Global Positioning System (GPS) 1.

0 INTRODUCTION

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only system today able to show user the exact position on Earth at anytime, anywhere, and in any weather. GPS satellites orbit 11,000 nautical miles above Earth. They are monitored continuously at ground stations located around the world. The satellites transmit signals that can be detected by anyone with a GPS receiver. The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978. The first 10 satellites launched were developmental satellites, called Block I. From 1989 to 1997, 28 production satellites, called Block II, were launched; the last 19 satellites in the series were updated versions, called Block IIA. The launch of the 24th GPS satellite in 1994 completed the primary system. The third-generation satellite, Block IIR, was first launched in 1997. These satellites are being used to replace aging satellites in the GPS constellation. The next generation, Block IIF, is scheduled for its first launch in late 2005[1]. GPS was developed by the United States Department of Defense as a reliable means for accurate navigation. It is based on an intricate network of 24 satellites orbiting the earth at a very high altitude. These satellites function 24 hours a day and are designed to be resistant to jamming and interference. GPS allows every square meter of the earth's surface to have a unique address, which offers limitless application possibilities when coupled with today's advanced micro-computer systems [2]. The GPS program provides critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around the world. It is an engine of economic growth and jobs, and has generated billions of dollars of economic activity. It maintains future war fighter advantage over opponents and is one of the four core military capabilities. In addition, GPS is the backbone for modernizing the global air traffic system. Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to modernize the GPS system and implement the next generation of GPS III satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX).[2] Announcements from the Vice President and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, U.S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, referred to as GPS III.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

2.0 DISCUSSIONS

2.1

Elements of GPS

GPS has three parts: the space segment, the user segment, and the control segment. The space segment consists of a constellation of 24 satellites plus some spares, each in its own orbit 11,000 nautical miles above Earth. The user segment consists of receivers, which you can hold in your hand or mount in a vehicle, like your car. The control segment consists of ground stations (five of them, located around the world) that make sure the satellites are working properly. The master control station at Schriever Air Force Base, near Colorado Springs, Colorado, runs the system [3].

Figure 1: Element of GPS comprises a control, space, and user segments. 2.1.1 The space segment (A Constellation of Satellites) An orbit is one trip in space around Earth. GPS satellites each take 12 hours to orbit Earth. Each satellite is equipped with an atomic clock so accurate that it keeps time to within three nanoseconds, thats 0.000000003, or three-billionths of a secondto let it broadcast signals 2| Page

Global Positioning System (GPS) that are synchronized with those from other satellites. The signal travels to the ground at the speed of light. Even at this speed, the signal takes a measurable amount of time to reach the receiver. The difference between the time when the signal is received and the time when it was sent, multiplied by the speed of light, enables the receiver to calculate the distance to the satellite. To calculate its precise latitude, longitude, and altitude, the receiver measures the distance to four separate GPS satellites[3].

Figure 2: Space segment of GPS satellites The space segment consists of a 28 satellite constellation out of which 24 satellites are active satellites and the remaining four satellites are used as in-orbit spares. The satellites are placed in six orbital planes, with four satellites in each plane. The satellites orbit in circular medium Earth orbits (MEOs) at an altitude of 20 200 km, inclined at 55 to the equator as shown in Figure 2. The orbital period of each satellite is around 12 hours (11 hours, 58 mins). The MEO was chosen as a compromise between the LEO and GEO. lf the satellites are placed in an LEO, then a large number of satellites would be needed to obtain adequate coverage. Placing them in a GEO would reduce the required number of satellites, but will not provide good polar coverage. The present constellation makes it possible for four to ten satellites to be visible to all receivers anywhere in the world and hence ensure worldwide coverage. These satellites transmit signals, synchronized with each other on two microwave frequencies of 1575.42 MHz (Ll) and 1227.6 MHz (L2). These signals provide navigation and timing information to all users worldwide. The satellites also carry nuclear blast detectors as a secondary mission, replacing the Vela nuclear blast surveillance satellites. The satellites are powered by solar energy. They have back-up batteries on board to keep them running in

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Global Positioning System (GPS) the event of a solar eclipse. The satellites are kept in the correct path with the help of small rocket boosters, a process known as station keeping.

2.1.2

The user segment (Receivers)

GPS receivers can be carried in your hand or be installed on aircraft, ships, tanks, submarines, cars, and trucks. These receivers detect, decode, and process GPS satellite signals. More than 100 different receiver models are already in use. The typical hand-held receiver is about the size of a cellular telephone, and the newer models are even smaller. The commercial hand-held units distributed to U.S. armed forces personnel during the Persian Gulf War weighed only 28 ounces (less than two pounds). Since then, basic receiver functions have been miniaturized onto integrated circuits that weigh about one ounce[3]. The user segment includes all military and civil GPS receivers intended to provide position, velocity and time information. These receivers are either hand held receivers or installed on aircraft, ships, tanks, submarines, cars and trucks. The basic function of these receivers is to detect, decode and process the GPS satellite signals. Some of the receivers have maps of the area stored in their memory. This makes the whole GPS system more user-friendly as it helps the receiver to navigate its way out. Most receivers trace the path of the user as they move. Certain advanced receivers also tell the user the distance they have travelled, their speed and time of travel. They also tell the estimated time of arrival at the current speed when fed with destination coordinates. Moreover, there is no limit to the number of users using the system simultaneously. Today many companies make GPS receivers, including Garmin, Trimble, Eagle, Lorance and Magellan.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

Figure 3: A typical GPS receiver. GPS receivers comprise three functional blocks: Radio frequency front end. This comprises one or more antennas to receive

the GPS signal, filters and amplifiers to discriminate the wanted signal from noise and a down- converter to remove the carrier signal. Simple receivers process one GPS signal at a time using multiplexing techniques. Sophisticated receivers comprise multiple channels for processing the signal from various satellites simultaneously. Digital signal processing block. This correlates the signal from satellites with signals stored in the receiver to identify the specific GPS satellite and to calculate pseudo ranges. Computing unit. This determines position, velocity and other data. The display format is also handled by the computing unit. 2.1.3 The control segment (Ground Stations)

The GPS control segment consists of several ground stations located around the world[3]: A master control station at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado Five unstaffed monitor stations: Hawaii and Kwajalein in the Pacific Ocean; Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean; Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean; and Colorado Springs, Colorado.

