ESSP WSDS - Unit 10 Domestic Water Systems (Worked Example)

Chenobu
Technical Design Portfolio
Whole System Design Suite

Taking a whole system approach to achieving
sustainable design outcomes
Unit 10 - Worked Example 5

Domestic Water Systems
July 2007
This Course was developed under a grant from the Australian

Government Department of the Environment and Water Resources as
part of the 2006/07 Environmental Education Grants Program.
(The views expressed herein are not necessarily the views of the
Commonwealth, and the Commonwealth does not accept the
responsibility for any information or advice contained herein.)
TDP ESSP Technical Design Portfolio: Whole System Design Suite
Worked Example 5 – Domestic Water Systems
Unit 10
Worked Example 5 – Domestic Water
Systems
Significance of Domestic Water Systems

Fresh water has been described as ‘the most precious’ natural resource in the world,1 partly
because it is vital for all living organisms and partly because less water is available for human
use than most people realise. In fact, only about 0.3 percent of all the free water on Earth is
usable by humans,2 as shown in Figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1. Distribution of Earth’s water

Source: US Geological Survey (2006)3
Many nations face water challenges in both urban and rural areas. The fresh water sources that
supply many households are critically depleted due to a combination of non-sustainable
extraction and drought. In response, stricter regulations, including regulations on household
water consumption, are now being introduced to protect some of the remaining fresh water
sources. In the long term, water consumers can expect the cost of fresh water to increase
because of scarcity or because it is supplied from non-local sources.
1
Carson, R. (1962) Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, USA.
2
US Geological Survey (2006) ‘Where is Earth’s water located?’, US Department of the Interior, USA. Available at
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html. Accessed 15 March 2007.
3
Ibid.
Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 2 of 27

In 2004-05, total water consumption in Australia was 18,767 GL – down 14 percent from 2000-
01 due mainly to drought.4 Figure 10.2 shows the division of water consumption within the
Australian economy in 2004-05.
Figure 10.2. Australian water consumption in 2004-05

Source: Adapted from Trewin, D. (2006) p 85
Note: Water Supply item includes sewerage and drainage services and losses.
The quantity of water consumed in Australian households is second only to the agriculture
industry. In 2004-05, water consumption in Australian households was 2,108 GL (282
L/person/day),6 down 8 percent from 2000-01.7 Figure 10.3 shows the quantity of water
consumed from various sources. The high consumption of distributed water and low
consumption of reused water suggests there may be opportunities to reuse distributed water in
households.
4
Trewin, D. (2006) 4610.0 Water account Australia 2004-05, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australia, p 2. Available at
http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4610.02004-05?OpenDocument. Accessed 13 March 2007.
5
Ibid, p 8.
6
Calculated from 103 kL per person.
7
Trewin, D. (2006) 4610.0 Water account Australia 2004-05, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australia, pp 100, 103. Available at

Figure 10.3. Australian household water consumption in 2004-058

Source: Adapted from Trewin, D. (2006) p1039
This worked example will explore the feasibility of household wastewater being cost effectively
treated and reused on-site in place of distributed water. Furthermore, this worked example will
demonstrate how to optimise the whole domestic water system for multiple benefits, including
cost savings.
Worked Example Overview

The on-site domestic water system is comprised of three categories of components.
1. Water consuming appliances
Water consuming appliances in a typical household are toilets, showers, baths, wash basins,
sinks, dishwashers and washing machines. Once used, water becomes wastewater, which can
be categorised as either greywater or blackwater. Typically, greywater is all domestic wastewater
except for toilet wastewater, which is blackwater. The majority of domestic wastewater is
greywater. Additional water consumption is from swimming pools, spas and watering gardens
and lawns. For the purpose of this worked example, swimming pools and spas are not and all
irrigation requirements are assumed to be met by reusing the wastewater.
2. Wastewater treatment system
There are several types of wastewater treatment systems. They can be categorised by two
characteristics – 1) the treatment stage (primary, secondary, tertiary), and 2) the treatment
action (mechanical, chemical or biological). Table 10.1 indicates the treatment action generally
used at each treatment stage. Primary and secondary wastewater treatment systems are
considered in this worked example.
Table 10.1: Wastewater treatment actions for each treatment stage
Treatment Treatment Description
stage action
Suspended solids are removed from the wastewater by
Primary Mechanical
settlement filtration.
Secondary Biological Organic materials are degraded by microorganisms.
Mechanical Targeted inorganic nutrients and organic materials are

removed by combinations of settlement, filtration,
Tertiary Biological
chemicals, and microorganisms, usually in a multistage
Chemical process.
8
Distributed sources are mains sources. Self-extracted sources include rainwater tanks and direct extraction from surface or
groundwater.
9
Trewin, D. (2006) 4610.0 Water account Australia 2004-05, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australia, p 103. Available at

3. Discharge or reuse system

Treated wastewater can be discharged to on-site dispersal trenches or to nearby waterways. It
can also be reused outdoors for irrigation or, in some cases, indoors as toilet water. The
admissible disposal and reuse systems vary with the wastewater treatment stage and local
regulations. In this worked example wastewater is used for irrigation via a subsurface drip
irrigation system.
Recall the 10 elements of applying a Whole System Design approach discussed in Unit 4 and
Unit 5:
1. Ask the right questions
2. Benchmark against the optimal system
3. Design and optimise the whole system
4. Account for all measurable impacts
5. Design and optimise subsystems in the right sequence
6. Design and optimise subsystems to achieve compounding resource savings
7. Review the system for potential improvements
8. Model the system
9. Track technology innovation
10. Design to create future options
The following worked example will demonstrate how the 10 elements can be applied to domestic
onsite water systems using two contrasting examples: a conventional domestic water system
versus a Whole System Designed domestic water system. The application of an element will be
indicated with a blue box.

