Polysaccharides-in-Plants-and-Animals 6-glucose-joined-in-long,- unbranched-chainsThe-molecule-needs-to-berotated-180-so-theCH2OH-group-alternatesThe-molecule-is-balancedso-forms-straight-chainsthat-run-parallel-withhydrogen-bonds-betweenchainsThis-makes-microfibrilsthat-make-up-fibres.Structural-molecule-inplants-giving-it-rigidity-andit-prevents-bursting-fromosmosis-due-to-pressure.

Storage-molecule-inanimals-made-of-alphaglucoseShorter-chains-than-starchand-a-highly-branchedstructure-easier-toremoveNear-mitochondria-so-itcan-be-quickly-used-forrespirationGlobular-structure-forstorageNear-high-energy-area-liver-and-muscleStorage-molecule-in-plants- -smallMade-of-alpha-glucosewhich-form-glycosidicbonds-all-one-side-of-themolecule-which-makes-itheavy-on-one-sideThe-causes-the-moleculeto-curl-and-reduce-sideGlobular-for-storageInsoluble--doesnt-affectwater-potentialEasily-hydrolysed-forrespiration-

! Cellulose-

! ! ! ! ! Glycogen-

! ! ! ! ! Starch-

Simon-Cowell-

Gas$Exchange$in$Fish!

! Fish!have!gills!behind!their!heads,!which!are!made!up!of!gill!filaments,!which!have!gill! lamellae!at!right!angles!to!them.! The!gill!lamellae!are!very!small!thin!projections!maximising!gas!exchange! The!blood!of!the!fish!that!runs!through!the!fish!runs!in!the!opposite!direction!to!the! water!outside!the!fish!under!the!countercurrent!exchange!principle.! ! The!countercurrent!exchange!principle!means!that!blood!full!of!oxygen!doesnt!diffuse! any!to!the!water!as!it!is!constantly!meeting!water!with!a!high!oxygen!supply!therefore! oxygen!is!continuously!being!exchanged!into!the!blood.!The!blood!with!less!oxygen!still! takes!oxygen!from!the!water!with!less!oxygen!

Simon!Cowell!

Gas$Exchange$in$Insects!

An!insect!needs!to!balance!water!loss!and!gas!exchange!and!to!do!this!it!needs!to!have!a! small!surface!area!to!volume!ratio!which!means!it!cannot!complete!gas!exchange!by! means!of!its!body! It!uses!tubes!called!tracheae!(supported!by!rings)!which!break!into!a!lot!of!tracheoles! that!bring!oxygen!(and!remove!CO2)!directly.!! Cells!are!constantly!using!the!oxygen!brought!to!them!and!producing!CO2!which!means! there!is!a!high!concentration!gradient,!his!is!aided!by!the!diffusion!in!air!is!quicker!than!in! water.! Muscles!in!the!insects!can!contract!and!relax!moving!mass!amounts!of!gas,!depending!on! how!much!is!required.!

Simon!Cowell!

Gas$Exchange$in$Plants!

A!leaf!provides!a!large!flat,!thin!shape!!which!means!there!is!a!short!diffusion!pathway! as!the!leaves!are!thin!and!a!large!surface!area!meaning!maximum!diffusion! Many!small!pores!called!stomata!!these!have!guard!cells!which!allow!them!to!balance! water!loss!and!gas!exchange.!They!also!mean!that!the!gases!can!get!closer!to!the!cells! that!require!it!which!creates!a!short!diffusion!pathway.! There!are!numerous!interconnecting!air!spaces!(mesophyll)!which!allow!for!gases!to!flow! inside!the!leaf!easily!and!therefore!conduct!gas!exchange!uninhibited! The!continuous!nature!of!gas!exchange!enables!a!large!difference!in!concentration!

Simon!Cowell!

Plant&Cells&
!

Palisade Cell
Long,!thin!cells!form!a!continuous!sunlight!absorbing!layer!! LSA! Numerous!chloroplasts!that!arrange!themselves!in!the!best! position!to!absorb!sunlight!!LSA! The!large!vacuole!pushes!the!chloroplasts!to!the!edge!of!the! cell.! These!adaptations!all!help!the!palisade!cell!to!carry!out!its! function!which!is!to!carry!out!photosynthesis.!!

! !

Chloroplasts
The!chloroplast!envelope!!double!plasma! membrane!for!entrance/exit!of!material! The!grana!(granum!singular)!are!made!up!of! stacks!of!discs!called!thylakoid.!The!grana!have! such!a!LSA!it!allows!for!high!amounts!of! enzymes,!chlorophyll!etc.!attachment! Thylakoids!contain!the!chlorophyll! Stroma!is!a!fluid!matrix!with!all!the!necessary! enzymes!in!it.! Chloroplasts!have!their!own!DNA/ribosomes! for!protein!production!

! !