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Global Positioning System (GPS) Four large ground-antenna stations that send commands and data up to the

satellites and collect telemetry back from them. Figure 4 shows the locations of the stations of the control segment.

Figure 4: The locations of the stations of the control segment. Each of the monitor stations is provided with high fidelity GPS receivers and a caesium oscillator to track all GPS satellites in view continuously. Data from these stations is sent to the MCS which computes precise and updated information on satellite orbits and clock status every 15 minutes. This tracking information is uploaded to GPS satellites through ground antenna stations once or twice per day for each satellite using S band signals. This helps to maintain the accuracy and proper functioning of the whole system. The ground antenna stations are also used to transmit commands to satellites and to receive satellite telemetry data. 2.2 Working Principle of the GPS The basis of GPS is triangulation from satellites. Position is calculated from distance measurements (ranges) to satellites. Mathematically we need four satellite ranges to determine exact position. Three ranges are enough if we reject ridiculous answers or use other tricks[4].

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Global Positioning System (GPS) To triangulate, a GPS receiver

measures distance using the travel time of radio signals. Distance to a satellite is determined by measuring how long a radio signal takes to reach us from that satellite. To make the measurement we assume that both the satellite and our receiver are generating the same pseudo-random codes at exactly the same time. By comparing how late the satellite's pseudo-random code appears compared to our receiver's code, we determine how long it took to reach us. Multiply that travel time by the speed of light and you've got distance. To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate timing which it achieves with some tricks. Accurate timing is the key to measuring distance to satellites. Satellites are accurate because they have atomic clocks on board. Receiver clocks don't have to be too accurate because an extra satellite range measurement can remove errors.

Along with distance, you need to know exactly where the satellites are in space. High orbits and careful monitoring are the secret. To use the satellites as references for range measurements we need to know exactly where they are. GPS satellites are so high up their orbits are very predictable. Minor variations in their orbits are measured by the Department of Defense. The error information is sent to the satellites, to be transmitted along with the timing

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Global Positioning System (GPS) signals. Finally, correct for any delays the signal experiences as it travels through the atmosphere. The earth's ionosphere and atmosphere cause delays in the GPS signal that translate into position errors. Some errors can be factored out using mathematics and modeling. The configuration of the satellites in the sky can magnify other errors. Differential GPS can eliminate almost all error.

2.3 GPS Services Offered / Applications 2.3.1 Personal Tracking (Child, Teens, Elderly)

Personal Tracking is a system, where a person or a commodity can be tracked using devices that are integrated with Global positioning System (GPS) and Global Service for Mobiles (GSM). The person can carry it in their pocket like mobile phone or can install it in car to get the location on SMS or web based services provided by GPS Integrated. It allows tracking GPS location of person or vehicle carrying GPS device or GPS system. All GPS devices include some sort of transmitter that ultimately sends this data back to the end user[5].

Personal GPS Tracking is the ability for any person to locate another person, object or thing with the use of a GPS device that receives information from the GPS satellite network in space. Whether you are concerned about the well being of your small children, or would like to monitor elderly relatives, would like to offer additional layers of security for your loved ones or family members, a personal GPS tracking device has many uses in today's world. You can use this tracking system for teen tracking, asset tracking, pet tracking, car tracking, equipment tracking, as a spy equipment etc.

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Global Positioning System (GPS) 2.3.2 Vehicle Tracking (Car, Boat, Pickup)

Vehicle tracking is one of the fastest growing satellite navigation applications today. Many fleet vehicles, public transportation systems, delivery trucks and courier services use GPS and GLONASS receivers to monitor their locations at all times. These systems combined with digital maps are being used for vehicle navigation applications. These digital maps contain information like street names and directions, business listings, airports and other important landmarks. Such units provide useful information about the cars position and the best travel routes to a given destination by linking itself to a built-in digital map. 2.3.3 Police, Spy Activities and Saving Lives

Many police, fire and emergency medical service units employ GPS receivers to determine which available police car, fire truck or ambulance is nearest to the emergency site, enabling a quick response in these critical situations. GPS equipped aircraft monitor the location of forest fires exactly, enabling the fire supervisors to send fire fighters to the required spot on time.

2.3.4

Fleet management (Bus, Truck)

Fleet management is the management of a company's vehicle fleet. Fleet management includes commercial motor vehicles such as cars, vans and trucks. Fleet (vehicle) management can include a range of functions, such as vehicle financing, vehicle maintenance, vehicle telematics (tracking and diagnostics), driver management, fuel management and health & safety management. Fleet Management is a function which allows companies which rely on transportation in their business to remove or minimize the risks associated with vehicle investment, improving efficiency, productivity and reducing their overall transportation costs, providing 100% compliance with government legislation (duty of care) and many more. These functions can be dealt with by either an in-house fleetmanagement department or an outsourced fleet-management provider GPS Fleet Tracking is an All-In-One Management Solution That Lets You Monitor, Manage, And Recover Assets Effective management can be a daunting task, especially for businesses who deal with employees or assets in transit. Fleet tracking management uses GPS technology to effectively track vehicles, employees, and assets. By tracking your valuables, you can better manage and monitor their whereabouts, cutting down on wasted 9| Page

Global Positioning System (GPS) time or unnecessary fuel. With GPS Fleet Tracking information, you can evaluate performance and cut down on extra costs. This enhances your company's value by improving the level of service provided, leading to higher profits and customer satisfaction. Our automatic Fleet Tracking reports are easy-to-read graphs that let you identify operational trouble spots and improve fleet management. Fleet Management system uses satellite technology to provide real-time vehicle location and record historical vehicle activity. Our highly skilled team of professional technicians will install a vehicle tracking unit into each of your vehicles. There are no exposed wires or antennas, making the equipment virtually tamper proof, and allowing for covert installation. The vehicle tracking units transmit data to our servers via GPRS wireless networks. This information can then be accessed 24 hours a day through any internet connection around the world. 2.3.5 Path Navigation

Whether navigating along a river, trail, or roads, there is a similarity to the navigation problem in that the GPS is not needed to steer along the route. Actual navigation along the path is done by reference to the river banks, trail, or road. A GPS route can be very useful to gauge progress along the route even if it is not needed for steering. Figure 5 shows an example of boating along a river. The put in point to the destination is a very short distance as the crow flies, but is a considerably longer distance along the river. If you are paddling this in a canoe or kayak, this is a significant distance. There are times that path navigation may be used in combination with two-dimensional navigation. An example that comes to mind is a long canoe trip. You paddle down a river using path navigation, then come to a lake and use two-dimensional navigation to cross the lake.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

Figure 5: GPS path navigation map 2.3.6 Mapping, Construction and Surveying.

