1

The Timbre of Musical Instruments: The Physics of Music

Laboratory Manual
Written by Derek Stadther and Dr. J. David Turner
Furman University, Greenville, SC
August 8, 2011


1. Introduction to AC Signals and the Oscilloscope- pg. 2
2. Standing Waves on a Stretched String- pg. 7
3. The Helmholtz Resonator- pg. 12
4. Standing Waves in an Open Pipe- pg.19
5. Standing Waves in a Pipe Closed at One End- pg. 26
6. Musical Scales- pg. 29
7. Lissajous Figures: A Visual Representation of Musical Harmony- pg. 37
8. An Introduction to Surface Resonances: Chladni Shapes- pg. 42
9. A Percussion Instrument Modeled by Simple Pipes- pg. 43
10. An Introduction to Organ Notes- pg. 48
11. Physics of the Violin- pg. 55
12. The Theremin: An Introduction to Synthetic Music- pg. 70









This lab manual was designed to guide and assistant students in discovering the
interconnectedness of physics and music. It is specifically used in a class offered by
Furman University titled The Physics of Music. Creation of this manual was made
possible by a Furman Advantage Research Grant. The authors hope that readers will
enjoy this first edition of The Timbre of Musical Instruments.



2
Introduction to AC Signals and the Oscilloscope


Sound is characterized by longitudinal pressure waves. These pressure waves are created
by the back and forth movement of air molecules.

Devices known as transducers can change a time varying quantity such as pressure into a
voltage which is proportional to the pressure at every moment. A microphone and an
associated amplifier are the transducers most often used to study audible sounds. In this
lab we will study the voltage waveforms of various sounds using the oscilloscope.

I. Introduction

The oscilloscope is a versatile lab instrument capable of recording and analyzing time
varying voltages. In its simplest mode the scope provides a graph of voltage as a function
of time. Most scopes these days have two or more channels. Each channel can be used
to look at a different signal, although they will all share the same horizontal scale.

The horizontal axis is time and the calibration is controlled by a knob labeled "sec/div".
If this control is set to 1 ms (millisecond) per division, a 1000 Hz signal would go
through a full cycle in one horizontal division (one centimeter on the screen). With 10
divisions across the screen, 10 cycles would be visible.

The vertical scale of each channel is controlled with a knob labeled with its channel
number under the heading of "volts/div". Note that each channel has an associated color.

An AC signal with a 2 volt amplitude would go up and down two divisions if the vertical
scale is set to 1 volt per division.

II. Measurement DC Voltages

Turn on the scope.

Push the trigger menu. Set to chan 1 and auto. This will ensure a reliable trace for this
section.

Push chan 1 menu and set mode to DC, and select the 10x setting for the probe. Adjust
the volts per division to 1 V/div.

Connect the probe to the battery. What happens to the trace?







3
III. The Observation of Time Varying Signals

Connect a short length of wire to the channel 1 probe. Set the seconds per division
control to 5 ms/div and the vertical scale to 0.1 v/div. Note that touching the bare wire
increases the signal.

Use the run/stop control to capture the waveform.

The oscilloscope is especially useful for measuring time intervals

Now press the cursor button and select the time cursor 1. Move cursor one to peak.
Select cursor 2 and move it to the next peak

Note time interval and associated frequency.

This 60 Hz signal comes from power lines and transformers and composes much of the
background electronic noise. Many cables are surrounded by a metallic shield to protect
the signal from this noise. Any time you hear a hum of see a 60 Hz signal, look out for a
bad connection to ground or the cable shield.


Connect the amplifier and microphone to the channel one input. Use the scope to verify
the frequency stamped on several tuning forks. The trace below is from a fork stamped
320 Hz.











4
IV. The trigger control

The run/stop control is useful in capturing a waveform from an extended sound. In many
cases the sound may not be sustained as in percussion instruments, or we may have
interest in the attack portion of the sound of any instrument.

The trigger is operated in one of three modes

Auto: Best for DC signal or unknown signals

Normal: Best for smooth repetitive waveforms

Single sweep: Best for non-repeating waveforms. This is the setting we will use often to
look at the attack portion of musical notes.




Application: The Determination of the Speed of Sound Through Time of Flight.


Consider two microphones placed approximately 4 feet (125 cm) apart. With the speed
of sound being about 1000 ft/s, it would take sound about 4 ms to travel the distance
between microphones.

The trace below shows the signals from two microphones located approximately 4 ft
apart. Note that the time interval is 3.960. This trace represents the sound made by
striking a piece of plywood with a hammer.



Connect two microphones to the inputs of your scope. Select the single sweep mode and
measure the speed of sound.


5
V. The FFT

Complex sounds can be composed of components of several frequencies. A technique
called the "Fast Fourier Transform" is capable of determining the frequency and
amplitude of the components.

Consider the 320 Hz waveform seen below.




If the scope is set to the FFT mode the following is displayed.




Note the single peak at 320 Hz.

6

Now consider the waveform shown below. This was taken from the 320 Hz fork being
struck at the same time as a 480 Hz fork. Note that the difference tone (160Hz) is the
most conspicuous aspect of the waveform. While there is no direct source of a 160 Hz
tone, the ear will hear this frequency distinctly.


