Design Challenge: Design a domestic water system with on-site

secondary wastewater treatment and wastewater reuse systems
for a four bedroom house of five residents. Wastewater is from
toilet, bathroom, kitchen and laundry appliances. The house is
located in Adelaide, South Australia.
Design Process: The following sections present:
1. Conventional Design solution: Conventional on-site system

design with limited application of the elements of Whole
System Design.
2. Whole System Design solution: Improved system using the

elements of Whole System Design.
3. Performance comparison: Comparison of the economic and

environmental costs and benefits.

Conventional Design Solution

The conventional solution incorporates:
- Standard water consuming household appliances
- An onsite wastewater treatment system: septic system and slow sand filter, as in Figure 10.4
- A water reuse system: subsurface drip irrigation system
Figure 10.4. Components of a conventional onsite wastewater treatment and reuse system
Source: Gustafson, D.M., Anderson, J.L. and Heger Christopherson, S. (2002)10
Standard Water Consuming Household Appliances

Several appliances contribute to household water consumption and wastewater generation:
- Standard 9/4.5 litre dual flush toilets consume an average of 5.4 L of water per flush 11 and
cost about $300.
- Standard showerheads can consume 15-20 L of water per minute12 and cost about $50.13
10
Gustafson, D.M., Anderson, J.L. and Heger Christopherson, S. (2002) Innovative onsite sewerage treatment systems: single-pass
sand filters, Regents of the University of Minnesota Extension, USA. Available at
http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/DD7672.html. Accessed 8 February 2007.
11
Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c) ‘WELs products’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia. Available at
http://www.waterrating.gov.au/products/index.html. Accessed 28 November 2006.
12
Ibid.
13
ninemsn Shopping (2007) ‘Taps at ninemsn Shopping’, ninemsn Shopping, Australia. Available at
http://shopping.ninemsn.com.au/results/shp/?bCatId=2952. Accessed 9 March 2007.

- Standard taps discharge 15-18 L of water per minute14 and cost about $80.15 Assume there
are 10 taps in the household.
- Average (Water Star Rating = 1.5) dishwashers consume about 19 L of water per load16 and
cost about $700.17
- Average (Water Star Rating = 2) 8kg washing machines consume about 150 L of water per
load18 and cost about $800.19
Cost
The standard water consuming appliances’ capital cost is:
Capital cost = $300 + $50 + ($80) (10) + $700 + $800
= $2650
The installation costs of standard appliances and water efficient appliances (in the Whole
System Design solution) are comparable, so these costs are not considered.
Table 10.2 summarises the water consumption of a household with standard appliances.
Table 10.2: Daily water consumption for standard domestic appliances
Allowance
Waste source
(L/person/day)
Toilet 50
Bath and shower 50
Hand basin tap 10
Kitchen 10
Tap 7
Dishwasher 3
Laundry 30
Tap 5
Washing machine 25
Total 15020
14
Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c) ‘WELs products’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia. Available at
15
16
Water Efficiency Labels and Products Schemes (2007b) ‘Dish Washers’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia. Available at
http://search.waterrating.com.au/dwashers_srch.asp. Accessed 4 December 2006.
17
My Shopping (n.d.a) ‘Dishwashers’, Comparison Shopping Australia, Australia. Available at http://www.myshopping.com.au/PT--
280_Dishwashers. Accessed 9 March 2007; Shopping.com (2007) ‘Dishwashers’, Shopping.com Australia, Australia. Available at
http://au.shopping.com/xFA-dishwashers~FD-1894. Accessed 9 March 2007.
18
Water Efficiency Labels and Products Schemes (2007a) ‘Clothes Washers’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia. Available
athttp://search.waterrating.com.au/cwashers_srch.asp. Accessed 11 January 2007.
19
My Shopping (n.d.b) ‘Washing machines’, Comparison Shopping Australia, Australia Available at
http://www.myshopping.com.au/PT--281_Washing_Machines. Accessed 9 March 2007; Shopping.com (2007) ‘Washing machines’,
Shopping.com Australia, Australia Available at http://au.shopping.com/xFA-washing_machines~FD-1897. Accessed 9 March 2007.
20
This figure is substantially lower than the average Australian household water consumption of 282 L/person/day.

Source: NSW Health Department (2001) p12;21 Ecological Homes (2002)22

The standard appliances’ water consumption in a household of five people is:
Water consumption = (150 L/person/day) (5 people) (91 days/quarter)
= 68,250 L/quarter
This consumption is below the quarterly water consumption threshold set by the State water
utility, therefore not subject to excess water consumption rates. The regular rate in Australia is
assumed to be $0.47/kL.
Thus the total water cost is:
Water supply = ($0.47/kL) (68,250 L/quarter) (0.001 L/kL) (4 quarters/year)
= $129/year
Standard water consuming appliances can last for at least 20 years if operated correctly.
Onsite Water Treatment System: Septic System for Primary Treatment

Background
Septic systems are used for primary wastewater treatment and are available as both above
ground and below ground systems. In a septic system, wastewater enters a tank where it is
treated and then it is disposed.
Figure 10.5 shows a typical septic tank. Wastewater enters the tank by active pumping or action
of gravity. The wastewater then settles and separates into three main zones. Materials such as
grease, fats and oils that float to the top are called scum. Materials that settle to the bottom zone
are called sludge. Between the scum and sludge is relatively clear water that still contains
bacteria and dissolved chemicals. The solids are anaerobically decomposed by bacteria in the
tank.
Figure 10.5. Cross section of a single-compartment septic tank

Source: Garyman, M., Machmeie, R. and Venhuizen, D. (2007)23
21
NSW Health Department (2001) Septic tank and collection well accreditation guideline, New South Wales State Government,
Australia. Available at http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/public-health/ehb/general/wastewater/septic_guideline.pdf. Accessed 28
November 2006.
22
Ecological Homes (2002) ‘Wastewater systems’, Ecological Homes, Australia. Available at
http://www.ecologicalhomes.com.au/wastewater_systems.htm. Accessed 28 November 2006.

