in blue (where the mass is).
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The eld energy (F) curves space here.

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We began with the conclusion that something is not quite right with our understanding of relativity, quantum mechanics or both.

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We began with the conclusion that something is not quite right with our understanding of relativity, quantum mechanics or both. (1) The mistake in relativity (1905):

E = m + ip
E is a complex number.

E = m +p
2

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We began with the conclusion that something is not quite right with our understanding of relativity, quantum mechanics or both. (1) The mistake in relativity (1905):

E = m + ip
E is a complex number.

E = m +p
2

(2) The mistake in quantum mechanics (1924):

h = p
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h E h = p

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One can measure the localized mass energy represented by this real-valued number:

E = m +p
2

One cannot measure the energy represented by this complex number because it incorporates a eld energy term (|ip| - K) that is not localized:

E = m + ip
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Note that on this slide, m represents relativistic mass (m0) and v/c:

E = mc e
2 2

2 i sin

= mc E = mc
2

+ i

= m0 c + ip
(real-valued measurable)
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The 1924 de Broglie matter wave equations:

Planck

h = p

h = E

Einstein

The latter relationship (2) is logically inconsistent for (m0 > 0), yet this was not historically considered to be an impediment to the theory of matter waves.
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h p=0 = = 0
- 0 + _____________________________________ The condition = implies an innitely long string which has no deviation in its geometry anywhere. Consequently, there is zero energy in the string.

= h = 0
This is logically unequivocal.
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The de Broglie assumption is fundamentally illogical. It is impossible to have an innite wavelength in combination with a non-zero frequency.

p=0

= h = m

These two conditions for a wave are mutually exclusive given a non-zero rest energy.

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m = m0

Another elephant in the room is that the phase velocity of the de Broglie matter wave exceeds the speed of light and can be arbitrarily large.

h = p

mc = h
2

h mc c w = = = mv h v
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This disturbing feature of canonical theory (w >> c) is conventionally explained by drawing a distinction between the phase velocity and the group velocity. internal wave phase velocity w = c2/v wave packet group velocity u=v

The group velocity of this composite wave group representing the moving particle is the same as that of the moving particle (v).
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Creation of a wave group requires superposition of many individual waves of different wavelengths whose interference with one another results in the variation in amplitude that denes the group shape. The de Broglie matter wave is described by a single dened wavelength (h/p), not many wavelengths, so the alleged wave group is a product of handwaving.

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The QM phenomena that seems ideally modeled by the wave packet idea are related to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and the Schrdinger equation.
uncertainty in location of particle (x) probability of finding particle

low high low

(* = ||2)

The location of particles in quantum mechanics has to be dened probabilistically in accord with the * ). squared amplitude of a characteristic wave (
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The Bohr electron orbital stability condition (left) leads to the beautiful idea that the path lengths of electron orbitals must be integer numbers of de Broglie wavelengths (p).

m = m0

mvr = n

h 2 r = n = n p p

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There is no wave packet representing the particle with energy E. Rather, there is a wave in spacetime generated by the particle with real-valued energy |ipc|. This wave produces potentials in spacetime, which interact with particles to create the quantum-mechanical observables. Ironically, the gist of quantum mechanics is, itself, quantum gravity.

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J. S. Bell, Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics, 2nd Ed. (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 191.
While the founding fathers agonized over the question particle or wave, de Broglie in 1925 proposed the obvious answer particle and wave. Is it not clear from the smallness of the scintillation on the screen that we have to do with a particle? And is it not clear, from the diffraction and interference patterns, that the motion of the particle is directed by a wave? De Broglie showed in detail how the motion of a particle, passing through just one of two holes in screen, could be influenced by waves propagating through both holes. And so influenced that the particle does not go where the waves cancel out, but is attracted to where they cooperate. This idea seems to me so natural and simple, to resolve the wave-particle dilemma in such a clear and ordinary way, that it is a great mystery to me that it was so generally ignored. Of the founding fathers, only Einstein thought that de Broglie was on the right lines.