The FFT of the above waveform is shown below. Note that the frequencies of the two
forks are distinct, and the frequency of the difference tone is absent.










7

Standing Waves on a Stretched String


I. Introduction

It is easily shown that traveling waves on a stretched string have the form

) sin( u + = + wt kx A (1)

where

t 2
= k f
T
t
t
e 2
2
= = and and f are the wavelength and frequency
respectively. The represents two possibilities. The positive sign corresponds to
waves moving in the negative x direction and the negative sign corresponds to waves
moving in the positive x direction.

It is also easily shown that the propagation speed c is related to the frequency and
wavelength through:

f c =

A uniform string can be characterized by a mass per unit length defined as .The
propagation speed can also be shown to be related to the tension and mass per unit length:

T
c =

In this lab we will investigate the relationship between the frequency, wavelength and
string tension for standing waves.


II. Discussion

Consider the case of a string fixed at both ends. Such a string is forced by its mountings
to have a node at each end (to have ) 0 = + .

A wave traveling to the end of the string will experience a closed end reflection and be
reflected in the other direction with equal amplitude and opposite phase.

Now consider a continuous wave leaving x=0 and reflecting off of the fixed end at x=L.
It will have the same amplitude and frequency, but opposite sign in the e term and some
phase difference u.

For simplicity we will assume that the original traveling wave originates from x=0,
traveling to the right. Thus the original wave moving to the right is given by:

8

) sin( wt kx A
R
= +

The reflected wave moving to the left will be given by:

) sin( u + + = + wt kx A
L


The net wave disturbance at any point will be the sum of these two waves:

)] sin( ) [sin( wt kx t kx A
L R net
+ + = + + + = + e

Using the trigonometric identity

)] (
2
1
cos[ )] (
2
1
sin[ 2 ) sin( ) sin( B A B A B A + = +

gives )]] ( cos[ ) sin( 2 wt kx A
net
u + = + (2)

Since the string is constrained to be stationary at x=0 and x=L,
net
+ must be zero at these
locations. From the constraint at x=0 we see that u must me an integer multiple of pi,
since. 0 ) sin( = t n .

Applying the constraint at x=L demands u + kL be an integer multiple of pi as well.

There two equations together imply that

t n kL = where n is an integer. Substituting for k gives

t

t
n L =
2


which leads to the condition:

L n = )
2
(

. (3)

Thus standing waves will occur when the length of the string exactly equals an integer
number of half wavelengths.

This means that the string will vibrate with large net amplitude when the string is
stimulated with frequencies that meet the condition given by (3).

Notice that equation (2) implies that the string will have nodes separated by one half
wavelength.

9



In this exercise we will find the frequencies that allow a standing wave to exist with 5
through 10 loops.












10

III. Procedure

Consider the arrangement shown below.



Note that the tension in the string is provided by 155g of weight.

The left end of the string is vibrated by a sin wave current produced by the computer.
The driving device is a modified speaker. The sine wave motion is accomplished by
magnetic forces on a current carrying coil in a large magnetic field created by the
permanent magnet at the bottom of the driver shown below.




11

We can get an overview of the lab by sweeping through frequencies from 5 to 30 Hz and
observing the string.

Start the program STRING and observe the string. Note and record the frequencies
where standing waves are evident. Also note the number of loopw.

Repeat the sweep as need until the frequencies that produce 5-10 loops have been
approximately determined.

By hitting the spacebar during the frequency sweep, you can mark frequencies at which
there are an integer number of standing waves present on the vibrating string. After the
sweep has been completed carefully search for the resonant frequencies and be as
accurate as possible.

Once the resonant frequency has been determined, carefully measure the distance
between nodes. Be sure to record your answer to the nearest millimeter. Compute the
wave speed as the product of frequency and wavelength.






Data

number of
loops
approx.
frequency
resonant
frequency
distance
between
nodes
wave speed
5
6
7
8
9


Average wave speed __________

Predicted wave speed _________

% difference _________






12

The Helmholtz Resonance

I. Introduction

Picture perhaps the simplest early instrument, the drum. A typical drum is a rounded
cylinder of wood or metal that is covered at both ends with some slightly flexible
material. The enclosed cavity of the drum allows sound, caused by striking one of the
ends, to resonate inside of the drum.

From early times, stringed instruments featured strings coupled to a resonant cavity, very
similar in design to a drum. By connecting a long piece of wood, called the neck of the
instrument, to the side of a drum-like enclosure and stretching strings across the resonant
cavity and neck, a crude stringed instrument could be made.

The resonant effect of a cavity with a neck was noted by Helmholtz and serves as a
model from the resonant character of stringed instruments. Helmholtz constructed a
series of resonators in the 1850s to study acoustics. A diagram of one of his resonators is
shown below.

Sound would enter the resonator through the hole at
point a and the human ear would be placed at point
b. Helmholtz even used sealing wax to couple his
ear as efficiently as possible to the resonator. The
resonator has a characteristic resonant frequency
which allows the resonator to act as an acoustic filter.

The Helmholtz resonator can be understood by
analogy to a mass connected to a spring.

The mass on the end of a string demonstrates simple harmonic motion if the spring obeys
Hooks law. We begin with Newtons second law with the force exerted by the spring
being Hooks law:

ma F =

kx F =


substituting for the acceleration


2
2
dt
x d
dt
dv
a = =

gives
2
2
dt
x d
kx = .