The primary-treated water exits the tank by active pumping or action of gravity and is then
routed to a slow sand filter for secondary treatment before either being dispersed or used for
irrigation.
Septic systems can process blackwater and greywater. Their biological action can be impaired
by household chemicals, gasoline, oil, pesticides, antifreeze and paint, which kill the bacteria
that decompose the solids.24 The system’s flow can be impaired by kitchen and bathroom items
such as food wastes, toilet paper and sanitary items. The systems are not designed to process
inorganic solids such as plastics and metals.
Septic systems function well at relatively steady loading but their function can be impaired by
heavy and shock loading. For example, the systems can handle one to two clothes washing
loads, seven days per week, but cannot handle four or more, one day per week. Excessive
volumes of wastewater cause the grease, scum and sludge to mix with the water and escape.
For this reason, septic systems are usually unable to process wastewater from high volume
appliances such as hot tubs.
Cost
In Australia, there are standards and guidelines for septic systems at the federal, state and local
levels of government. The system’s capacity requirements vary from region to region. In South
Australia, the South Australian Health Commission25 requires that the septic tank capacity is at
least:
Tank capacity = 3000 L for up to 6 people + 1000 L for each additional 2 people
Hence for this worked example,
Tank capacity = 3000 L
Some Australian states require that the tank capacity is determined by the expected flow of
waste water. For example, the NSW Health Department26 requires that the septic tank capacity
is at least:
Tank capacity = sludge allowance + (daily water consumption) (number of people27)
Where sludge allowance = 1550 L, and ‘daily water consumption’ is as in Table 10.2, above.
Hence,
Tank capacity = 1550 L + (50 + 50 + 10 + 10 + 30 L/person/day) (5 people)
= 2300 L
The system’s capital cost depends on the components selected. The average cost for a like-
capacity septic system, which includes a pump is:
23
Garyman, M., Machmeie, R. and Venhuizen, D. (2007) ‘Septic tanks and septic systems’, SepticTankInfo.com, USA. Available at
http://septictankinfo.com/septic_tank_basics.shtml. Accessed 29 November 2006.
24
Office of Water (2005) A homeowner’s guide to septic systems, United States Environmental Protection Agency, USA, p 8.
Available at http://www.epa.gov/owm/septic/pubs/homeowner_guide_long.pdf. Accessed 30 November 2006.
25
Public and Environmental Health Service (1995) Waste control systems: standard for the construction, installation and operation
of septic tank systems in South Australia, South Australian Health Commission, Australia, p 12. Available at
http://www.dh.sa.gov.au/pehs/publications/Septic-tank-book.pdf. Accessed 28 November 2006.
26
NSW Health Department (2001) Septic tank and collection well accreditation guideline, New South Wales State Government,
Australia, p 12. Available at http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/public-health/ehb/general/wastewater/septic_guideline.pdf. Accessed 28
November 2006.
27
Number of people must be between 5 and 10.

Capital cost = $4000, and could vary by about $100028

There are several extra costs involved in preparing septic systems for use, including delivery,
excavation, installation, establishing electrical connections, quality checks, council approval and
commissioning. These extra costs amount to:
Extra capital costs = $2500, and could vary by about $500
The system’s running costs depend on the components selected and the loading volume and
type:
- The power cost is approximately $25 per year, and could vary by about $5.29
- Like most other standards and guidelines, the South Australian Health Commission30
suggests that septic systems that support five people need to be de-sludged approximately
every four years. The actual need for de-sludging depends on the volume of solids in the
tank, and so is subject to inspection. De-sludging costs approximately $300 per service and
could vary by about $100.31
- Inspections are usually performed by trained personnel at a cost of approximately $70.
Inspections are performed twice a year.
- Some components, such as the baffle, lid and pumps may need to be replaced and will incur
costs. Wastewater can be highly corrosive and can damage internal components such as
baffles.32 Replacement parts costs are not considered here due to uncertainty.
Thus, the system’s total running cost is:

Running cost = $25/year + $300/4years + ($70/service) (2 services/year)
= $240/year
Septic systems can last for at least 20 years if built and operated correctly.33 However, in
practice, the systems usually last just a few years. More than 70 percent of septic systems fail
within eight years. 34 Thus the life of the septic system is estimated at ten years.
28
Mark Quan, Icon Septec. Personal communication on 13 February 2007; Steve Little, Steve Little Plumbing. Personal
communication on 13 February 2007; Palmer et al (2001) cited in Coombes, P. (2002) Water smart practice note 9: wastewater
reuse, Lower Hunter and Central Coast Regional Environment Management Strategy, Australia, p 4. Available at
http://www.portstephens.nsw.gov.au/files/51064/File/9_Wastewater.pdf. Accessed 28 November 2006; Septreat. Personal
communication on 15 February 2007.
29
Waterpac Plumbing (2002) ‘Getting started….’ Waterpac Plumbing, Australia. Available at
http://www.waterpacaustralia.com/getting_started____.htm. Accessed 28 November 2006; Hankinson, M. (2005) ‘Bodalla sewerage:
community newsletter no.2’, Eurobodalla Shire Council Newsletter, Australia, p 3. Available at
http://www.esc.nsw.gov.au/IWCMP/newsletters/BodallaNewsletter_No2.pdf. Accessed 28 November 2006.
30
of septic tank systems in South Australia, South Australian Health Commission, Australia, p 13. Available at
31
Hankinson, M. (2005) ‘Bodalla sewerage: community newsletter no.2’, Eurobodalla Shire Council Newsletter, Australia, p 3.
Available at http://www.esc.nsw.gov.au/IWCMP/newsletters/BodallaNewsletter_No2.pdf. Accessed 28 November 2006; Biolytix,
Personal Communication on 13 February 2007.
32
Ward, R.C. and Englehardt, J.D. (1993) Management of Decentralized, On-Site Systems for Treatment of Domestic Wastes,
Purdue Research Foundation, USA. Available at http://www.purdue.edu/dp/envirosoft/decent/src/title.htm. Accessed 28 November
2006.
33
The Laundry Alternative Inc. (2005) ‘Septic system price’, The Laundry Alternative Inc., USA. Available at http://www.laundry-
alternative.com/septic_system_price.htm. Accessed 28 November 2006.
34
Biolytix (2006c) ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix, Australia. Available at http://www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=76. Accessed 28
November 2006.