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electron double-slit diffraction p-wave interference

Single incident electron and its p-wave, here exhibiting negligible Doppler shift. The p-wave must go through both slits. Represented by the central dot, the electron can obviously only pass through one slit or the other.
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electron double-slit diffraction p-wave interference

The next slide shows the energy phenomena here. Single incident electron and its p-wave, here exhibiting negligible Doppler shift. The p-wave must go through both slits. Represented by the central dot, the electron can obviously only pass through one slit or the other.
56 b

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p-wave interference produces corresponding spacetime geometry.

The fundamental principle of general relativity is that the presence of energy causes distortion in spacetime geometry (i.e., a potential). This is independent of scale.
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The AharonovBohm effect is caused by electron p-waves produced by the current in the solenoid; the effect has nothing whatsoever to do with a magnetic eld. An experiment employing a beam of neutrons, which produces similar p-waves, may also cause the Ahranov-Bohm effect. target screen

electron beam

enclosed orthogonal neutron beam

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The fundamental wavelength of the p-wave of a material particle is subject to a Doppler shift.

h 1 = p 1

v c

The momentum p-wave emitted by a particle behaves as if it were emitted light. Leading the source particle it is blueshifted, and trailing the particle it is redshifted.
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The size of the core wave encapsulating a source particle is unaffected because it moves with the source particle. Thus, = h/p is the characteristic wavelength of an atomic electron. v

h = p

5 4 3 2

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Relative to the laboratory rest frame (i.e., a target), the electron p-wave is Doppler shifted. This means that the p-wave is subject to empirical test.

target v

h 1 = p 1
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For Transmission High Energy Electron Diffraction, in which electrons penetrate a thin film, the effective wavelength may be significantly blueshifted.
h/p SR correction Doppler correction

THEED region

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It is these two equations that hold for all particles:

h = p

h = ipc

Not these two equations:

h = p
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h = E

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It is these two equations that hold for all particles:

h = p

h = ipc

So, the propagation velocity of this p-wave is:

h pc w = = =c p h
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p-wave amplitude

sin r A= r

The energy of a wave is proportional to amplitude squared.

p-wave energy sine wave in background

1 EA 2 r
2

The core wave () encapsulates the source particle. This is the only portion of the wave that interacts with the particle. Periodically, the local wave energy is zero (small blue dots).
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K (1) |ip| distributed p-wave

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localized particle

E =m + K

F = |ip| - K

(2) The portion of the wave inside the violet box correlates to K. (3) The blue dot (particle) inside the violet box correlates to m. (4) The violet box of width represents the union of m and K. (5) The yellow background with energy (|ip| - K) highlights the
subset of the p-wave found outside the core source wave.

derived components:

wavicle (E )
K

wave (F ) wave (|ip|)

66 a

fundamental energies:

particle (m) S = m + |ip|

K (1) |ip| distributed p-wave

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localized particle

E =m + K

F = |ip| - K

Attempts to determine the spatial location of the particle (m) will yield a fuzzy result. The particle will always be within the boundaries of the violet box with dimension = h/p, exhibiting a statistical distribution correlated to the local amplitude of ip.

derived components:

wavicle (E )
K

wave (F ) wave (|ip|)

66 b

fundamental energies:

particle (m) S = m + |ip|

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The red curve represents a single quark p-wave.

p-wave energy distribution

positive energy

~10-5 mirror symmetry potential (yields net zero energy) negative energy

The black curve represents spacetime response. At this scale, the spacetime geometry is periodic.
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Starting with Einstein, many people have had the intuition that a rational and intuitive model of quantum mechanics would one day replace the ideas known as the Copenhagen interpretation.

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Starting with Einstein, many people have had the intuition that a rational and intuitive model of quantum mechanics would one day replace the ideas known as the Copenhagen interpretation. When its fundamental idea is applied at quantum scale, general relativity informs us that it is not particles, themselves, that are waving, it is the spacetime around the particle that is waving.

