1

AUTONOMOUS
The Origin of Quantum
Mechanics
Max Planck and
Black Body Radiation
Emission of light from hot objects (objects appear black
before heating)
How does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation
emitted by a black body depend on the frequency of the
radiation and the temperature of the body?
Interpolated between the laws of Wien and Rayleigh-Jeans
Assumed that energy exists in individual units (discrete
bundles)
Plancks Contributions
Formula predicts the spectral intensity of
electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths from a
black body at temperature T
h is Plancks constant which is measured in J.s
6.63x 10
-34
Energy is always emitted or absorbed as a whole
number multiple of h (2hv, 3hv)
Planck
Later simplified this to E=hv in which E is energy,
h is Plancks constant, and v is frequency
More stuff on Planck
Basically states that energy is always emitted or
absorbed in discrete units, called quanta (quantized)
Gave the name quantum, which means fixed
amount, to the smallest quantity of energy that can
be emitted/absorbed as electromagnetic radiation
Awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918 for this
*No major flaws or errors
This is regarded as the start of quantum physics
1900:
Max Planck
proposed theory
about black-
body radiation
1918:
Max Planck won
Nobel prize in
physics
1913:
Neils Bohr
proposed
atomic
structure theory
1921:
Won the Nobel
Prize in Physics
for his discovery
and
explanation of
the law of the
photoelectric
effect.
1905:
Albert Einstein wrote
the paper, "On a
Heuristic Viewpoint
Concerning the
Production and
Transformation of
Light; proposed the
idea of energy
quanta dealing with
the photoelectric
effect.
1922:
Neils Bohr
won Nobel
Prize in
physics
Stern-
Gerlach
Experiment
(Verified the
space
quantization
theory)
1924:
Louis De Broglie
published his
doctoral thesis,
Recherches sur la
thorie des
quanta, which
introduced his
theory of electron
waves.
1929:
Louis De
Broglie won
the Nobel
Prize in
Physics for
hypothesis.
1933:
Otto Stern
measures the
magnetic
moment of the
proton
Schrodinger
wins Nobel
prize for his
Schrodinger
Equation
1936:
Publishes
paper on
Wave
Mechanics
and
Schrdinger's
Equation
1925:
Heisenberg
developed the
Heisenberg
Uncertainty
principle
Wolfgang
Pauli
developed the
fourth quantum
number- the
spin number
1932:
Werner
Heisenberg
won Nobel
Prize in
physics
1943:
Otto Stern
receives Nobel
prize in Physics
1944:
Wolfgang
Pauli won
Nobel Prize in
physics
1940:
Pauli proves
Spin-Statistic
Theorem
This Timeline has much Entropy.
The physical values or motion of a macroscopic
particles can be observed directly. Classical
Mechanics can be applied to explain that
motion.
But when we consider the motion of
Microscopic Particles such as electrons,
protonsetc., classical mechanics fails to
explain that motion.
Quantum Mechanics deals with motion of
microscopic particles or quantum particles.
Classical world is Deterministic:
Knowing the position and velocity of
all objects at a particular time
Future can be predicted using known laws of force
and Newton's laws of motion.
Quantum World is Probabilistic:
Impossible to know position and velocity
with certainty at a given time.
Only probability of future state can be predicted using
known laws of force and equations of quantum mechanics.
Waves and Particles
Wave : A wave is nothing but disturbance which is
occurred in a medium and it is specified by its frequency,
wavelength, phase, amplitude and intensity.
Particles:
A particle or matter has mass and it is located at a some
definite point and it is specified by its mass, velocity,
momentum and energy.
Waves and Particles : What do we mean by
them?
Ball, Car, person, or point like objects called particles.
They can be located at a space point at a given time.
They can be at rest, moving or accelerating.
Falling Ball
Ground level
Material Objects:
Waves and Particles: What do we mean by them ?
Ripples, surf, ocean waves, sound waves, radio waves.
Need to see crests and troughs to define them.
Waves are oscillations in space and time.
Direction of travel, velocity
Up-down
oscillations
Wavelength ,frequency, velocity and oscillation size defines waves
Common types of waves:
Particles and Waves: Basic difference in behaviour
When particles collide they cannot pass through each other !
They can bounce or they can shatter
Before collision After collision
Another after
collision state
shatter
Waves and Particles Basic difference:
Waves can pass through each other !
As they pass through each other they can enhance or cancel
each other
Later they regain their original form !
Waves and Particles:
Waves
Spread in space and time
Wavelength Frequency
Can be superposed show
interference effects
Pass through each other
Particles
Localized in space and time
Cannot pass through each other -
they bounce or shatter.
Prince Louis-Victor de
Broglie
Won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929
Professor at the Faculty of Sciences at
Paris University
Elected a member of the Academy of
Sciences of the French Institute in 1933
Broglie stated that all matter has a wave-
like nature
States that any moving particle or object
had an associated wave
Created a new field in physics, called
wave mechanics, uniting the physics of
light and matter
de Broglie hypothesis:
In 1924 the scientist named de Broglie introduced
electromagnetic waves behaves like particles, and the
particles like electrons behave like waves called matter
waves.
He derived an expression for the wavelength of matter
waves on the analogy of radiation.
According to Plancks radiation law
Where c is a velocity of light and is a wave length.
According to Einstein mass-energy relation
From 1 & 2
Where p is momentum of a photon.
) 1 ..( ..........