13

Rearrangement gives x
m
k
dt
x d
=
2
2
(1)

It can be easily shown that this has a solution given by:

) cos( | + = wt A x (2)

where
m
k
w = (3)

and A and are the amplitude and phase respectively.


II. The Helmholtz Model

Consider the situation below.


A cavity of volume V is connected to a neck of cross sectional area A and length L. The
air inside the neck serves as the mass and the air inside the cavity serves as the spring.

The mass of the air in the neck is given by:

AL m =
where is the density of air.

Imagine the air in the neck is pushed downward so as to displace this body of air a
distance x. This results in a decrease in the volume of the gas in the cavity of Ax.


14
The resulting compression increases the pressure in the cavity and provides a restoring
force. The restoring force resulting from the increase in pressure, dp, is given by

dpA F =

where A is the cross sectional area of the neck and dp is the increase in pressure arising
from the decrease in volume. The decrease in volume dV is given by

Ax dV = .

From elementary thermodynamics it is easily shown that b pV =

, where b is a
constant. Rearranging and taking the derivative gives


= bV p

V
p
V bV bV
dV
dp


= = =
+ 1 ) 1 (
) (

and hence

V
x pA
dVA
V
p
dpA F
2

= = =

Substituting into Newtons second law gives:


2
2 2
dt
x d
AL
V
x pA

=

which gives

x
LV
A p
dt
x d
) )( (
2
2

=


From elementary thermodynamics it can be shown that the speed of sound is given by

p
c = or
2
c
p
=

Making this substitution gives:


15
x
LV
A
c
dt
x d
) (
2
2
2
=

Thus we find ) (
2 2
LV
A
c = e .

This gives the Helmholtz resonant frequency to be:

LV
A c w
f
t t 2 2
= =

or

L
V
A c
f
1
2t
= (4)



This result predicts that a plot of frequency against the reciprocal of L would be a straight
line with a slope given by
V
A c
t 2
and an intercept of zero.

Typical data are shown below.


16


III. Experimental Method

In this activity the resonant cavity will be formed from some larger plumbing parts and
the neck will be created with any of a variety of lengths of pipe of smaller diameter.
This will allow investigation of the role of neck length in the resonant frequency.





17



The pressure oscillations inside the cavity will be monitored with a small microphone
inserted in to the back of the resonant cavity.



18



One interesting feature of this apparatus is the junction between the smaller diameter pipe
and the resonant cavity. Vibrations inside the smaller pipe will take place as if the
smaller pipe was isolated since the junction is an open end for vibrations traveling in that
direction.

For this reason we expect two modes of vibration. One mode of vibration will be the
Helmholtz resonance, and the other will be the vibrations of the open pipe located at a
higher frequency.

A typical spectrum is shown below.


19
It is interesting to compare the frequencies of the second peak in the spectrum to those of
the open pipe. Note that the two agree very well at longer lengths and less well at
shorter wavelengths.

From this data it is evident that the second peak is easily explained as the resonance for
the open at both ends for longer lengths. As the length gets shorter it is no longer a good
approximation due to impedance issues at the junction.





IV. Procedure

Measurement of V (volume)

Data table

Acquire and analyze spectra for two peaks


pipe length ____ _____ ____ ____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

frequency _____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____


20
Standing Waves in an Open Pipe

I. Introduction

Many instruments derive their unique sounds from standing waves similar to those that
exist in a segment pipe open at both ends.

All instruments in the brass and woodwind family, with the exception of the clarinet
family, function as a pipe open at both ends.

Woodwind Instruments (Reed Aerophones)- Flute (non-reed), Oboe, English Horn,
Clarinet, Saxophone, Bassoon

Brass Instruments- French Horn, Trumpet, Euphonium, Trombone, Tuba

To understand how these instruments produce different pitches, one must realize that the
above mentioned instruments are essentially a pipe open at both ends. If we assume that
there will be an anti-node at each end (which is only approximately correct), the pipe will
have a fundamental resonant frequency given by:

L
v
f
2
=
(1)

where f is the fundamental resonant frequency, v is the speed of sound in air, and L is the
length of the pipe.

The purpose of all the buttons, slides, keys and valves found on these instruments are to
change the length of the tube. For example, consider the trombone: A piece of tubing
with a flair at one end and a mouthpiece at the other. The slide of the trombone enables
the player to change the effective length of the instrument (L) thereby changing the
fundamental resonant frequency (f).

http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Britannica_Trombone_Tenor.png (public domain picture)


With the slide all the way out, the resonant frequency is that of an E-natural (E1) and all
the way in, B-flat (Bb1). The range of the trombone is generally from E2 to Bb4, so how
can this be if the range of the fundamentals are from E1 to Bb1? Trombone players

21
rarely play the fundamental frequency of a given position, but play pitches in the
overtone series of the fundamental pitch. With seven steps from E1 to Bb1, and a unique
overtone series for each step, the trombone can play all scales in many octaves.

While the trombone varies L by use of a slide, other brass instruments accomplish the
same thing by using valves. These valves do nothing more than to change the effective
length of the pipe by routing the air flow through various smaller lengths of pipe.



In a pipe opened at both ends, a whole
number of half-wavelengths always forms.