Mapping, construction and surveying companies use satellite navigation systems extensively as they can provide real time submetre and centimetre level positioning accuracy in a costeffective manner. They are mainly used in road construction, earth moving and fleet management applications. For these applications, receivers along with wireless communication links and computer systems are installed on board the earth moving machines. The required surface information is fed to this machine. With the help of real time position information, an operator obtains information as to whether the work is in accordance with the design or not. As an example, the tunnel under the English Channel was constructed with the help of a GPS. The tunnel was constructed from both ends. The GPS receivers were used outside the tunnel to check their positions along the way and to make sure that they met exactly in the centre. These systems are also used for telecom power placement, laying of pipelines, flood plain mapping, oil, gas and mineral exploration and in glacier monitoring.

2.3.7 Environmental Monitoring. GPS-equipped balloons monitor holes in the ozone layer across the globe. Buoys tracking major oil spills transmit data using the GPS to guide clean-up operations. GPSs are also used in wildlife management and insect infestation. They are also used for determination of forest boundaries.

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Global Positioning System (GPS) 2.3.8 Monitoring Structural Deformations. Navigation systems are used for measuring deformations on the Earths crust. This helps in the prediction of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Geophysicists have been exploiting the GPS since the mid l980s to measure continental drift and the movement of the Earths surface in geologically active regions. They are also used for monitoring the deformation of dams, bridges and TV towers.

Figure 6: Use of Navigation Satellites in Air Traffic Control 2.3.9 Archeology and Archeologists Biologists and explorers are using the system to locate ancient ruins, migrating animal herds and endangered species. 2.3.10 Utility industry These systems are of tremendous help to the utility industry companies like electric, gas, water companies, etc. Up-to-date maps provided by the navigation systems help these companies to plan, build and maintain their assets.

2.4

User Equipment and Hardware

2.4.1 Garmin

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Global Positioning System (GPS) Garmin designs, manufactures, and markets leading-edge Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and other navigation and communication products. Below are a few advantages of Garmin products[10]: A wide variety of products to fit your needs User-friendly products Products that have rugged exteriors built to handle tough situations Free product manual and latest operating software for your unit download A vast selection of maps and charts Free product support assistance, even after the product warranty period ends

Figure 7: One of Garmin product (Nuvi 1300 Series)

2.5

GPS Accuracy

Most people know that GPS is proven to be a very valuable tool for the purposes of Surveying, Tracking and Navigation. However its users must be aware of its characteristics 13 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) and cautious of its limitations. Before discuss the detail about the limitation in terms of accuracy in GPS satellite, we need to know meaning of GPS accuracy. GPS accuracy: The accuracy refers to the degree of closeness the indicated readings are to the actual position. The accuracy of a position determined with GPS depends on the type of receiver. Most consumer GPS units have an accuracy of about +/-10 to +/-100meter. Actually, GPS accuracy is a complex topic involving a variety of technical factors. Among the technical factor that influences their limitation in term of accuracy include: Selective Availability (SA) Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) Differential GPS (DGPS).

2.5.1

Selective Availability

With Selective Availability on, the GPS receiver doesn't know what time it really is at the satellites, because the S.A. makes the satellite send the wrong time. The time the satellite sends is usually pretty close to the real time, but not exact. Without knowing the exact times at the satellites when they create their time message, the receiver cannot tell you the exact location you are trying to measure. This means the GPS receiver gives you a less accurate position because of S.A too as show in Figure 8[10]

Figure 8: GPS Accuracy Before and After SA Removal 2.5.2 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)

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Global Positioning System (GPS) The images compare the accuracy of GPS with and without selective availability (SA). Each plot shows the positional scatter of 24 hours of data (0000 to 2359 UTC) taken at one of the Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) operated by the NCAD Corp. at Erlanger, Kentucky. On May 2, 2000, SA was set to zero. The plots show that SA causes 95% of the points to fall within a radius of 45.0 meters. Without SA, 95% of the points fall within a radius of 6.3 meters.

Figure 9: GPS Accuracy Before and After WAAS Removal The above diagrams illustrate GPS accuracy with and without WAAS. The points represent 100 recordings of the exact same spot on earth over an extended time period such as the same time of day each day for 100 days. Even the position is exact; a GPS receiver will report slightly different positions due to factors such as atmospheric ionospheric interference and satellite geometry. Satellite geometry difference occurs because of the angle of each satellite in relationship to the position being recorded. Accuracy is always best when at least one satellite is directly over head of the recorded position. Most time, the satellites are not directly overhead & slight variations are due to the angles measured. Variations in location reporting can also be due to such things as reflected signals such as occurs in downtown areas of major cities where many high buildings block the direct line between satellites & the receiver.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

Figure 10: Basic component of DGPS. 2.5.3 Differential GPS (DGPS)

DGPS(Differential GPS) uses two or more GPS receivers. With a base station whose accurate position has already been known, we can compare the known position with the new GPS measurement. The difference means the error in the new observed data. This error information is then transmitted to a remote GPS receiver as calibration (RTCM) to the observed position there. The remote receivers receive this, correct the directly observed position, and improve accuracy. This technology is called differential GPS (DGPS).[12]