0
c
h
h E
=
=
p
h
mc
h
c
h mc
=
=
=

2
) 2 ......(
2
mc E =
The above relation is called de Broglile s matter wave
equation. This equation is applicable to all atomic particles.
If E is kinetic energy of a particle
Hence the de Broglies wave length
mE
h
2
=
mE p
m
p
E
mv E
2
2
2
1
2
2
=
=
=
When the charged particle carrying a charge q is
accelerated by a potential difference V volts, then its K.E.,
E is given by
E=qV
de Brogile wavelength associated with this particle is
given by
mqV
h
mE
h
2
2
=
=

de Broglie wavelength associated with electrons:

Let us consider the case of an electron of rest mass m
0
and charge e being
accelerated by a potential V volts.
If v is the velocity
attained by the electron
due to acceleration
The de Broglie wavelength
0
2
0
2
2
1
m
eV
v
eV v m
=
=
A
V
eV
m
m
h
v m
h
0
0
0 0
26 . 12
2
=
= =

Characteristics of Matter waves:
Lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength associated
with it.
Lesser the velocity of the particle, longer the wavelength
associated with it.
For v=0,= .This means that only with moving particle
matter wave is associated.
Whether the particle is charged or not ,matter wave is
associated with it .this reveals that these waves are not EM
but a new kind of waves .
It can be proved that the matter waves faster than light
It can be proved that the matter waves
travel faster than light.
We know that
The wave velocity () is given by
Substituting for we get
As the particle velocity v cannot
exceed velocity of light c, is
greater than
velocity of light.
No single phenomena exhibits
both particle nature and wave nature
simultaneously.
h
mc
mc h
mc E
h E
2
2
2
=
=
=
=
0
0
0
v
c
w
mv
h
h
mc
w
mv
h
h
mc
w
w
2
2
2
) (
) (
=
=
=
=
=

0
There are two experimental evidences
1. Davisson and Germer s experiment.
2. G.P. Thomson Experiment.
DAVISON & GERMERS EXPERMENT:
Davison and Germer in 1927.gave the first experimental
evidence that beams of material particle show wave like
properties
They have also measured de Broglie wave lengths of slow
electrons by using diffraction methods.
Principle:
Based on the concept of wave nature of matter fast moving
electrons behave like waves.
Hence accelerated electron beam can be used for diffraction
studies in crystals.
Experimental Arrangement
The electron gun G produces a fine beam of electrons.
It consists of a heated filament F, which emits
electrons due to thermo ionic emission.
The accelerated electron beam of electrons are
incident on a nickel plate, called target T.
High voltage
Faraday
cylinder
Galvanometer
Nickel
Target
Circular scale
cathode
Anode
filament
G
S
c
G
Working
The target crystal can be rotated about an axis parallel to
the direction of incident electron beam. A sensitive
galvanometer connected to the detector.
First of all , the accelerating potential V is given a low
value and the crystal is set at any azimuth(),Now the
Faraday cylinder is moved to various position on the scale
S and galvanometer current is noted for each position.
galvanometer current is measure of intensity of diffracted
beam.
A graph is then plotted between G. current against angle
()between incident beam and beam of entering the
cylinder
44v
I
n
c
i
d
e
n
t