Cell Wall

! Cell!wall!made!up!of!microfibrils!of!cellulose!in!a!matrix,!incredibly!strong.! !Middle!lamella!which!sticks!together!adjacent!cell!walls.! The!cell!wall!is!used!to!give!strength!by!preventing!bursting,!mechanical!strength!and!contribute! to!the!movement!of!water.! !

Plant and Animal Cells

Transpiration*
The$greater$the$light$intensity,$the$greater$the$transpiration.$ A$rise$in$temperature$leads$to$a$faster$transpiration$rate$ as:$$ o Increased$kinetic$energy$leads$to$water$ molecules$speeding$up,$more$water$is$ evaporating$from$the$leaf$ o Decreases$the$amount$of$water$that$air$can$hold,$ decreasing$the$water$potential$ Humidity$is$the$measure$of$the$number$of$water$ molecules$in$the$air,$high$temperatures$reduce$humidity$ and$low$temperatures$increase$humidity$both$with$a$ water$potential$effect.$ Movement$of$air$results$in$the$moving$of$the$humidity$ layer,$this$decreases$the$water$potential$and$therefore$ increases$transpiration.$$

$ $ Stomata*in*pit**traps$ moist$air$near$the$leaf$ surface,$smaller$water$ potential$gradient$

Thick*Cuticle**waxy$ layer$that$prevents$ water$loss$by$being$ waterproof$

Xerophytic*Plants* (Limiting$water$loss)$

Rolling*of*Leaves** traps$region$of$still$air$ which$keeps$humid$ conditions$constant$

Reduced*SA*to*Vol** Reduces$water$loss$by$ having$thin$leaves,$ less$evaporation$ Hairy*Leaves**traps$ moist$air$near$the$leaf$ surface,$smaller$water$ potential$gradient$

Passage&of&Water&through&a&Plant&
!

Roots
Root!hairs!absorb!water!(needs!replacing!after!transpiration)!and!mineral&ions! Root!hairs!are!extensions!of!root!epidermal!cell!and!are!good!as!they!have!an!LSA,!there!is!loads& of&them!and!they!have!a!thin&surface!(cellulose!cell!wall!and!cell!membrane)!! The!soil!solution!around!them!has!a!high&water&potential!!water!moves!in!(osmosis)!as!the!root! hair!is!full!of!sugars,!amino!acids!and!mineral!ions.! Moves!through!the!roots!in!two!ways:! o Apoplastic!pathway:!!Water!drawn!into!the!endodermal&cells&and!by!the!cohesive! nature!of!water!more&water&drawn&with&it.!The!tension!draws!water!along&the&cell&walls! of!the!root!cortex!and!there!is!little&resistance!to!it!due!to!water!filled!spaces.! o Symplastic!pathway:!!Across!the!cytoplasm&of&the&cells!by!osmosis!and!through!the! plasmodesmata&of&the&cell&walls!(filled!with!cytoplasm).!Water!enters&the&root&hair&cell! increases!water!potential,!the!water!moves!to!the!next!cell!in!a!domino!effect.!!The!cell! at!the!beginning!has!had!its!water!potential!lowered!so!it!takes!in!more!water!from!the! soil!by!osmosis.! When!the!water!reaches!the!endodermis!they!stop!at!the!waterproof&Casparian&strip!and!it!is! forced!into!the!living&protoplast!of!the!cells,!where!it!joins&the&water&from&the&Symplastic! pathway.!(it!goes!through!the!cytoplasm)! The!endodermal&cells&actively&transport&salt!into&the&xylem!reducing!the!water!potential,!so! water!moves!into!the!xylem!creating!a!force&called&root&pressure,!which!pushes!it!up!through! the!xylem.!

Stem

Water!is!lost&when&the&stomata&opens,!replaced&by&the&water&from&the&mesophyll!cells!moving! into!the!air!spaces,!which!is!then!replaced&by&the&xylem&via&the&Symplastic&and&Apoplastic! pathways.!This!is!all!completed!by!water!potential!changes!and!osmosis.! Water!moves!up!the!stem!because!of!root!pressure!and!cohesionDtension!theory.! Cohesion?tension&theory!is!concerned!with!water!molecules!sticking&to&each&other&(H?bonds)! known!as!cohesion.!As!the!chain!of!water!evaporates&at&the&top!more!molecules!are!pulled&up& by&transpiration&pull!to!replace!them.!! This!does!not!require!any!energy!however!it!does!take!the!transpiration!pull!from!the!sun!to! move!it.! ! !

The$Circulatory$System$

Arterioles
Muscle layer thicker than arteries controls the blood flow, more contraction constricts the blood more. Elastic layer thinner less pressure to control.