Onsite Water Treatment System: Slow Sand Filter System for Secondary Treatment
Background
Slow sand filter systems are used for secondary wastewater treatment. In a slow sand filter
system, wastewater enters, is filtered and then disposed. Figure 10.6 shows a typical slow sand
filter. Septic tank effluent enters the tank by active pumping or action of gravity.
Figure 10.6. Cross section of a slow sand filter

Source: Gustafson, D.M., Anderson, J.L. and Heger Christopherson, S. (2002)35
The sand layer treats the effluent through physical and biological processes. The sand prevents
suspended solids from passing through to the outlet. The sand also becomes coated by a thin
biofilm,36 which contains microorganisms that decompose the organic matter and nutrients.37
The biofilm usually develops in several days and is most prevalent in and above the top few
centimetres of sand,38 although is present in about the top 40cm. 39 High-surface-area mediums
other than sand are also used.
The gravel layer prevents sand moving to the outlet. 40 The gravel layer can be replaced by a
geotextile layer, which is thinner and hence reduces the system’s total height. The secondary-
treated water exits the sump by active pumping or action of gravity and is either dispersed or
routed to an irrigation or reuse system.
Slow sand filter systems are best at processing suspended solids and bacteria in relatively clear
wastewater. They cannot process heavy metals, chemicals or other pollutants in excess. 41 Slow
35
36
Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment (2006) A consumer’s guide to drinking water, CRC for Water
Quality, Australia, p 26. Available at http://www.waterquality.crc.org.au/consumers/consumer.pdf. Accessed 11 February 2007.
37
38
Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation (1999) Slow sand filtration, Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation, USA.
Available at http://www.oasisdesign.net/water/treatment/slowsandfilter.htm. Accessed 7 February 2007; Fox, R. (1995) ‘Slow sand
filtration’, Practical Hydroponics and Greenhouses, vol. 24, Casper Publications, Australia. Available at
http://www.hydroponics.com.au/back_issues/issue24.html. Accessed 7 February 2007.
39
40
Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation,(1999) Slow sand filtration, Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation, USA.
Available at http://www.oasisdesign.net/water/treatment/slowsandfilter.htm. Accessed 7 February 2007.
41
Ibid.

sand filter systems function well at relatively steady loading but their slow action results in
impaired function at heavy and shock loading. Consequently, slow sand filter systems may
require an input control system, such as a timed pump.
Cost
In Australia, there are standards and guidelines for sand filter systems at the federal, state and
local levels of government. The system’s top surface area requirements vary from region to
region. In this worked example the South Australian Health Commission42 requires that the slow
sand filter top surface area is at least:
Top surface area = the greater of:
1. Water consumption:
= 1m2/50 L daily water consumption, where ‘daily water consumption’
is as in Table 10.2, above
2. Organic load:
= 1m2/25 g BOD5 daily organic load, where ‘daily organic load’ is
50 g BOD5/person/day43
Hence,
Top surface area = the greater of:
1. Daily water consumption:
= (5 people) (150 L/person/day) / (50 L)
= 15m2
2. Daily organic loading:
= (5 people) (50 g BOD5/person/day) / (25 g BOD5)
= 10m2
Top surface area = 15m2
The system’s capital cost depends on the components selected. The average cost for a like-
capacity septic system is:
Capital cost = $1000
There are several extra costs involved in preparing slow sand filter systems for use, including
delivery, installation, quality checks, council approval and commissioning. These extra costs can
amount to:
Extra capital costs = $500
The system’s running costs depend on the components selected and the loading volume and
type. The running costs are comprised of:
- Power cost for the pump.
42
of septic tank systems in South Australia: supplement A – aerobic sand filters, South Australian Health Commission, Australia, p 1.
Available at http://www.dh.sa.gov.au/pehs/publications/Supplement-A.pdf. Accessed 28 November 2006.
43
BOD5 = The five day Biological Oxygen Demand.

- Maintenance and cleaning cost for the filter. The filter’s effectiveness depends on a good
wastewater flow rate. However, organic matter and silt can accumulate in the top layer of
sand and restrict flow.44 Consequently, the top layer of sand requires replacement about
every six months and all of the sand requires replacement about every ten years.45
- Repair and replacement costs for the system’s components.
Thus, the system’s total running cost is:
Running costs = $400/year, and could vary by about $150/year46
Slow sand filter systems can last for at least 20 years if built and operated correctly.
Subsurface Drip Irrigation System