b
e
a
m
48v
50
54v
60v
I
n
c
i
d
e
n
t

b
e
a
m
I
n
c
i
d
e
n
t

b
e
a
m
I
n
c
i
d
e
n
t

b
e
a
m
Obseravations
With increasing potential, the bump moves upwards
The bump becomes most prominent in the curve for
54volts electrons at =50
0
At higher potentials, the bumps gradually disappear.
The bump in its most prominent state verifies the
existence of electron waves
Result:
According to de-Broglie,the wavelength associated
with electron accelerated through a potential a V is
given by
.
According to experiment we have diffracted beam at
=50
0
.
The corresponding angle of incidence relative
the family of Bragg plane
Using the Brgg equation =2dsin=2(0.91)sin65=1.65A
0
0
0
67 . 1
54
26 . 12
26 . 12
A
A
V
= =
=

0 /
65
2
50 180
=

= u
25
0
25
0 65
0
Incident electron
beam
Diffracted
beam
65
0
This is in excellent agreement with the
experimental value.
The Davison - Germer experiment
provides a direct verification of de Broglie
hypothesis of the wave nature of moving
particle.
Drawback
The drawback of this experiment is that whether the
diffraction pattern formed is due to electrons or
electromagnetic radiation generated by fast moving
electrons is not known
G.P Thomson's experiment proved that the diffraction pattern
observed due to electrons but not due to electromagnetic
radiation produced by the fast moving charged particles.
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT:
G.P Thomson experimental arrangement consists of
(a) Filament or cathode C.
(b) Gold foil or gold plate
(c) Photographic plate (p)
(d) Anode A.
The whole apparatus is kept highly evacuated discharge tube.
G.P THOMSON EXPERIMENT:
G.P THOMSON EXPERIMENT:
Discharge tube
cathode
Anode Gold foil
Vacuum pump
slit
Photo
graphic
plate
The high energy electron beam is produced by the
cathode C.The beam is accelerated with a potential up
to 50kv.a fine pencil of accelerated beam is obtained
by allowing to it to pass through a narrow slits.
The accelerating beam of electrons falls on a thin film
of gold. the photograph of the beam from the from the
foil is recorded on a photographic plate P
After developing the photographic plate a symmetrical
pattern consisting of concentric rings about a central
spot is obtained. As shown fig
Working
Photographic film
Diffraction pattern.
Observations
This pattern is similar as produced by X-ray diffraction
powder method .
To be sure that this pattern is due to the electrons or due
to X-rays generated by the electrons in their passage
through the foil, the cathode rays in the discharge tube are
deflected by magnetic field
The observed rings can only be interpreted by considering
that the diffraction pattern of incoming beam is due to the
diffractions of electrons by the foil.
As the diffraction pattern can only be produced by waves
and not by the particles
conclusions
Thomson experiment clearly demonstrated the
existence of matter waves because the diffraction can
be produced by the waves
Thomson calculated the wavelength associated with
the electrons with help of diffraction rings
If is very small 2 = R / L
Tan 2 = R / L
2 = R / L . (1)
Incident
electron
beam
radius
Gold foil
L
o
R

A
B
c
E

Brage plane
According to Braggs law
) 3 ....( ..........
) 1 .....( ,.
) 2 .......(
2
1 .,
) ( 2
. .. .. ,
sin 2