A typical DGPS architecture is shown in Figure 10. The system consists of a Reference Receiver (RR) located at a known location that has been previously surveyed, and one or 16 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) more DGPS User Receivers (UR). The RR antenna, differential correction processing system, and data link equipment (if used) are collectively called the Reference Station (RS). Both the UR and the RR data can be collected and stored for later processing, or sent to the desired location in real time via the data link. DGPS is based on the principle that receivers in the same vicinity will simultaneously experience common errors on a particular satellite ranging signal. In general, the UR (mobile receivers) uses measurements from the RR to remove the common errors. In order to accomplish this, the UR must simultaneously use a subset or the same set of satellites as the reference station. The DGPS positioning equations are formulated so that the common errors cancel. Reference stations with precise known locations can calculate the errors associated with each satellite and advise the users of the corrections necessary to reduce the errors in the location calculation. The accuracy of users' GPS receivers equipped with differential correction receivers is improved to less than 10 meters error.[13] The accuracy quoted by many GPS manufacturers is often done using a statistic known as CEP (Circular Error Probable) and are usually tested under ideal conditions. The accuracy expected to be obtained using a GPS receiver will vary according to the overall system used. While accuracy level actually achieved will depend upon many factors, typical estimations of the level of GPS accuracy can be given. Table 1 shows the comparisons of accuracy using several systems of GPS Table 1: Comparisons of accuracy using several systems of GPS GPS system GPS with S/A activated GPS without S/A activated Differential GPS (DGPS) GPS with WAAS Expected GPS accuracy (metres) 100 15 5 3

Figure 11: GPS Accuracy 17 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) Accuracy (closeness to truth) of differential systems is relative to the accuracy of the reference points used. When used in less than ideal conditions, the accuracy and precision of any GPS system can be degraded significantly There are many other factors that affect the accuracy of GPS receivers. The atmosphere is one. As the radio signal passes through the ionosphere and troposphere, the water vapour and particles can slow a signal down, therefore affecting the time. Another error called signal multipath is caused by the satellite signal reflecting off of buildings, rocks, water, trees, etc. Accuracy tends to be better in open areas where the likelihood of reflection is decreased. Common Factors affecting the accuracy of GPS are:-

Figure 12: There are many causes for position errors or low signal Ionosphere and troposphere delays The satellite signal slows as it passes through the atmosphere. The GPS system uses a built-in model that calculates an average amount of delay to partially correct for this type of error. Signal multi path This occurs when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such as tall buildings or large rock surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This increases the travel time of the signal, thereby causing errors. Receiver clock errors A receiver's built-in clock is not as accurate as the atomic clocks onboard the GPS satellites. Therefore, it may have very slight timing errors. Orbital errors Also known as ephemeris errors, these are inaccuracies of the satellite's reported location. Number of satellites visible The more satellites a GPS receiver can "see," the better the accuracy. 18 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) Buildings, terrain, electronic interference, or sometimes even dense foliage can block signal reception, causing position errors or possibly no position reading at all. GPS units typically will not work indoors, underwater or underground. Intentional degradation of the satellite signal Selective Availability (SA) is an intentional degradation of the signal once imposed by the U.S. DoD. SA was intended to prevent military adversaries from using the highly accurate GPS signals. The government turned off SA in May 2000, which significantly improved the accuracy of civilian GPS receivers.

2.6

Future of Satellite Navigation Systems

Satellite-based navigation systems are being further modernized in order to provide more accurate and reliable services. The modernization process includes the launch of more powerful satellites, use of new codes, enhancement of ground systems, etc. In fact, satellitebased systems will be integrated with other navigation systems to increase their application potential. The GPS has been modernized to provide more accurate, reliable and integrated services to the users. The first efforts in modernization began with the discontinuation of the selective availability feature, in order to improve the accuracy of the civilian receivers. In continuation with this step, Block-IIRM satellites will carry a new civilian code on L2 frequency. This will help in further improving the accuracy by compensating for atmospheric delays and will ensure more navigation security. Moreover, these satellites will carry a new military code (M code) on both the L1 and L2 frequencies. This will provide increased resistance to jamming. This new code will be operational by the year 2010. The satellites will also have more accurate clock systems. Block-IIF satellites (to be launched after the Block-II satellites) are planned to be launched by the year 2011 and will have a third carrier signal, L5, at 1176.45 MHz. They will also have a longer design life, fast processors with more memory and a new civil signal. The GPS-III phase of satellites is in the planning stage. These satellites will employ spot beams. Use of spot beams results in increased signal power, enabling the system to be more reliable and accurate, with precision accuracy approaching a metre. As far as the GLONASS is concerned, an effort is being made to make the complete system operational in order to exploit its true application potential[13]. Another satellite navigation system being developed is the European Galileo system. The first Galileo satellite was launched on 28 December 2005. It is planned to launch another 19 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite in the near future. These satellites will characterize the critical technologies of the system. After the characterization, four operational satellites will be launched to complete the validation of the basic Galileo space segment and the related ground segment. Once this in-orbit validation (IOV) phase has been completed, the remaining operational satellites will be placed in orbit to reach full operational capability. A fully operational Galileo system will comprise 30 satellites (27 operational and 3 active spares), positioned in three circular medium Earth orbit (MEO) planes at 23 222 km altitude above Earth, and with each orbital plane inclined at 56 to the equatorial plane. All these developments will expand the horizon of their applications to newer dimensions. In fact, the future of satellite navigation systems is as unlimited as ones imagination. 2.7 Alternative to GPS

There should be an alternative positioning service besides GPS. Many country concern of what will happen in the time of war or international conflict when US suddenly stop the GPS service. For examples, when Obama visits India, USA changed the GPS timings without informing to other countries for security reasons. At the same time, India testing its own build BRAHMOS missile, the missile was not correctly shoots the target due to the fake GPS timings and the test was failed. Due to this, India had huge losses. Its a real incident which shows the important of owning a local GPS system for homeland defence[14]. The European Commission (EC) estimates that 6-7% of European GDP around 800 billion by value is already dependent on satellite navigation. But European users have no alternative today other than to take their positions from US GPS or Russian Glonass satellites. Satellite positioning has already become the standard way of navigating. If the signals were switched off tomorrow, many ship and aircraft crews would find it inconvenient and difficult to revert to traditional navigation methods. Many utility networks are also more and more dependent on the precise time synchronisation provided by the satellite navigation systems. As the use of satellite navigation spreads, the implications of a signal failure will be even greater, jeopardising not only the efficient running of transport systems, but also human safety. 2.7.1 GLONASS(Russia)