The capital cost of a subsurface drip irrigation system has been determined by using Biolytix’s
online questionnaire.47 The questionnaire results indicate that, for a system with standard
appliances,48 the ‘Safe T Drip 400 Normal Flow’ system49 is suitable for the Conventional
solution. The system’s capacity is determined by the wastewater volume.
Cost
The system’s capital cost is:
Capital cost = $1336.2050
The system’s installation cost is:
Installation cost = $1500
The system’s running costs are comprised of:
- Pumping power costs - which are absorbed into the running costs of the slow sand filter
system.
- Inspection and maintenance costs - which are relatively high, particularly for labour. 51
Inspection for domestic systems is usually performed by the residents for no cost, thus
inspection costs are not considered. Maintenance costs arise mainly from damage to the
irrigation hosing by external events, such as piercing by shovels, and are rare. Hosing
outlets are resistant to constriction by roots, thus maintenance costs are not considered.
Subsurface drip irrigation systems can last for at least 20 years if operated correctly.
44
Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation,(1999) Slow sand filtration, Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation, USA.
Available at http://www.oasisdesign.net/water/treatment/slowsandfilter.htm. Accessed 7 February 2007.
45
46
Ibid.
47
Biolytix (2006h) ‘Welcome to the Biolytix product selection wizard’, Biolytix, Australia. Available at
http://www.biolytix.com/php/productSelection. Accessed 28 November 2006.
48
Approximated as ‘Standard plumbing fixtures’ in the Biolytix online questionnaire.
49
Biolytix (2006d) ‘Drip irrigation kits’, Biolytix, Australia. Available at http://www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=90. Accessed 12
February 2007.
50
Ibid.
51
Qassim, A. (2003) Subsurface irrigation: a situation analysis, Department of Primary Industries, Victorian State Government,
Australia. Available at
http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nrenfa.nsf/93a98744f6ec41bd4a256c8e00013aa9/3d3915fb8fe0af31ca256eb4001e5bf1/$FILE/Subsurf
ace%20Irrigation.pdf. Accessed12 February 2007

Whole System Design Solution

The Whole System Design (WSD) solution incorporates: 7. Review the
system for potential
- Water efficient household appliances improvements
- An onsite wastewater treatment system: Biolytix system
- A water reuse system: subsurface drip irrigation system
Water Efficient Appliances 6. Design and

optimise subsystems
There are water efficient models of every common household to achieve
water consuming appliance. The water efficient appliances are compounding
Resource Savings
usually more energy efficient as well:
- Newer 6/3 litre toilets consume 3.6 L per flush52 and cost about $300.
- Water efficient showerheads consume 6-7 L per minute53 and cost about $80.54 Not only do
efficient showerheads consume less water, they also reduce energy costs by 47 percent due
to the lower water heating demand.55
- Low-flow and aerating taps can discharge as little as 2 L per minute56 and cost about $100.57
Assume there are 10 taps in the household.
- The most water efficient (Water Star Rating = 4) dishwashers consume about 13 L of water
per load58 and cost about $1000.59
- The most water efficient (Water Star Rating = 5) 8kg washing machines consume about 60 L
of water per load60 and cost about $1000.61
Cost
The water efficient appliances’ capital cost is:
Capital cost = $300 + $80 + ($100) (10) + $1000 + $1000
= $3380
52
Water Efficiency Labels and Standards Schemes (2007c) ‘WELs products’. Commonwealth of Australia, Australia. Available at
53
Ibid.
54
55
56
Ibid.
57
58
Water Efficiency Labels and Products Schemes (2007b) ‘Dish Washers’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia. Available at
http://search.waterrating.com.au/dwashers_srch.asp. Accessed 4 December 2006.
59
My Shopping (n.d.a) ‘Dishwashers’, Comparison Shopping Australia, Australia. Available at http://www.myshopping.com.au/PT--
280_Dishwashers. Accessed 9 March 2007; Shopping.com (2007) ‘Dishwashers’, Shopping.com Australia, Australia. Available at
60
Water Efficiency Labels and Products Schemes (2007a) ‘Clothes Washers’, Commonwealth of Australia, Australia. Available at
http://search.waterrating.com.au/cwashers_srch.asp. Accessed 11 January 2007.
61
http://www.myshopping.com.au/PT--281_Washing_Machines. Accessed 9 March 2007; Shopping.com (2007) ‘Washing machines’,
Shopping.com Australia, Australia. Available at http://au.shopping.com/xFA-washing_machines~FD-1897. Accessed 9 March 2007.

The installation costs of standard appliances (in Conventional solution) and water efficient
appliances are comparable, so these costs are not considered.
Table 10.3. Daily water consumption for water efficient domestic appliances
Allowance
Waste source
(L/person/day)
Toilet 33
Bath and shower 19
Hand basin tap 1
Kitchen 3
Tap 1
Dishwasher 2
Laundry 11
Tap 1
Washing machine 10
Total 64
The water efficient appliances’ water consumption in a home of five people is:
Water consumption = (5 people) (91 days/quarter) (64 L/person/day)
= 29,120 L/quarter
This consumption is below the quarterly water consumption threshold set by the South
Australian State water utility, therefore not subject to excess water consumption rates. The
regular rate in Australia is assumed to be $0.47/kL.
Thus, the annual water cost is:
Water supply = ($0.47/kL) (29,120 L/quarter) (0.001 L/kL) (4 quarters/year)
= $55/year
Water efficient appliances can last for at least 20 years if operated correctly.
Onsite Water Treatment System: Biolytix System for Primary and Secondary Treatment
Background
Biolytix have filter systems for both primary and secondary wastewater treatment and are
available as both above ground and below ground systems. In a Biolytix system, wastewater
enters the filter, where it is treated and then it is disposed.
Figure 10.7 shows the filter for a Biolytix Deluxe system;62 a 9. Track technology
secondary treatment system. Wastewater enters the tank by active innovation
62
Biolytix (2006f) ‘How Biolytix works’, Biolytix, Australia. Available at http://www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=69. Accessed 28
November 2006.

pumping or gravity feed. The system also accepts solid materials such as food wastes and
sanitary items.
Figure 10.7. Cross section of the Biolytix Deluxe system.