These diagrams represent the fundamental
frequency, first overtone, and second
overtone.



Going up an overtone always adds one more
half-wavelength to the inside of the opened
pipe.

22

II. Discussion

This lab will investigate the relationship between the length of an organ pipe and its
fundamental frequency.

The pitch of an open pipe is only approximately related to its length through (1). A
similar relationship exists for waves on a stretched string. The case of the string is
simpler in that the nodes are always exactly at the end of the string.

The case of standing waves in an air column is complicated by the fact that the pressure
anti-node is located outside the end of the tube, contrary to the assumption that led to (1).
We will denote this distance with the letter s.


Diagram

The fundamental note is related to the length:

s L 2
2
+ =

(2) where s is the distance between the end of the pipe and the antinode.

Since the speed of sound is related to the frequency and wavelength through
f c =
(2)
can be rewritten:

s
f
c
L 2
1
2
= (3) where c is the speed of sound.

Equation (3) can be written as:

c
s
L
c f
4 2 1
+ = (4)

In Part I you will measure the resonant frequency for a number of pipes of varying
lengths. This will allow a precise measurement of the speed of sound.

Equation (4) has the form b mx y + = where the reciprocal of the frequency has the role
of y and the length has the role of x. The slope will equal to the reciprocal of half the
speed of sound and the intercept will be 4s/c.

Typical data and fit are shown below. The slope gives 344 m/s for the speed of sound .
This gives a value for s or 0.8 cm.




23



In Part II you will investigate the relationship between the distance denoted as s above
and the diameter of the pipe.

Equation (3) can be rearranged to give:

2 4
L
f
c
s =




Many texts state that the relationship s and diameter D is given by:

s=eD where e is a constant between 0.3 and 0.4.

Use polyfit to find a value for e from your data. Typical data are shown below, with a
value of e=0.270.



24


Part I. Fundamental Tone as a Function of Tube length


Procedure
Set up the equipment. Take the first pipe and place one end approximately 10cm from
the speaker and place the microphone directly outside of the other end of the pipe.


25
On the computer, open the FreqencySpec3 program for running the experiment. The
three top panels contain the controls and the panels below contain a processed waveform
of the data you are about to collect. In the top left panel, click the box labeled DAC to
turn on the audio processing.

Next set the parameters of the frequency ramp. Set the initial frequency (fi), final
frequency (ff), the duration (milliseconds), and click set.

The middle panel of the controls contain a slider which sets the volume of the frequency
ramp which will be sent to the speaker. Turn this up to an appropriate level. The last
panel sets input volume of the microphone. Only the first one will be used in this lab.

With the controls set, click Run in the first control panel to do a test run to make sure
that everything is working properly. You should see the processed waveform appear in
the lower panel. If you see that the signal is clipping, try either turning down the output
of the frequency ramp or turning down the microphone input. Continue to re-run the
ramp until the levels are acceptable.

Measure the length of each pipe and record it into the table below.

Run the frequency sweep.

You should see the processed waveform appear in the viewing pane looking similar to the
example below.

Locate the most prominent peak, this is the fundamental resonance of the length of pipe.
Highlight this area by clicking and dragging the mouse then click selection zoom to focus
the viewing window on this area. Click the point of the waveform where the amplitude is
the highest and record the number in the above box labeled Frequency at Cursor in the
right column of the table below. Repeat this for each length of pipe.


Measure the length of each pipe and record it into the data table. Next setup the
equipment. Take the first pipe and place one end approximately 10cm from the speaker
and place the microphone directly outside of the other end of the pipe.



26
Part II. The Relationship Between s and the Pipe Radius

Measure and record the resonant frequency of each of the pipes in the data table below.
Measure and record their diameters as well.

Make a plot of the parameter s and a function of the pipe diameter. Perform a linear fit
and calculate a value for e from the slope. Compare your value to the values often seen
in the literature.


Part I Data

Length of Pipe Resonant Frequency











(a list of Matlab commands can be found in the appendix)


slope = ________ temperature ________

measured speed of sound ______ speed of sound corrected for temperature ________
percent error _______

intercept = _________ pipe diameter ________


Part II Data
diameter ______ ______ _______ ________ _______

resonant freq ______ _______ _______ _______ _______

slope (value of e) ______ intercept ______


27
Standing Waves in a Pipe Closed at One End

I. Introduction

In a previous lab we considered the case of a pipe open at both ends. In this case we have
a pipe that is closed at one end and open at the other.

In the fundamental mode the pipe length is approximately one quarter of a wavelength. If
the pipe is lengthened, resonances will occur each time an additional half wave fits in the
pipe.

The anti-node forms a distance denoted by s from the end of the tube. Thus the general
expression for a resonance is given by

)
4
(
2
s n L + =

(1)

where n is an integer (0,1,2,3 etc) and is the wavelength.

In this experiment the length of the pipe will be adjusted to find the resonances.

Note that (1) has the form of y=mx+b, where n has the role of x and )
4
( s

has the role

of b. Typical data are shown below.


28




These three diagrams represent the fundament
and its first and second overtones in an organ
pipe which is closed at one end.



Notice that a node of the wave forms at the closed
end of the pipe. There are also always an odd
number of quarter-wavelengths.