GLONASS stands for Globalnaya navigatsionnaya sputnikovaya sistema or Global Navigation Satellite System. It is a Russian equivalent of the U.S Global Positioning System (GPS) which is designed for both military and civilian use, and allows users to identify their positions in real time. GLONASS is intended to provide an unlimited number of nautical, air, 20 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) space, and ground users with navigation data and precise time signals at any moment and at any point on the Earth and the near-Earth space environment[5]. Development of GLONASS began in the Soviet Union in 1976. Beginning on 12 October 1982, numerous rocket launches added satellites to the system until the "constellation" was completed in 1995. Following completion, the system fell into disrepair with the collapse of the Russian economy. In the early 2000s, under Vladimir Putin's presidency, the restoration of the system was made a top government priority and funding was substantially increased. GLONASS is currently the most expensive program of the Russian Federal Space Agency, consuming a third of its budget in 2010[16]. By 2010, GLONASS had achieved 100% coverage of Russia's territory and in October 2011, the full orbital constellation of 24 satellites was restored, enabling full global coverage. The GLONASS satellites designs have undergone several upgrades, with the latest version being GLONASS-K. 2.7.1.1 System description The GLONASS system is composed of four main elements (see Figure 13): orbital constellation of GLONASS satellites Ground Control Segment rocket-space complex users. The orbital constellation of the fully deployed system is composed of 24 GLONASS satellites orbiting in three orbital planes. The operational orbit parameters are: altitude - 19100 km inclination - 64.8 degrees period - 11 hours 15 minutes.

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Figure 13: GLONASS system architecture

Orbital planes are spaced at 120 degrees in longitude. There are eight satellites in each plane, which are evenly spaced at 45 degrees in phase. Moreover, the planes themselves are phase-shifted 15 degrees with respect to each other. Such an orbital configuration enables continuous and global coverage of the Earths surface and near-Earth airspace, as well as an optimal spatial location of the satellites that increases position determination accuracy[17]. The Ground Control Segment provides GLONASS satellite control. It is composed of the System Control Center (SCC), located in Moscow Territory, and several Telemetry, Tracking, and Control stations (TT&C) distributed throughout the Russian territory. GCS performs the following tasks: monitoring of the orbital constellations normal operation continuous adjustment of satellite orbit parameters generation and uploading of time-tagged programs, control commands, and special information.

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Global Positioning System (GPS) For normal operation of the navigation satellite system, it is very important to synchronize all the processes taking place during system operation. That is to say, these processes shall take place on the single time scale. To satisfy this requirement, the Synchronization System contains a Central Synchronizer a stationary ultra-stable hydrogen frequency standard, which is used as the basis for GLONASS time scale generation. All onboard time scales are synchronized with the system time scale. The Central Synchronizer is synchronized with the State Time and Frequency Reference, located in C. Mendeleev (Moscow Territory). Deployment and maintenance of the orbital constellation is provided by two rocket-space systems: one based on the Proton launcher and one based on the Soyuz launcher. Each rocket-space system includes: a launcher system a booster system a satellite system.

2.7.1.2 Signals

GLONASS satellites transmit two types of signal: a standard precision (SP) signal and an obfuscated high precision (HP) signal. The signals use similar DSSS encoding and binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation as in GPS signals. All GLONASS satellites transmit the same code as their SP signal, however each transmits on a different frequency using a 15-channel frequency division multiple access (FDMA) technique spanning either side from 1602.0 MHz, known as the L1 band. The centre frequency is 1602 MHz + n 0.5625 MHz, where n is a satellite's frequency channel number (n=7,6,5,...0,...,6, previously n=0,...,13). Signals are transmitted in a 38 cone, using right-hand circular polarization, at an EIRP between 25 to 27 dBW (316 to 500 watts). Note that the 24 satellite constellation is accommodated with only 15 channels by using identical frequency channels to support 23 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) antipodal (opposite side of planet in orbit) satellite pairs, as these satellites will never be in view of an earth based user at the same time[17].

The HP signal (L2) is broadcast in phase quadrature with the SP signal, effectively sharing the same carrier wave as the SP signal, but with a ten times higher bandwidth than the SP signal. The L2 signals use the same FDMA as the L1 band signals, but transmit straddling 1246 MHz with the center frequency determined by the[clarification needed] equation 1246 MHz + n0.4375 MHz, where n spans the same range as for L1.Other details of the HP signal have not been disclosed.

A combined GLONASS/GPS Personal Radio BeaconAt peak efficiency, the SP signal offers horizontal positioning accuracy within 510 meters, vertical positioning within 15 meters, a velocity vector measuring within 10 cm/s, and timing within 200 ns, all based on measurements from four first-generation satellites simultaneously; newer satellites such as GLONASS-M improve on this. The more accurate HP signal is available for authorized users, such as the Russian Military, yet unlike the US P(Y) code which is modulated by an encrypting W code, the GLONASS P codes are broadcast in the clear using only 'security through obscurity'. Use of this signal bears risk however as the modulation (and therefore the tracking strategy) of the data bits on the L2P code has recently changed from unmodulated to 250 bit/s burst at random intervals. The GLONASS L1P code is modulated at 50 bit/s without a manchester meander code, and while it carries the same orbital elements as the CA code, it allocates more bits to critical Luni-Solar acceleration parameters and clock correction terms.

Currently, an additional civil reference signal is broadcast in the L2 band with an identical SP code to the L1 band signal. This is available from all satellites in the current constellation, except satellite number 795 which is the last of the inferior original GLONASS design, and one partially inoperable GLONASS-M satellite which is broadcasting only in the L1 band. (See www.glonass-ianc.rsa.ru for daily updates on constellation status.)

GLONASS uses a coordinate datum named "PZ-90" (Earth Parameters 1990 Parametry Zemli 1990), in which the precise location of the North Pole is given as an average of its position from 1900 to 1905. This is in contrast to the GPS's coordinate datum, WGS 84, 24 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) which uses the location of the North Pole in 1984. As of September 17, 2007 the PZ-90 datum has been updated to differ from WGS 84 by less than 40 cm (16 in) in any given direction.