Source: Biolytix (2006f)63
The drainage layer houses a wet soil ecosystem consisting of organisms such as worms,
beetles and microorganisms. The organisms maintain the layer’s porosity for good air circulation
and drainage. They also decompose the waste water and waste materials into humus while the
water and any remaining organic materials drain through to the humus layer. The humus layer
also houses a soil ecosystem. The organisms reprocess the humus and organic materials into a
fine, sponge-like matrix. The matrix, which is 90 percent water by mass, has a high cation and
anion exchange capacity so it attracts and holds dissolved pollutants while the organisms
decompose them. The water and any untreated solids drain through to the geotextile.
The geotextile filters out solids larger than 90 micron and is kept clean through biological action.
The water drains through to the sump, where any remaining solid settle.The secondary-treated
water exits the sump by active pumping or gravity feed and is then routed to an irrigation or
reuse system. The Biolytix Rugged system, a primary treatment system, works by similar
biological action. Like in the septic system, the primary-treated water can be disposed or used or
treated for irrigation.
The Biolytix system can also be used to convert a septic system to
10. Create options
for future a secondary wastewater treatment system.64 Biolytix systems can
generations process blackwater, greywater, and kitchen and bathroom items
such as food wastes, sanitary items, paper, cardboard and
65
household chemicals. The systems are not designed to process inorganic solids such as
plastics and metals. Biolytix systems function reliably at steady, heavy and shock loading.
Cost
63
Ibid.
64
November 2006.
65
Ibid.

Biolytix use an online questionnaire66 to determine the suitable model and its cost. The
questionnaire results indicate that a Biolytix Deluxe system (a secondary treatment system)
incorporating the ‘Pumped Audiovisual BF6_3000PAV’ filter67 is suitable for the Whole System
Design solution. The system includes an audio visual alarm system that alerts Biolytix to
disturbances and failures.
The system, which has the capacity to process the wastewater from ten people or 1200 L/day, 68
is the smallest capacity system currently available. However, for the design challenge, the
system will be processing a sub-capacity volume of effluent:
Effluent volume = (64 L/day/person) (5 people)
= 320 L/day
There are several extra costs involved in preparing Biolytix systems for use including delivery,
excavation, installation, establishing electrical connections, quality checks, council approval, and
commissioning. These extra costs amount to:
Extra capital costs = $2500, and could vary by about $500
The system’s running costs are:
- The power cost is approximately $15 per year, and could vary by about $5.70
- Boilytix systems have an optional 20 year warranty that guarantees performance and
components integrity.71 The warranty covers the costs of all services, including removing
excess humus once per year,72 inspections, call outs and component replacements.73 The
warranty cost for a Biolytix Pumped system is $352 per year.74
Thus, system’s total running cost is:
Running cost = $352/year + $15/year
= $367/year
66
67
Biolytix (2006b) ‘Biolytix filter Deluxe products (secondary treatment)’, Biolytix, Australia. Available at
http://www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=27. Accessed 10 February 2007.
68
Biolytix (2006g) ‘Info Kit’, Biolytix, Australia, p 10. Available at www.biolytix.com/docs/Biolytixinfokit.pdf..Accessed 4 December
2006.
69
Biolytix (2006b) ‘Biolytix filter Deluxe products (secondary treatment)’, Biolytix, Australia. Available at
70
Biolytix (n.d) Household product range; Biolytix. Personal Communication on 13 February 2007.
71
Biolytix (2006a.) ‘Biolytix delivers the best service’. Biolytix, Australia. Available at http://www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=57.
Accessed 28 November 2006.
72
November 2006.
73
Biolytix (2006a.) ‘Biolytix delivers the best service’. Biolytix, Australia. Available at http://www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=57.
74
Biolytix. Personal Communication on 13 February 2007.

Subsurface Drip Irrigation System

The capital cost of a subsurface drip irrigation system has been determined by using Biolytix’s
online questionnaire.75 The questionnaire results indicate that, for a system with water efficient
appliances,76 the ‘Safe T Drip 200 Normal Flow’ system77 is suitable. The system’s capacity is
determined by the wastewater volume.
Cost
The system’s installation cost is:
Installation cost = $1000
The system’s running costs are comprised of:
- Pumping power costs, which are absorbed into the running costs of the Biolytix system.
- Inspection and maintenance costs, which are relatively high, particularly for labour.79
Inspection for domestic systems is usually performed by the residents at no cost, thus
inspection costs are not considered. Maintenance costs arise mainly from damage to the
irrigation hosing by external events, such as piercing by shovels, and are rare. Hosing
outlets are resistant to constriction by roots, thus maintenance costs are not considered.
Subsurface drip irrigation systems can last for at least 20 years if operated correctly.
75
76
Approximated as ‘Full water conservation fixtures’ in the Biolytix online questionnaire.
77
February 2007.
78
February 2007.
79
Qassim, A. (2003) Subsurface irrigation: a situation analysis, Department of Primary Industries, Victorian State Government,
Australia. Available at
http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nrenfa.nsf/93a98744f6ec41bd4a256c8e00013aa9/3d3915fb8fe0af31ca256eb4001e5bf1/$FILE/Subsurf
ace%20Irrigation.pdf. Accessed 12 February 2007.

Summary: Performance Comparisons

A performance comparison reveals that while the capital costs of Conventional and Whole
System Design (WSD) solutions are about equal, the long-term cost of the WSD solution is
substantially lower.
Water Consuming Appliances

In this worked example, the capital cost of water efficient appliances is 28 percent greater than
those of standard appliances. However, water efficient appliances consume less water and can
thus reduce running costs if water is purchased, which is usually the case in Australia. In some
rural or remote homes water is not purchased but instead collected during rainfall or pumped
from underground. These alternative water sources can be limited, especially in many parts of
Australia where rainfall is infrequent. For these homes, low water consumption is not a cost
saving but a necessity. Table 10.4 compares the capital costs, the water consumption and the
running cost of the standard and water efficient appliances. The results indicate that, in this
worked example, the water efficient appliances consume 57 percent less water than standard
appliances.
Table 10.4: Comparing the costs and water consumption of standard and water efficient
appliances
Water-consuming Capital costs Water Running costs
Appliances (not installed) consumption (water only)
Standard appliances $2650 273 kL/year $129/year
Toilet $300
Shower head $50
Taps $800
Dishwasher $700
Washing machine $800
Water efficient appliances $3380 116 kL/year $55/year