Each overtone adds one more half-wavelength
than the overtone immediately preceding it.

29
II. Procedure

Set the signal generator to 1000 Hz. This means that the wavelength will be about 34.3
cm. Set up the microphone and to measure the intensity of the sound wave with an AC
meter.

The first resonance will be expected at about one fourth wavelength, with the others at
half wavelength intervals. Note that the sixth resonance is close to the full one meter
length.



III. Analysis

Fit your data and compute the wavelength from the slope. Use the frequency to compute
the speed of sound.

Compute the end correction from the intercept.





Data

resonance number 0 1 2 3 4

distance _____ _____ _____ _____ _____



diameter of tube _________















30
Musical Scales

A musical scale is a way of dividing the audible frequency spectrum into discrete parts.
Although the methods of division vary throughout different cultures, the octave is
generally recognized as a fundamental division. This lab will examine 3 different
methods of tuning/temperament used in the western musical system.

I. Listen to the Scales

Throughout this lab, three different scales will be introduced, the Pythagorean, the Just,
and the Equally Tempered scales. While comparing these scales is simply a matter of
looking at numbers and comparing differing ratios, it is also helpful, as well as practical,
to listen to these scales, since we are studying music, a form of expression using sound.

Open the program Scales(Overtones23). At the top in the Master Volume box, put
the slider labeled Change Both between 60% and 75%. Also at the bottom left of the
screen, change the slider labeled Set All Levels to the same value. Next, beside the
label Fundamental, type in a value in the box for the root pitch in Hertz. The drop
down menu in the top left allows you to choose one of the three scales listed in this lab.
Using the keys a,s,d,f,g,h,j,k, you can sound the pitches of the scale just like a simple
piano keyboard. Multiple pitches may also be sounded at the same time to create chords.


II. Octaves

The piano keyboard has numerous C's of different frequency. Their C-ness is a result
of octave equivalence. We perceive different frequencies related by factors of 2 as
having an underlying unification and similarity. Imagine a mixed group of people
singing a monophonic tune such as happy birthday. For any given note, the entire
group usually sings in octaves since different people have different vocal ranges. Despite
having different frequencies, each pitch of the tune is thought to be equivalent regardless
of the octave differences.

To find higher or lower octaves of a given frequency, simply multiply or divide by a
factor of 2. Suppose 200Hz as a starting point and octaves are found as follows:

1/8

2 4 8
25Hz 50Hz 100Hz 200Hz 400Hz 800Hz 1,600Hz


III. Harmonic Series

The harmonic series, also known as the overtone series, provides an appropriate starting
point for dividing the frequencies within the span of an octave. All harmonics of an
arbitrary fundamental frequency ( ) can be calculated by the following equation:


31
where n= 1, 2, 3, and is the nth partial of .

Calculating the harmonic series in terms of =55Hz (pitch A) gives


3 4 5 6 7
55Hz 110Hz 220Hz 440Hz 880Hz 1,760Hz 3,520Hz

and so on. Each step of the harmonic series is known as a harmonic, overtone, or partial.
The fundamental can be called the first harmonic, twice the fundamental can be called
the second partial, etc.


IV. Basic Rules for Creating Scales

For any scale, all the notes comprising the scale must be in the same octave, between
and 2 . Also, in most scales, all the letter names in a given octave are used. For
example, the order of pitches in the C scale is spelled- C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C. All seven
notes, A-G, are used and the letter name of the fundamental is also the name of the
octave.

V. Using Intervals to Create a Scale

From the harmonic series, the second partial is twice the fundamental, and thus, the
octave. The next partial is 3 and is the interval of an octave+a perfect 5
th
above .
Dividing 3 by 2, we bring the pitch within range of and 2 .



Thus to obtain a perfect 5
th
(P5) up from , simply multiply by 3/2.


VI. Pythagorean Scale

The Pythagorean scale is based on the interval of a perfect 5
th
(in ratio form, 3/2) as it is
the smallest ratio of whole number integers after the unison (1/1) and octave (2/1). The
perfect 5
th
is the most consonant intervallic relationship between notes, excluding the
octave.

Beginning with an arbitrary fundamental frequency, we ascend in P5s. (Letter names are
given as examples)




32





(please note that means to lower a pitch by one octave (multiple the frequency by
1/2), and lowers a note by two octaves (multiple by 1/4))

Notice that the above calculations are missing notes F and C-8va from the C-Major scale.
Because the octave is defined as twice the fundamental frequency, C-8va is merely twice
C. Here, because C is , C-8va is

The interval from C up to G is a perfect 5
th
, however the interval from C down to G is a
perfect 4
th
. Given that G is related to the fundamental by a ratio of , the interval of a
perfect 4
th
(P4) can be derived by dividing the fundamental by 3/2 and then transposing it
up an octave by multiplying by 2.



We now have all the ratios for constructing the Pythagorean scale. Arranging them in
ascending order gives:


C D E F G A B C

















33
Exercises:

1. Construct a Pythagorean major scale on scale degree 2 in terms of above. D will
become scale degree 1 and will be


D E F# G A B C# D



2. Comparing the pitches from the the C-Major and D-Major scale, which ones are
different? Ignore pitches that are not common to both scales.