u
u
u
r
L
d
eq frm
d
n for
n d
small very is if
n d
n
=
=
=
=
=
mass ic relatavest a is m where
electron for
eV m
h
.. ., .. .. .,
) ., (
2
0
0
=
According to de Broglie s wave equation
A d
eV m
h
r
L
d
eq from
n
0
0
08 . 4
)
2
(
) 3 ( .,
=
=
The value of d so obtained agreed well with the
values using X-ray techniques.
In the case of gold foil the values of d obtained by
the x-ray diffraction method is 4.06
0
A.
Werner Heisenberg
Won Nobel Prize in 1932 in Physics "for the creation of
quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter
alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of
hydrogen".
Heisenberg pointed out that it is impossible to know both
the exact position and the exact momentum of an object at
the same time. Applying this concept to the electron we
realize that in order to get a fix on an electron's position at
any time, we would alter its momentum. Any attempt to
study the velocity of an electron will alter its position. This
concept, called the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle,
effectively destroys the idea of electrons traveling around in
neat orbits. Any electron that is subjected to photons will
have its momentum and position affected.
Determinism of Classical
Mechanics
Suppose the positions and speeds of all particles in
the universe are measured to sufficient accuracy at
a particular instant in time
It is possible to predict the motions of every particle
at any time in the future (or in the past for that matter)
Heisenberg realised that ...
In the world of very small particles, one cannot
measure any property of a particle without interacting
with it in some way
This introduces an unavoidable uncertainty into the
result
One can never measure all the
properties exactly
Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976)
Heisenbergs Uncertainty
Principle
The more accurately you know the position (i.e.,
the smaller Ax is) , the less accurately you know the
momentum (i.e., the larger Ap is); and vice versa
applet
Implications
It is impossible to know both the position and
momentum exactly, i.e., Ax=0 and Ap=0
These uncertainties are inherent in the physical world
and have nothing to do with the skill of the observer
Because h is so small, these uncertainties are not
observable in normal everyday situations
Summary: Lessons from
Heisenberg
The idea of a perfectly predictable universe cannot be
true
There is no such thing as an ideal, objective observer
Consequences of uncertainty principle:
Explanation for absence of electrons in the nucleus.
Existence of protons and neutrons inside nucleus.
Uncertainty in the frequency of light emitted by an atom.
Energy of an electron in an atom.
Schrdinger Wave Mechanics
In 1926 Schrdinger described the amplitude of the
matter waves by a complex quantity (x,y,z,t) known
as Wave function or the state of the system .
It describes the particular dynamical system under
observation.
The wave function ,in general, is complex,finite ,single
valued and continuous.
Schrdinger time independent wave equation:
Schrdinger wave equation is a basic principle of a fundamental
Quantum mechanics.
According to de Broglie, a particle of mass m is always associated
with a wave whose wavelength is given by
) 1 .( ..........
mv
h
p
h
=
=

If the particle is wave proprieties ,it is expected that there should

be some sort of wave equation which describe the behavior of the
particle.
Consider a system of stationary waves associated with a particle
Let x,y,z be the coordinates of the particle and the wave
displacement for the de-Broglie at any time t.is the called as
wave function ..
The classical differential equation of a wave motion is given by
u

2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
V =
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
t
z y x t
(2)
The solution of eq.(2)is given by
=
0
sint
=
0
sin2vt (3)
where v is the frequency of the stationary wave associated with the
particle .
Differentiating eq.(3) twice weget
( )

u t
t

t tv

tv tv

2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
0
2
2
0
4
4
2 sin 2
2 cos ) 2 (
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
t
v
t
vt
t
t
t
(4)
|
.
|

\
|
=

u
v
Substituting the value of from eq .(3)in eq.(2).weget

Now de Broglie relation

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
2
2
t

0
4
4
2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
= + V
= V

u t
u
(5)
) 1 .( ..........
mv
h
p
h
=
=

0
4
2 2
2
2
2
= + V u
t
m
h
(6)
If E and V the total and potential energies of the particle respectively,
Then its Kinetic energy is given by
) ( 2
2
1
2
1
2 2
2
2
V E m m
V E m
E V m
=
=
= +
u
u
u
(7)
From eqs(6)&(7) we have
Eq (8) is known as Schrdinger time independent wave equation
Substituting in eq (8) the Schrdinger wave equation can be
written as
0 ) (
8
0 ) ( 2
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + V
= + V

V E
h
m
V E m
h
(8)
t 2
h
=
0 ) (
2
2
2
= + V V E
m

(9)
Eq (9) can also be expressed in the following way:
( )



E V
m
E V
m
V E
m
=
(

+ V
= V
= + V
|
|
.
|

\
|
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
2

E
H
=
.
Physical significance of the wave function:
The wave function has no direct physical meaning. It is
a complex quantity representing the variation of a Matter
wave.
The wave function ( r, t ) describes the position of a
particle with respect to time.
It can be considered as probability amplitude since it is
used to find the location of the particle.

*
or
2
is theprobability density function.