2.7.2

GALILEO(Europe)

Galileo is Europes own global navigation satellite system, providing a highly accurate, guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control. It is inter-operable with GPS and Glonass, the two other global satellite navigation systems. By offering dual frequencies as standard, Galileo will deliver realtime positioning accuracy down to the metre range. It will guarantee availability of the service under all but the most extreme circumstances and will inform users within seconds of any satellite failure, making it suitable for safety-critical applications such as guiding cars, running trains and landing aircraft[18]. ESAs first two navigation satellites, GIOVE-A and B, were launched in 2005 and 2008 respectively, reserving radio frequencies set aside for Galileo by the International Telecommunications Union and testing key Galileo technologies. Then on 21 October 2011 came the first two of four operational satellites designed to validate the Galileo concept in both space and on Earth. Two more will follow in 2012. Once this In-Orbit Validation (IOV) phase has been completed, additional satellites will be launched to reach Initial Operational Capability (IOC) around mid-decade. Galileo services will come with quality and integrity guarantees which mark the key difference of this first complete civil positioning system from the military systems that have come before. A range of services will be extended as the system is built up from IOC to reach the Full Operational Capability (FOC) by this decades end. The fully deployed Galileo system consists of 30 satellites (27 operational + 3 active spares), positioned in three circular Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) planes at 23 222 km altitude above the Earth, and at an inclination of the orbital planes of 56 degrees to the equator[19]. Thereafter, four operational satellites - the basic minimum for satellite navigation in principle are being launched in 2011 to validate the Galileo concept with both segments: space and related ground infrastructure. Once this In-Orbit Validation (IOV) phase has been completed, 25 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) additional satellites will be launched to to reach the Initial Operational Capability around middecade. At this stage, The Open Service, Search and Rescue and Public Regulated Service will be available with initial performances. Then along the build-up of the constellation, new services will be tested and made available to reach the Full Operational Capability (FOC). The fully deployed Galileo system consists of 30 satellites (27 operational + 3 active spares), positioned in three circular Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) planes at 23 222 km altitude above the Earth, and at an inclination of the orbital planes of 56 degrees with reference to the equatorial plane. Once this is achieved, the Galileo navigation signals will provide good coverage even at latitudes up to 75 degrees north, which corresponds to the North Cape, and beyond. The large number of satellites together with the optimisation of the constellation, and the availability of the three active spare satellites, will ensure that the loss of one satellite has no discernible effect on the user. Two Galileo Control Centres (GCCs) have been implemented on European ground to provide for the control of the satellites and to perform the navigation mission management. The data provided by a global network of Galileo Sensor Stations (GSSs) will be sent to the Galileo Control Centres through a redundant communications network. The GCCs will use the data from the Sensor Stations to compute the integrity information and to synchronise the time signal of all satellites with the ground station clocks. The exchange of the data between the Control Centres and the satellites will be performed through up-link stations. Five S-band up-link stations and 10 C-band up-link stations have been installed around the globe for this purpose. As a further feature, Galileo is providing a global Search and Rescue (SAR) function, based on the operational Cospas-Sarsat system. To do so, each satellite will be equipped with a transponder, which is able to transfer the distress signals from the user transmitters to the Rescue Co-ordination Centre, which will then initiate the rescue operation[20]. At the same time, the system will provide a signal to the user, informing him that his situation has been detected and that help is under way. This latter feature is new and is considered a major upgrade compared to the existing system, which does not provide feedback to the user. Altogether Galileo will provide five levels of services with guaranteed quality which marks the difference from this first complete civil positioning system. 26 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) 2.7.2.1 Galileo satellites system

30 in-orbit spacecraft (including 3 spares) Orbital altitude: 23,222 km (MEO) 3 orbital planes, 56 inclination, ascending nodes separated by 120 longitude (9 operational satellites and one active spare per orbital plane)

Satellite lifetime: >12 years Satellite mass: 675 kg Satellite body dimensions: 2.7 m 1.2 m 1.1 m Span of solar arrays: 18.7 m Power of solar arrays: 1.5 kW (end of life)

2.7.2.2 Services

The Galileo system will have five main services:

Open access navigation This will be 'free to air' and for use by the mass market; Simple timing and positioning down to 1 metre.

Commercial navigation (encrypted) High precision to the centimetre; guaranteed service for which service providers will charge fees.

Safety Of life navigation Open service; For applications where guaranteed precision is essential; Integrity messages will warn of errors.

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Global Positioning System (GPS) Public regulated navigation (encrypted) Continuous availability even in time of crisis; Government agencies will be main users. Search and rescue System will pick up distress beacon locations; Feasible to send feedback, confirming help is on its way.

2.7.2.3 The concept

Each satellite will have 4 atomic clocks of 2 types (2 rubidium frequency standards and 2 passive hydrogen masers); critical to any satellite-navigation system and a number of other components. These clocks will provide an accurate timing signal for a receiver to calculate the time that it takes the signal to reach the target. This information is used to calculate the position of the receiver by trilaterating the difference in received signals from multiple satellites[21].

Figure 14: Galileo launch on a Soyuz rocket, 21 Oct 2011 2.7.2.4 International involvement

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Global Positioning System (GPS) In September 2003, China joined the Galileo project. China was to invest 230 million (USD 302 million, GBP 155 million, CNY 2.34 billion) in the project over the following years. In July 2004, Israel signed an agreement with the EU to become a partner in the Galileo project. On 3 June 2005 the EU and Ukraine signed an agreement for Ukraine to join the project, as noted in a press release. As of November 2005, Morocco also joined the programme. On 12 January 2006, South Korea joined the programme. In November 2006, China opted instead to independently develop the Beidou navigation system satellite navigation system.[31] When Galileo was viewed as a private-sector development with public-sector financial participation, European Commission program managers sought Chinese participation in pursuit of Chinese cash in the short term and privileged access to Chinas market for positioning and timing applications in the longer term. However, due to security and technology-independence policy from European Commission, China was, in effect, disinvited from Galileo and without a return of its monetary investment, a decision that was reinforced by Chinas move to build its own global system, called Beidou/Compass. At the Munich Satellite Navigation Summit on March 10, a Chinese government official bluntly asked the European Commission why it no longer wanted to work with China, and when Chinas cash investment in Galileo would be returned [22].

On 30 November 2007, the 27 member states of the European Union unanimously agreed to move forward with the project, with plans for bases in Germany and Italy. Spain did not approve during the initial vote, but approved it later that day. This greatly improves the viability of the Galileo project: "The EU's executive had previously said that if agreement was not reached by January 2008, the long-troubled project would essentially be dead."