3. Moving from C, 12 steps around the cycle of 5ths brings you to B#. Show that, in the
Pythagorean scale, B# is not the same as C by ascending 12 5ths from C (use ). Bring
the result into the range of by repeatedly dividing by 2 and write B# in terms of .
Round the coefficient of to 4 decimal places. (Hint- one 5
th
up from is )















34
VII. Just Scale

The 3
rd
partial of the harmonic series (3 , or down an octave, 3/2 ) is sufficient for
deriving the lowest ratios for scale degrees 5, 4, and 2, however scale degrees 3, 6, and 7
are modified in the just scale.

Moving to higher partials can provide better ratios for scale degrees 3, 6, and 7. The 4
th

partial (4 4/2 4/4 ) is merely two octaves above the fundamental. However the
5
th
partial (5 ) is the next point of interest. By transposing within range of and ,
the 3
rd
scale degree of a major scale is derived in its most pure form.



Three major triads exist in a major scale: 1. Tonic (I-1 3 5) 2. Dominant (V-5 7 2) and 3.
Sub-dominant (IV-4 6 8). The Roman numerals denote which scale degree is the root of
the chord. Notice that these three triads contain all scale degrees for a major scale.

Now we construct the just scale by stacking intervals of both a major 3
rd
and a perfect 5
th

to scale degrees 1, 4, and 5.

Scale Deg

Tonic






Sub-
Dominant







Dominant






In the above diagram, scale degree 2 in the first octave is empty. So we transpose 2 in the
second octave by dividing it by two. Simplifying the diagram we have the formula for
constructing a just major scale for any given .


Scale Deg
















35
Exercises:

1. Find the frequency of the 7
th
scale degree if =243.2 Hz








2. Given = Pi, find the frequencies of a scale 5 octaves above the fundamental keeping
4 decimal places.









3. Two frequencies sounded simultaneously have both an interval of a just major 3
rd
and
a differential frequency of 55Hz. What are the two frequencies?























36
VIII. Equally Tempered

The Pythagorean and Just scales can be problematic for fixed-pitch instruments when
transposing from one key to another. Equal temperament attempts to mediate the
problems of other tunings by dividing the octave so that the ratio of each semitone, or
half-step, is constant. This allows each key to have the same semitone intervals, and key
modulation can be done with freedom. The following equation, which forms a scale
system commonly known as Twelve-Tone Equal Temperament, or 12-TET, provides the
means to calculate the frequencies for all notes of a 12-tone octave.

Where x is a constant ratio and n=1,2,3...13.

Example Notes in
C
Interval

C Unison

C# / Db Minor 2nd

D Major 2nd

D# / Eb Minor 3rd

E Major 3rd

F Perfect 4th

F# / Gb Tritone

G Perfect 5th

G# / Ab Minor 6th

A Major 6th

A# / Bb Minor 7th

B Major 7th

C - 8va Octave


Next we find the value for x. We know that the fundamental and octave ( , ) are
related by

and that therefore



and dividing through by


then solving for x


37

With a value for x, a 12-tone equal temperament scale can be constructed from a single
frequency ( ). Higher or lower octaves are found by either multiplying or dividing by a
factor of 2.


Exercises:

1. = 420Hz. Find the frequency an octave plus a tritone higher using equal
temperament.



2. Show the validity of enharmonic equivalence (i.e. C# is the same pitch as Db) in the
equal temperament scale by ascending 12 5ths from and then repeatedly dividing by 2
to return to .































38
Lissajous Figures: A Visual Representation of Musical Harmony
It has long been recognized that certain tones produce a harmonious result when played
together. These harmonious tones exist when the two tones have frequencies that are
simple integer ratios. Octaves are 2/1, that is, two times the fundamental frequency, and
the perfect fifth is 3/2, or one and a half times the fundamental. In this lab we will
investigate a visual representation of these harmonies.
This technique was first used by Lissajous himself. This work is mentioned in
Helmholtz's famous text On the Sensations of Tone. A drawing of his first apparatus is
shown below.

A strong magnifying lens is located at point L in the figure, on the arm of an electrically
driven turning fork. A small, highly reflective object is located on the arm of a second
oscillator oriented perpendicular to the first. Motion of either the source or the lens
produces motion of the image seen by an observer looking through L. Not surprisingly
the motion of the lens produces much the same effect as motion of the source
Lissajous later improved his device to use perpendicular motions of a mirror to reflect a
spot of light onto a screen, so the Lissajous figures could be seen by a number of people
at once.

39
Two electronic oscillator circuits generating sine wave signals can easily be used to
produce interesting plots. One sine wave is used to generate the output which is the x
value and the other generates the y value.
Oscilloscope manufactures have long included xy mode in addition to the standard
voltage vs time mode among oscilloscope features. Before the existence of frequency
meters these figures were used to measure relative frequencies of two signals.
In this lab we will use two independent signal generators. Since the generators do not
include a phase control, one has to be added to view the figures in the most symmetrical
form. Appendix X includes a diagram of the circuit and an explanation of its design.

Procedure
Turn on the oscilloscope and push the display. Select xy mode from the options.
Then hit the persistence button and set that to 2 seconds. (Note: for some of the more
complex Lissajous figures, the persistence setting may have to be changed to 5 seconds
or more)
Turn on the two signal generators and set them to 100 Hz. Adjust the amplitudes and
phase until a circle is displayed.