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Starting with Einstein, many people have had the intuition that a rational and intuitive model of quantum mechanics would one day replace the ideas known as the Copenhagen interpretation. When its fundamental idea is applied at quantum scale, general relativity informs us that it is not particles, themselves, that are waving, it is the spacetime around the particle that is waving. Quantum mechanics is not about the wave nature of m > 0 particles, which does not exist. It is about the wave geometry (potential energy) of spacetime at quantum scale interacting with particles.
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boundaries of location uncertainty () spacetime potential well

* has an objective existence; it reflects an interaction between a particle and spacetime at quantum scale.

less likely to be found peripherally Quantum probability is related to a spacetime energy structure (ipc). more likely to be found near center
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most likely location of encapsulated particle

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The Heisenberg uncertainty principle redened:

ic x ipc 2
Quantum-scale particles tell spacetime how to wave (ipc) and spacetime connes the particle (x) in a complementary relationship. The units of the equation are energy times distance (similar to h and Gm1m2). This is the foundational idea of quantum gravity.
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p-wave amplitude 1-D schematic

sin r A= r

lim A = 1
r0

(per lHpitals rule)

The p-wave is a spherical standing wave centered on the source particle. Part of its energy is distributed isotropically to arbitrary radius. Its signal travels at the speed of light. 3-D schematic harmonic oscillator

See this dynamic content here.

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intranuclear interference of p-waves 168 quark p-waves + 56 nucleon p-waves

56Fe

only 1 of 224 shown for the 56Fe nucleus

nuclear diameter

~10-5 mirror symmetry potential negative energy

The intranuclear p-wave energy implies a deep spacetime potential well with internal structure.
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intranuclear interference of p-waves

illustrative schematic

The intranuclear p-wave energy implies a deep spacetime potential well with internal structure.
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Spacetime response to quark and nucleon p-wave interference provides for every observable feature of the atomic nucleus including:

sharp strong force boundary extreme compactness of nucleus quantized nucleon binding energy energetic isolation of each nucleon maximum size of stable nuclei
It is therefore unnecessary to assume the existence of another phenomenon to achieve nuclear binding.
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The strong force, which binds the atomic nucleus, and gravity, which binds galaxies, are the identical phenomenon observed at different length scales. It is in fact the case that a distinct phenomenon binding the nucleus precludes the existence of the gravitational eld. Accordingly, the theory of quantum chromodynamics whereby color force is mediated by gluons is understood to be a modern equivalent of the Ptolemaic Solar System model.

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10-5

nucleon

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r
atom (1 )

nucleon p-wave energy

(intranuclear superposition not shown)

1 m

Solar System (~50 AU)

1 cm

Earth radius

1010 reduction 1m
in energy at the ~ atomic radius

~1 ton: ~1030 p-waves

4 p-waves

nearest star (~41016 m) 76

1 km

Earth orbit

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The foregoing graph makes it clear that at its high energy state, the p-wave is effectively isolated at nucleon and nuclear length scale (10-5 10-4 ). The p-waves of co-bound quarks and nucleons (composite particles with independent momenta) are in superposition at near peak energy state, but p-wave energy from neighboring atomic nuclei is locally insignicant (<10-10 of intranuclear peak). At low energy state, p-waves are in superposition with about 1027 p-waves produced per kilogram of the source mass.
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E p =m
2 2

E + ( ip ) = m
2 2

E
Old thinking: E is a real number; no part of E exists beyond the physical boundary of the mass.

|E|

F
New thinking: E is a complex number; energy (F ) exists beyond the physical boundary of the mass.

F = ( m + ip ) E

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Newtons 17th-century idea that G is a universal constant is as nave as his idea of universal space and time, which was overthrown by Einstein. The gravitational eld is produced by the motion of mass, just as the magnetic eld is produced by the motion of charge; it is a relativistic force. Mass without momentum has no gravitational eld (i.e., G = 0 in the theoretical absolute rest frame) for it is exclusively momentum energy ( p) that produces the geometric response of spacetime.
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Thank you for your attention.

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