Toilet $300
Shower head $80
Taps $1000
Dishwasher $1000
Washing machine $1000
The Water Treatment and Reuse System

The capital costs of the Conventional and WSD water treatment and reuse systems are about
equal. There is, however, a telling difference in the composition of the costs. The capital cost of
the septic and slow sand filter systems together is $829 less than the Biolytix system, but this
difference is roughly compensated by the $964 lower cost for the lower-capacity subsurface drip
irrigation system in the WSD solution. The capacity of the subsurface drip irrigation system in
the WSD solution is lower because the water efficient appliances reduce the wastewater

volume. Furthermore, the life of a Biolytix system is, statistically, more than two-fold longer than
a typical septic system. Consequently, there is an additional large investment of about $363080
for the conventional solution at ten years. The running costs of the WSD solution are lower
predominantly because there is only one pump not two, there are fewer moving parts that can
fail, and removing humus is easier and cheaper than de-sludging or replacing sand. The running
costs are actually likely to be even more in favour of the WSD solution because replacement
part costs for the septic system are not considered due to uncertainty. Table 10.5 compares the
capital and running cost of the conventional and WSD water treatment and reuse systems.
Table 10.5: Comparing the capital and running costs of the water treatment and reuse systems
Water treatment and Capital costs Running costs
reuse system (installed)
Conventional solution $10,836 $640/year
Septic system $6500 $240/year
Slow sand filter system $1500 $400/year
Subsurface drip irrigation $2836

system
WDS solution $10,701 $367/year

Biolytix system $8829 $367/year
Subsurface drip irrigation $1872

system
Figure 10.8 and Figure 10.9 summarise the component costs of the conventional and WSD
solutions.
Figure 10.8. Comparing the capital costs of components
80
This value represents the net present value of a $6500 investment in 10 years at an interest rate of 6%.

Figure 10.9. Comparing the running costs of components

Table 10.6 and Figure 10.10 compare the total cost of conventional and WSD solutions. The
comparison is over a 20 year period with an interest rate of 6 percent. The comparison assumes
that the septic system is replaced after ten years and that water and electricity costs remain
constant.81 The 20 year cost of the WSD solution is 29 percent less than that of the conventional
solution. Figure 10.10 suggests that the WSD solution would still cost less if the septic system
didn’t need replacing at ten years. Table 10.6 also compares the water consumption over 20
years. The WSD solution uses 57 percent, or 3140 kL, less than the conventional solution.82
Table 10.6: Comparing the total cost of conventional and WSD systems over 20 years
Solution Running 20 year water

Capital costs 20 year cost
costs consumption
$13,486 + $3630 @
Conventional $769/year $25,741 5460 kL
10 years
Whole System
$14,081 $422/year $18,311 2320 kL
Design
81
Assuming that water and energy costs remain constant over20 years is unlikely. Water and energy costs are likely to increase and
hence the total cost becomes more favourable for the WSD solution.
82
The actual water consumption over 20 years is likely to be higher for both the conventional and WSD solutions because the
performance of the appliances is likely to increase.

Figure 10.10. Comparing the total cost of conventional and WSD systems over 20 years
The WSD solution has several other benefits over the 4. Account for all
measurable impacts
conventional solution:
- Water efficient appliances that use hot water can also save on energy costs since less hot
water is heated.83
- Water efficient appliances may have a longer useful life than standard water consuming
appliances due to less wear on components.
- The Biolytix system is substantially more compact than either the septic or slow sand filter
systems84 and, unlike the septic system, is not installed subsurface.
- There is no odour from the Biolytix system, even at high loading.85
- The Biolytix system can treat household chemicals and sanitary items and handle heavy and
shock loads, whereas the septic system can fail.86
- The Biolytix system does not produce greenhouse gasses, whereas the septic system
produces methane and hydrogen sulphide.87
- The Biolytix system requires one service per year, 88 whereas the septic and slow sand filter
systems89 require two inspections each.
- The subsurface drip irrigation system in the WSD solution requires less time for residents to
inspect because it is smaller.
- The subsurface drip irrigation system in the WSD solution is less likely to be damaged
because its surface coverage is smaller.
83
84
November 2006.
85
Ibid.
86
Ibid.
87
Ibid.
88
Ibid.
89

References
Biolytix (2006a.) ‘Biolytix delivers the best service’. Biolytix, Australia. Available at
http://www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=57. Accessed 28 November 2006.
Biolytix (2006b) ‘Biolytix filter Deluxe products (secondary treatment)’, Biolytix, Australia.
Available at http://www.biolytix.com/detail.php?ID=27. Accessed 10 February 2007
Biolytix (2006c) ‘Competitor comparison’, Biolytix, Australia. Available at
Biolytix (2006d) ‘Drip irrigation kits’, Biolytix, Australia. Available at
Biolytix (2006e) ‘Household product range’, Biolytix, Australia. Available at
Biolytix (2006f) ‘How Biolytix works’, Biolytix, Australia. Available at
Biolytix (2006g) ‘Info Kit’, Biolytix, Australia, p 10. Available at
www.biolytix.com/docs/Biolytixinfokit.pdf.Accessed 4 December 2006.
Biolytix (2006h) ‘Welcome to the Biolytix product selection wizard’, Biolytix, Australia. Available
at http://www.biolytix.com/php/productSelection. Accessed 28 November 2006.
Carson, R. (1962) Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Oasis Design for AWWA Research Foundation (1999) Slow Sand Filtration, Oasis Design for
AWWA Research Foundation, USA. Available at
http://www.oasisdesign.net/water/treatment/slowsandfilter.htm. Accessed 7 February 2007.
Coombes, P. (2002) Water smart practice note 9: wastewater reuse, Lower Hunter and Central
Coast Regional Environment Management Strategy, Australia. Available at
http://www.portstephens.nsw.gov.au/files/51064/File/9_Wastewater.pdf. Accessed 28 November
2006.
Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment (2006) A consumer’s guide to
drinking water, CRC for Water Quality, Australia. Available at
http://www.waterquality.crc.org.au/consumers/consumer.pdf. Accessed 11 February 2007.
Ecological Homes (2002) ‘Wastewater systems’, Ecological Homes, Australia. Available at
http://www.ecologicalhomes.com.au/wastewater_systems.htm. Accessed 28 November 2006.
Fox, R. (1995) ‘Slow sand filtration’, Practical Hydroponics and Greenhouses, vol. 24, Casper
Publications, Australia. Available at http://www.hydroponics.com.au/back_issues/issue24.html.
Accessed 7 February 2007.
Garyman, M., Machmeie, R. and Venhuizen, D. (2007) ‘Septic tanks and septic systems’,
SepticTankInfo.com, USA. Available at http://septictankinfo.com/septic_tank_basics.shtml.
Gustafson, D.M., Anderson, J.L. and Heger Christopherson, S. (2002) Innovative onsite
sewerage treatment systems: single-pass sand filters, Regents of the University of Minnesota
Extension, USA. Available at
http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/DD7672.html. Accessed 8 February
2007.