Now it is possible to see how sensitive these figures are to the precise frequencies
involved. Set one generator to 101 Hz while leaving the other at 100. Note how rapidly
the figure changes, compared to the stability of perfect relative pitch. Try 100.1 and 100
Hz. Even small differences matter.
Now set the generators to be an octave apart (say 100 and 200). Adjust the amplitudes
and phase until the figure has maximum symmetry.



40
Below are examples of Lissajous figures from the harmonic series. Setting one sine wave
generator to an integer multiple of the other generator produces very predictable figures.
Try recreating these figures, and while doing so, notice the visual pattern that allows you
to recognize at once a Lissajous curve of the overtone series.


1/1 2/1 3/1
Unison 2
nd
Partial 3
rd
Partial

4/1 5/1 10/1
4
th
Partial 5
th
Partial 10
th
Partial



Now, we will examine a different set of Lissajous figures, those whose intervallic ratios
are between 1/1 and 2/1. As previously hinted at, 3/2, or the perfect fifth, is the simplest
non-integer multiple harmonic ratio in existence. Using the sine wave generators, set one
generator to 200 Hz and the other to 300 Hz. After adjusting the amplitudes and phase,
notice how simple this figure is.
Compare the 3/2 with other whole number ratios and take note of the varying
complexities of their shapes. Some examples can be seen below.

41


1/1 9/8 6/5
Fundamental Major 2
nd
Minor 3
rd


5/4 4/3 3/2
Major 3
rd
Perfect 4
th
Perfect 5
th


8/5 5/3 2/1
Minor 6
th
Major 6
th
Octave

(This is not meant to be an exhaustive list of possible Lissajous figures and ratios, try
some on your own.)
Up until this point, all of the Lissajous figures we have been creating have been intervals
from the Just Scale. However, the most common scale in modern music is the Equally

42
Tempered Scale. Remember that the biggest weakness of Equally Tempered Scale is that
it sacrifices the Just Scales pure intervals for the ability to modulate between keys.
Lets look at a so-called perfect fifth interval in this tuning system.
Set the sine wave generators to 220 Hz (pitch A) and 329.65 (pitch E). Also, set the
persistence to one second. On a standard piano, these pitches are a fifth apart. Notice on
the oscilloscope how much more unstable this figure is compared to a perfect 3/2 interval
(the upper frequency would be changed to 330 Hz). A difference of only 0.35 Hz turns a
perfect harmonically stable figure into an unstable, rotating figure that only offers brief
glimpses of the true perfect 5
th
Lissajous curve.
Now we are going to examine the Equally Tempered major third (represented in the Just
Scale by the ratio 5/4). Set the generators to 440 Hz (pitch A) and 554.35 (pitch C#).
Immediately it is clear that this figure is even less stable than the Equally Tempered fifth
we looked at before. This major third differs from the Just major third (550 Hz) by 5.65
Hz. It is visually obvious that the Just and Equally Tempered major thirds are not even
recognizable as similar intervals.

























43
An Introduction to Surface Resonances: Chladni Shapes


The sounds made by bowed string instruments are rich in overtones. In the course of his
investigations of these sounds, Ernst Chladni (1756-1827) recognized that some of the
many resonances evidenced by the violin could be explained as surface resonances.

To show surface resonances Chladni scattered fine white sand over a surface while the
edge of the surface was bowed. Under various circumstances a variety of patterns were
observed and recorded.

Under resonant conditions vibrations reflecting from the surface boundaries combine on
the surface in a fashion that produces locations where nearly total destructive interference
takes place. These locations can be points or lines, often referred to as nodes or nodal
lines.

The pattern forms because the grains of sand stop moving when they land on a nodal line
or point.

These days it is very easy to conduct observations of this kind. Vibrations from a
modified audio loudspeaker are coupled to each shape at a point near the middle of the
shape. Amplified sine waves are delivered to the speaker through an audio amplifier. The
frequency of the sine waves is swept from zero to several thousand cycles per second.

As the applied frequency is swept various patterns of nodal points and lines are briefly
visible.

The three videos found in "oscillator movies" show fine white sand on circle, square, and
violin shapes. Note that the applied frequency is indicated on the meter.


















44
A Percussion Instrument Modeled by Simple Pipes

Musical instruments fall into four major classes:

Chordophones- an instrument whose sound is created through the use of vibrating strings
coupled to a resonant cavity (guitar, violin, banjo)

Aerophones- instruments where notes are produced by pushing vibrating air through the
body of the instrument (clarinet, trumpet, organ)

Membranophones- a percussive instrument made by stretching a membrane/skin/drum
head over the opening of a resonant cavity (drums, timpani, bongos)

Idiophones- percussion instruments that are struck with their resultant musical sound
coming from the vibrations of the object (xylophone, handbells, cymbals)


This lab deals with a drum like instrument made from the ordinary PVC pipe that is often
used in plumbing. This instrument is quite similar in design and playing technique to
percussive keyboard instruments such as the xylophone and marimba. However, the
manner in which air moves through these pipes is quite similar to how organ pipes create
tones. This seems to suggest that this PVC pipe instrument is a cross between an
idiophone and an aerophone.