Arteries
Muscle layer thicker than veins control of blood flow as needed. Elastic layer thicker than veins higher pressure needs to be regulated Wall thickness high high pressures need thick wall to prevent bursting No valves high pressure prevents backflow from occurring anyway

Veins
Muscle layer thinner than arteries cannot control blood as it is going back Elastic layer thinner than arteries lower pressure, no recoil, no bursting. Wall thickness low low pressures, no bursting, flattened easily. Valves Prevents backflow from occurring due to low pressure

Capillaries
$ One lining layer extremely thin which allows for a short diffusion pathway Numerous and branched allows for a large surface area Narrow diameter allows them to get deep into the tissues to transfer metabolic materials at the quickest rate Lumen is narrow the red blood cells are squeezed flat against the side reducing the diffusion pathway even more. Spaces between the endothelial (lining) cells - allows for white blood cells to escape to deal with infections within tissues

Tissue&Fluid&
Tissue&fluid&is&made&up&of&glucose,&fatty&acids,&salts&and&oxygen&in&a&liquid&mixture&which&it& supplies&to&the&tissues.&It&then&takes&the&carbon&dioxide&from&the&tissues&back&into&the&capillary.& Pressure&is&created&from&blood&being&pushed&through&artery&to&arteriole&to&capillary&this&is&called& hydrostatic&pressure&and&forces&the&fluid&out&of&the&capillaries&where&metabolic&transfer&occurs.& However,&this&is&slightly&opposed&by&the&hydrostatic&pressure&of&the&outside&tissue&fluid&and&the& low&water&potential&of&the&blood.& This&type&of&pressure&movement&is&called&ultrafiltration& However&once&enough&tissue&fluid&has&been&taken&away&the&hydrostatic&pressure&drops&below& the&weight&of&the&other&two&forces&and&tissue&fluid&returns&filled&with&CO2&& The&tissue&fluid&that&isnt&given&back&to&the&capillary&is&carried&to&the&lymphatic&system&which& pumps&this&tissue&fluid&back&into&the&blood&stream&by&hydrostatic&pressure&and&the&contraction&of& body&muscles.&

& & & & & & & &

DNA!
! Nucleotide,!made!up!of!deoxyribose!sugar,!phosphate! group!and!an!organic!base.! Bases,!Cytosine!and!Thymine!are!single!ringed! ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Guanine!and!Adenine!are!double!ringed! Mononucleotide,!Condensation!reactions!give!one! nucleotide! Dinucleotide,!condensation!reaction!between!one! phosphate!group!and!one!deoxyribose!sugar! Complementary,,bases,8,,,,A,=,T,,,,,,,,G,,C! Adaptations,,stable,!hydrogen!bonds!can!separate!during! replication/protein!synthesis,!large!molecule!reduced!in! size!and!genetic!information!is!protected, Gene,!section!of!DNA!that!codes!to!create!a!polypeptide,! the!parts!that!do!not!code!are!called!introns, Degenerate,code,,more!than!one!triplet!code!to!produce! the!same!amino!acid, Homologous,chromosomes,!one!from!each!parent, Diploid,number,!of!46,

1. Enzyme!DNA!helicase!unwinds! the!template!DNA!strands! 2. The!leading!strand,!with!base! 3,!uses!!DNA!polymerase!to! form!a!new!DNA!strand! 3. At!the!same!time,!the!lagging! strand!is!undergoing!the!same! process.! 4. However,!the!DNA! polymerase!reaches!a!point! where!it!can!unwind!no!more! !Okazaki!fragment! 5. It!then!reattaches!when!more! has!been!unwound.! 6. These!Okazaki!fragments!are! then!synthesised!together!by! DNA!ligase!

Simon!Cowell!

DNA$Structure$
!

Single1ring$bases$$ Cytosine!and!Thymine! Double1ring$bases$$ Adenine!and!Guanine!

Nucleotide$Structure$

Monomer! Mononucleotide!

(! Dinucleotide!

Polymer! Polynucleotide!

Stable!!pass!from! generation!to! generation!easily!

Protection$!the! helical!cylinder! protects!the!!genetic! information!

Structure$ related$to$ Function$

!

Hydrogen$bonds$$ separate!during! DNA!replication!+! protein!synthesis!

Large$molecule!! high!amount!of! genetic!information!

Mitosis&and&The&Cell&Cycle!
!

I.P.M.A.T&

Simon!Cowell!

Meiosis!
!

Meiosis&1&
92!chromosomes!

Independent!Segregation!is! where!a!maternal/paternal! can!go!on!either!side!

Crossing!Over!!Genetic!material! from!one!chromosome!is! exchanged!E!chiasma!to!form! recombinant!chromosomes!

Meiosis&2&
46!chromosomes! (Diploid)! !

Gene!E!a!section!of!DNA!that! codes!for!polypeptides! Allele!!One!of!the!different! forms!of!a!gene!! Locus!!position!of!a!gene!on!a! chromosome!

23!chromosomes! (Haploid)! !

Simon!Cowell!