Hankinson, M. (2005) ‘Bodalla sewerage: community newsletter no.2’, Eurobodalla Shire

Council Newsletter, Australia. Available at
http://www.esc.nsw.gov.au/IWCMP/newsletters/BodallaNewsletter_No2.pdf. Accessed 28
November 2006.
My Shopping (n.d.a) ‘Dishwashers’, Comparison Shopping Australia, Australia. Available at
http://www.myshopping.com.au/PT--280_Dishwashers. Accessed 9 March 2007.
http://www.myshopping.com.au/PT--281_Washing_Machines. Accessed 9 March 2007.
ninemsn Shopping (2007) ‘Taps at ninemsn Shopping’, ninemsn Shopping, Australia. Available
at http://shopping.ninemsn.com.au/results/shp/?bCatId=2952. Accessed 9 March 2007.
NSW Health Department (2001) Septic tank and collection well accreditation guideline, New
South Wales State Government, Australia. Available at http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/public-
health/ehb/general/wastewater/septic_guideline.pdf. Accessed 28 November 2006.
Office of Water (2005) A homeowner’s guide to septic systems, United States Environmental
Protection Agency, USA, p 8. Available at
http://www.epa.gov/owm/septic/pubs/homeowner_guide_long.pdf. Accessed 30 November
2006.
Public and Environmental Health Service (1995) Waste control systems: standard for the
construction, installation and operation of septic tank systems in South Australia, South
Australian Health Commission, Australia. Available at
Public and Environmental Health Service (1998) Waste control systems: standard for the
construction, installation and operation of septic tank systems in South Australia: supplement A
– aerobic sand filters, South Australian Health Commission, Australia. Available at
http://www.dh.sa.gov.au/pehs/publications/Supplement-A.pdf. Accessed 28 November 2006.
Qassim, A. (2003) Subsurface irrigation: a situation analysis, Department of Primary Industries,
Victorian State Government, Australia. Available at
http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nrenfa.nsf/93a98744f6ec41bd4a256c8e00013aa9/3d3915fb8fe0af
31ca256eb4001e5bf1/$FILE/Subsurface%20Irrigation.pdf. Accessed 12 February 2007.
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The Laundry Alternative Inc. (2005) ‘Septic system price’, The Laundry Alternative Inc., USA.
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Ward, R.C. and Englehardt, J.D. (1993) Management of Decentralized, On-Site Systems for
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ESSP WSDS - Unit 10 Domestic Water Systems (Worked Example)

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Technical Design Portfolio

Whole System Design Suite

Unit 10 - Worked Example 5

This Course was developed under a grant from the Australian

Significance of Domestic Water Systems

Figure 10.1. Distribution of Earth’s water

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 2 of 27

Figure 10.2. Australian water consumption in 2004-05

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 3 of 27

Figure 10.3. Australian household water consumption in 2004-058

Worked Example Overview

Secondary Biological Organic materials are degraded by microorganisms.

Mechanical Targeted inorganic nutrients and organic materials are

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 4 of 27

3. Discharge or reuse system

10. Design to create future options

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 5 of 27

Design Challenge: Design a domestic water system with on-site

1. Conventional Design solution: Conventional on-site system

2. Whole System Design solution: Improved system using the

3. Performance comparison: Comparison of the economic and

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 6 of 27

Conventional Design Solution

- A water reuse system: subsurface drip irrigation system

Standard Water Consuming Household Appliances

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Source: NSW Health Department (2001) p12;21 Ecological Homes (2002)22

Onsite Water Treatment System: Septic System for Primary Treatment

Figure 10.5. Cross section of a single-compartment septic tank

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 9 of 27

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 10 of 27

Capital cost = $4000, and could vary by about $100028

Thus, the system’s total running cost is:

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 11 of 27

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Figure 10.6. Cross section of a slow sand filter

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 13 of 27

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Subsurface Drip Irrigation System

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 15 of 27

Whole System Design Solution

- A water reuse system: subsurface drip irrigation system

Water Efficient Appliances 6. Design and

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 16 of 27

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Figure 10.7. Cross section of the Biolytix Deluxe system.

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Subsurface Drip Irrigation System

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 20 of 27

Summary: Performance Comparisons

Water Consuming Appliances

Shower head $50

Washing machine $800

Water efficient appliances $3380 116 kL/year $55/year

Shower head $80

Washing machine $1000

The Water Treatment and Reuse System

Prepared by The Natural Edge Project 2007 Page 21 of 27

Slow sand filter system $1500 $400/year

Subsurface drip irrigation $2836