*
dx dy dz gives the probability of finding the electron in
the region of space between x and x + dx, y and y + dy, z and z +
dz.
The above relation shows that normalization condition of
particle.
1
1
2
-
-
*
=
=
}
}
+

dxdydz
dxdydz

Besides being normalizable the wave function must fulfil the

following requirements.
** It must be finite everywhere: If is infinite at a particular
point, then it would mean an infinitely large probability of finding
the particle at that point .this is not possible. Hence ,must have a
finite or zero value at any point .
** It must be single valued: Let us consider that has more than
one value at any point .It means that there is more than one value of
probability finding the particle at that point. This is obviously
ridiculous.
** It must be continuous : For Schrdinger equation must be
finite everywhere .This is possible only when has discontinuity at
any boundary where potential changes .This implies must be
continuous across the a boundary
2
2
x d
d
dx
d
X=0
X=a
V
A
B
V
m

Let us consider the case of a particle of mass m moving
along x-axis between the two rigid walls A and B at x=0 and
x=a
The particle is free to move between the walls. the
potential energy of the particle between the two walls is
constant because no force is acting on the particle .
When the particle strikes any one of the walls ,it is
reflected back immediately as the walls are perfectly rigid
.Now the force acting on the particle abruptly changes
from zero to a finite value F within a distance of zero at the
wall .
We know that we should have v as x 0 such that
has finite value F.So the potential energy of the particle becomes
infinite at the walls.
The potential function is definited in the following way :
V(x)= for x<0 and x>a
(1)
And V(x)=0 for 0<x<a
The Schrdinger Wave equation for the particle is given by
(2)
x
V
F
c
c
=
x
V
c
c
0 ) (
8
2
2
2
= +
t
V E
h
m
dx
d
As V=0 between the walls ,hence the equation has the following form
Let
then eq(3) takes the the form
0
8
2
2
2
2
= +
t
E
h
m
dx
d
(3)
2
2
2
8
k E
h
m
=
t 4
0
2
2
2
= +

k
dx
d 5
The general soln of eq(5) is
kx B kx A x cos sin ) ( + =
Where A and B are two constants
6
The values of these constants can be obtained by applying
the boundary condition of the problem

2
represents the probability of finding the particle at any
instant. The particle cannot penetrate the walls.hence =0 at
x=0 and =0 at x=a. These are the boundary condition
.Apply boundary condition we have
0=A sin0+B cos0,i.e B=0
(x)=A sin kx
Again 0 =A sin ka
7
sin ka=0 0r ka=n or k=n/a
Now the wave function becomes (x)=Asin nx/a
From eq (8) k
2
=n
2

2
/a
2
From Eq(4)
9
8
) 10 ...( ..........
2 8
8
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
ma
n
ma
h n
E
a
n
E
h
m
n
n
t
t t
= =
=
Using E
n
for E,in general
It is clear from expression (10) that inside an infinitely deep
potential well the particle can have discrete set of values of energy,
the energy of the particle is quantized .
But According to Classical Mechanics ,the particle may take any
continuous range of values between zero and infinity.
The constant of eq (9) can be obtained by applying this
normalization condition
1 sin
1 ) (
2 2
2
0
=
=
}
}
dx
a
x n
A
dx x
a
a
t

( ) ) 11 ....( .......... sin

2
2 2
1
2
1
2
2 2
1
2
cos 1
2
1
1 sin
2
2
0
2
2
0
2 2
a
x n
a
x
a
orA
a
orA
a A
a
x n
Sin
n
a
x
A
dx
a
x n
A
dx
a
x n
A
a
a
o
a
t

t
t
t
t
=
= = =
=
(

=
(

=
}
}
Eq (11)gives the wave function of the particle enclosed in infinitely deep
potentialwell.
The normalized wave functions
1
,
2
,and
3
together with the
probability densities
areplotted and
2
3
2
2
2
1
,
(x) |(x)|
x
For n = 1:
For n = 2:
x
(x)
x
|(x)|
X=0 X=a
E
2
=4h
2
/8ma
2
E
1
=h
2
/ 8ma
2
E
3
=9h
2
/ 8ma
2
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
a / 2
(2 / a)
2
2 2
8ma
h n
E
n
=
a
x n
a
n
t
sin / 2 =
According to classical mechanics the probability distribution is
constant .
n
2
=0at x=0 and x=a. At particular point , the probability of
the particle being present is different for different quantum numbers .
Eg has it maximum value of a/2in the middle.
Thus ,a particle in the lowest energy level of n=1 is most likely to be in
the middle while a particle in the next higher state of n=2 never there .
2
1

Conclusions;
1.The three integers n
1
,n
2
and n
3
called quantum numbers
are required to specify completely each energy state. since
for a particle inside the box, cannot be zero, no
quantum number can be zero.
2.The energy E depends on the sum of the squares of the
quantum numbers n
1
,n
2
and n
3
and no on their individual
values.
3.Several combinations of the three quantum numbers may
give different wave functions, but of the same energy value.
such states and energy levels are said to be degenerate.