On 3 April 2009, Norway too joined the programme pledging 68.9 million toward development costs and allowing its companies to bid for the construction contracts. Norway, while not a member of the EU, is a member of the ESA.

2.7.3 COMPASS (China) The COMPASS system, which is also known as Beidou-2, BD2 is a project by China to develop an independent global satellite navigation system. COMPASS is a new GNSS similar that posses similar principle with GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo. 2.7.3.1 General system 29 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) The new system will be a constellation of 35 satellites, which include 5 geostationary orbit (GEO) satellites and 30 medium Earth orbit(MEO) satellites, that will offer complete coverage of the globe. The ranging signals are based on the CDMA principle and have complex structure typical to Galileo or modernized GPS. Similarly to the other GNSS, there will be two levels of positioning service: open and restricted (military). The public service shall be available globally to general users. When all the currently planned GNSS systems are deployed, the users will benefit from the use of a total constellation of 75+ satellites, which will significantly improve all the aspects of positioning, especially availability of the signals in so-called urban canyons. The general designer of Compass navigation system is Sun Jiadong, who is also the general designer of its predecessor, Beidou navigation system[23]. Frequencies for Compass are allocated in four bands: E1, E2, E5B, and E6 and overlap with Galileo. The fact of overlapping could be convenient from the point of view of the receiver design, but on the other hand raises the issues of inter-system interference, especially within E1 and E2 bands, which are allocated for Galileo's publicly-regulated service.[4] However, under International Telecommunications Union (ITU) policies, the first nation to start broadcasting in a specific frequency will have priority to that frequency, and any subsequent users will be required to obtain permission prior to using that frequency, and otherwise ensure that their broadcasts do not interfere with the original nation's broadcasts. It now appears that Chinese Compass satellites will start transmitting in the E1, E2, E5B, and E6 bands before Europe's Galileo satellites and thus have primary rights to these frequency ranges. Although almost nothing has yet been officially announced by Chinese authorities about the signals of the new system, the launch of the first Compass satellite permitted independent researchers not only to study general characteristics of the signals but even to build a Compass receiver. Compass-M1 is an experimental satellite launched for signal testing and validation and for the frequency filing on April 14, 2007. The role of Compass-M1 for Compass is similar to the role of GIOVE satellites for Galileo. The signals of Compass-M1 are to a great extent unraveled by independent research. The orbit of Compass-M1 is nearly circular, has an altitude of 21,150 km and an inclination of 55.5 degrees. Compass-M1 is transmitting in 3 bands: E2, E5B, and E6. In each frequency band two coherent sub-signals have been detected with a phase shift of 90 degrees. These signal components are further referred to as "I" and "Q". The "I" components have shorter codes and are likely to be intended for the open service. The "Q" components have much longer codes, are more interference resistive, and are probably intended for the restricted service.

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Global Positioning System (GPS) The investigation of the transmitted signals started immediately after the launch of COMPASS-M1 on April 14, 2007. Already in June engineers at CNES reported the spectrum and structure of the signals. Next month researchers from the Stanford University reported complete decoding of the I signal scomponents. The knowledge of the codes allowed a group of engineers at Septentrio to build the COMPASS receiver and report tracking and multipath characteristics of the I signals on E2 and E5B. 2.7.4 IRNSS (India) India is developing its own version of the Global Positioning System. IRNSS, stands for The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System is expected to be fully functional by 2012 and will be used for surveillance, telecommunications, transport, identifying disaster areas and public safety. The IRNSS is an autonomous regional satellite navigational system that is developed by the ISRO, which would be controlled directly by the Indian government.The satellites will be placed at a higher geostationary orbit to have a larger signal footprint and lower number of satellites to map the region, he said. The first satellite of the proposed constellation, developed at a cost of Rs 1,600 core, is expected to be launched in 2009. The Indian regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) is a constellation comprising of seven other satellites with an objective of providing access to the Global Navigation Satellite System at the most hostile situations too. The project had been developed with an intention to enhance the quality of Indian security system, as it can track the accuracy of the position within a region of 2000 km. The ISRO had decided to launch in all the seven satellites by the year 2014 with a gap of 6 months between each launching activities, the first one of the satellites has yet to be launched in the year 2011 and it is being developed with a cost estimation of around $342 million. The significant features of the IRNSS have been portrayed as follows:

On the completion status, the IRNSS would be covering all weather conditions over the Indian landmass, round the clock and further up to extended distance coverage of about 1500 km.

If compared with the existing constellations, the IRNSS would be superior in the sense of its independent functioning features and thus it would be under the direct control of Indian central government.

The IRNSS on its accomplishment would enter into the competitive ground with the two space navigation system in the world, i.e. the U.S. Global Positioning System and the Russian Global Navigation Satellite System, which would be another successful milestone in the Indian space history.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

The system can operate independently without any necessary influences from other satellite systems, besides transmitting continuous navigation signals, which are powered with powerful electronic equipment and atomic clocks.

It could be of much help in acting as the best surveillance system, tracking in the border activities that are happening through the mountains, terrains, and deep under the sea Thus, it can be equivalent in its functions to the security personnel, especially in tracing down the infiltration activities across the boundaries.

Further, the ground center of the IRNSS consists of Master Control Center to estimate the satellites orbits, their quality, in addition to following up the health of the satellites.

The IRNSS signals are said to consists of precision strength and special positioning service attributes and both the signals are said to be on the L and S bands. Further the navigational signals are said to be transmitted in the S band frequency, which are then broadcasted through the array type antenna to achieve the maximum strength and signal coverage. The ground functionality of the IRNSS comprises of the user segments with dual frequency receiver, which helps in receiving the signals from the other constellations of the system and will be having a minimum of G/T of -25 dB/k which would be similar to that of the GPS.

2.7.5 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (Japan) Japan has started a new project of Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) in 2003. QZSS consists of three satellites and will provide a regional satellite positioning service as well as communication and broadcasting services. Each satellite is in three different orbit planes, which are obtained by inclining the geostationary orbit (GEO) by about 45 degree. In this system, at least one satellite stays around the zenith for about eight hours and is visible with a higher elevation angle in mid-latitude area (e.g. at least 80 deg. in Tokyo) than in case of using a satellite in GEO. This characteristic is very beneficial in large cities where there are many tall buildings which block the signal from satellites in GEO. Thus, satellite availability for satellite positioning and mobile communication services is expected to be greatly improved. Several organizations from government and private sectors cooperate to develop QZSS. The private sector has established a joint company, the Advanced Satellite Business Corporation (ASBC), which will develop and operate the communications and broadcasting system as well as satellite bus system. From the government sectors, four Ministries and

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Global Positioning System (GPS) their relating research institutions participate in the project and develop the satellite positioning system. 2.7.5.1 QZSS and positioning augmentation QZSS can enhance GPS services in two ways: rst, availability enhancement, whereby the availability of GPS signals is improved, second, performance enhancement whereby the accuracy and reliability of GPS derived navigation solutions is increased. Because the GPS availability enhancement signals transmitted from Quasi-Zenith Satellites are compatible with modernized GPS signals, and hence interoperability is ensured, the QZSs will transmit the L1C/A signal, L1C signal, L2C signal and L5 signal. This minimizes changes to specifications and receiver designs. Compared to standalone GPS, the combined system GPS plus QZSS delivers improved positioning performance via ranging correction data provided through the transmission of submeter-class performance enhancement signals L1-SAIF and LEX from QZS. It also improves reliability by means of failure monitoring and system health data notifications. QZSS also provides other support data to users to improve GPS satellite acquisition. According to its original plan, QZSs was to carry two types of space-borne atomic clocks; a hydrogen maser and a Rb atomic clock. The development of a passive hydrogen maser for QZSs was abandoned in 2006. The positioning signal will be generated by a Rb clock and an architecture similar to the GPS timekeeping system will be employed. QZSS will also be able to use a Two-Way Satellite Time and Frequency Transfer (TWSTFT) scheme, which will be employed to gain some fundamental knowledge of satellite atomic standard behavior in space as well as for other research purposes. 2.7.5.2 QZSS timekeeping and remote synchronization Although the rst generation QZSS timekeeping system (TKS) will be based on the Rb clock, the rst QZS, will carry a basic prototype of an experimental crystal clock synchronization system. During the rst half of the two year in-orbit test phase, preliminary tests will investigate the feasibility of the atomic clock-less technology which might be employed in the second generation QZSS. The mentioned QZSS TKS technology is a novel satellite timekeeping system which does not require on-board atomic clocks as used by existing navigation satellite systems such as GPS, GLONASS or the planned Galileo system. This concept is differentiated by the 33 | P a g e

Global Positioning System (GPS) employment of a synchronization framework combined with lightweight steerable on-board clocks which act as transponders re-broadcasting the precise time remotely provided by the time synchronization network located on the ground. This allows the system to operate optimally when satellites are in direct contact with the ground station, making it suitable for a system like the Japanese QZSS. Low satellite mass and low satellite manufacturing and launch cost are significant advantages of this novel system. An outline of this concept as well as two possible implementations of the time synchronization network for QZSS were studied and published in Fabrizio Tappero's PhD work.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

3.0 CONCLUSION GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking, and surveillance. GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing well synchronized handoff switching. While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant military and civilian applications. All GPS navigation and surveying techniques have limitations that may not permit desired accuracies in a given environment. The cause for poor accuracy is not always obvious but is usually attributable to one of the following source of error is multipath / signal corruption, Low number of satellites / poor satellite geometry and erratic Ionospheric activity. These errors can lead to position errors as large as several of meters or more. Comparison between WAAS, SA and DGPS that attributable to accuracy of GPS satellite system; conclude that the best technique or factor that the best reducing the accuracy is WAAS is +/- 3m. GPS modernization has now become an ongoing initiative to upgrade the Global Positioning System with new capabilities to meet growing military, civil, and commercial needs. The program is being implemented through a series of satellite acquisitions, including GPS Block III and the Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX). The U.S. Government continues to improve the GPS space and ground segments to increase performance and accuracy. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development. The Russian GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was in use by only the Russian military, until it was made fully available to civilians in 2007. There are also the planned European Union Galileo positioning system, Chinese Compass navigation system, and Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

4.0 REFERENCES

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

http://www.gpsintegrated.com/ http://www.gpsintegrated.com/Services/GPSPassengerInformationSystem.aspx http://www.aero.org/education/primers/gps/howgpsworks.html http://www.gpsintegrated.com/Services/PersonalGPSTracking.aspx http://www.gpstrackingservice.net/ Satellite Technology Principles and Applications (Anil K. Maini, Varsha Agrawal) Satellite System Engineering in IPV6 Environment (Daniel Minoli) John Bell, Basic GPS Navigation: A Practical Guide to GPS Navigation, January 2008.

[9]

Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM), Online-Education Tutorial, International Engineering Consortium, 9th September 2005.

[10] [11] [12]

http://www.unavco.org/edu_outreach/tutorial/sa.html http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc97/proc97/to450/pap428/p428.htm Cell-ID location technique, limits and benefits: an experimental study. Emiliano Trevisani Dipartimento di Informatica e Sistemistica Universit`a di Roma La Sapienza via Salaria 113, 00198 Rome, Italy trevisani@dis.uniroma1.it

[13] [14] [15] [16] [17]

http://www.gps.gov/technical/ http://www.beacon-egypt.com/dgps.htm "QZSS in 2010". Magazine article. Asian Surveying and Mapping. 2009-05-07. The System. GPS World Online, November 2007. "India to develop its own version of GPS". www.Rediff.com.

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Global Positioning System (GPS) [18] S. Anandan (2010-04-10). "Launch of first satellite for Indian Regional Navigation Satellite system next year". Beta.thehindu.com. Retrieved 2010-12-30. [19] [20] [21] "Compass due Next year". Magazine article. Asian Surveying and Mapping. Galileo, Compass on collision course, GPS World, April 2008, p. 27 T. Grelier, J. Dantepal, A. Delatour, A. Ghion, L. Ries, Initial observation and analysis of Compass MEO satellite signals, Inside GNSS, May/June 2007 [22] [23] www.insidegnss.com www.irnssindia.com

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