Eight pipes were each tuned to individual notes making a D minor pentatonic scale (notes
from low to high are: D, A, C, D, F, G, A, C). The instrument is shown below:


(The design is based on a drum shown at http://dennishavlena.com/PVC-hang.htm)


45
The same software and set-up used in the previous open pipe lab can be used here as
well. The response spectrum for the pipe tuned to G is shown below. It has the
fundamental as well as many overtones.





The table below shows the lengths and fundamental resonant frequencies. The following
plot shows the expected linear relationship between the reciprocal of length and resonant
frequency.



Note Length in mm Fundamental
Resonant
Frequency
D 2482 73.264 Hz
A 1609 110.499 Hz
C 1353 130.799 Hz
D 1208 146.18 Hz
F 1013 173.392 Hz
G 898 196.126 Hz
A 805 215.985 Hz
C 637 260 Hz

46


Below is a typical wave packet created by striking the upper open end of a pipe with a
solid, yet slightly pliable object. Both rubber spatulas and flip-flops will produce good
sound results.








47
The following are waveforms and Fourier transforms of the pitches made by three
different pipes.














48
Procedure

Connect the microphone and preamp to the oscilloscope. Compare the waveforms you
obtain to those shown.
Oscilloscope note: Set the scope to single sweep with a trigger level about half scale.










































49
An Introduction to Organ Notes

The organ has played a significant role in the history of music.

Organ pipes fall into one of several categories. Some pipes make use of a stream of air to
produce a sound while others rely on a vibrating reed.

Some pipes are open at both ends while others are stopped (open only on one end). The
voltage waveform for a pipe open at both ends and the associated FFT are shown below.




The rich overtones are responsible for the flat tops on the waveform.

As discussed in the "Standing Waves in an Open Pipe" lab, we expect an integer number
of half wavelengths in the pipe, and thus we expect all multiples of the fundamental in
the overtone structure. Note that all overtone frequencies are reported as multiples of the
fundamental.

50
FFT's and waveforms for several other pipes are shown below.

Melodia Pipe
The Melodias characteristic sound comes from the manner in which the air forced
through the pipe travels from the initial chamber it is pumped into (bottem of picture),
through a row of small slits, and into the large resonance chamber of the pipe.







51


Diapason Pipe
Diapason style pipes have a design very similar to that of a flute and are typically very
bright sounding.





52








53

Trumpet Pipe
The trumpet pipe has a vibrating metal "reed" which stimulates its voice. The complex
waveform is responsible for the dramatic overtone structure.





54


Gedeckt Pipe
A Gedeckt pipe is very similar in construction to a Melodia pipe. The chief difference is
that this Gedeckt pipe is stopped. A wooden plug is placed in the top of the pipe, closing
the opening completely. Thus, this pipe acts as a pipe with only one open end and only
displays odd overtones.





55





Procedure

Connect the microphone and preamp to the scope and compare the waveform you obtain
to those above. Note the role that microphone location has on the quality of the
waveform.

























56
Physics of the Violin
The first string instruments were almost surely a result of the sounds made by the bow
used in hunting. Even early instruments had resonance chambers which produced a much
louder sound and gave the instrument its voice.
The strings on a musical instrument, especially the violin are very small and produce very
little sound by themselves. Consider the example of the thunder jug.

This device has a spring like stimulator which is coupled to material similar to a drum
head which is stretched over the top of a hollow pipe. The other end is cut at an angle to
allow the cavity to resonate at many frequencies. When the spring is gently stroked a
very loud booming sound is produced. Note that when the spring is de-coupled from
the cavity, little sound is produced.
This is the fundamental principle behind instruments like the violin. The action of the
bow stimulates the string to vibrate, and the violin body is mechanically coupled to the
string.

Physics Interlude: Characteristic emission by atoms
The chemical element helium was discovered from the spectrum of the solar corona
during a total eclipse of the sun. Large amounts of light at only very specific
wavelengths were emitted from the atmosphere of the sun. We have since learned from
quantum theory that each atomic system has a unique set of energy levels. When
exposed to the broad spectrum of light from the sun, helium atoms can absorb energy at
only certain wavelengths. Quantum theory explains this as a result of the atoms having a
limited number of states with different energies. Only incident energy of just the right
wavelength (and energy) can be absorbed. Once the energy is absorbed it can be emitted
by the reverse process.

57
The sounds made by the violin are analogous to the emissions by helium atoms. An
incident spectrum of many frequencies results in an output at very specific wavelengths
only. While this is a situation perfectly described by classical physics, the mathematical
parallels result in very analogous behavior.

Physics of the Bowed String
The violin string has a small mass and is under considerable tension. If the string is
pulled aside and released, the acceleration of the string near the point of distortion will be
very large.
The violin bow is almost always made from the tail hair of horses. The hair from living
Siberian stallions is especially valued for this purpose.
Just before use, fresh rosin is applied to the bow, making the bow somewhat sticky. This
results in a high static coefficient of friction. As the bow is moved across a string its
motion is characterized by two actions: sticking and slipping. The slipping action is most
often initiated by vibrations already present on the string. Thus vibrations naturally
present on the string encourage the bow to slip at one or more of these natural
frequencies.
The coupling of the natural motion of the strings with the motion of the bow results in
periodic stimulation. The combination of slipping and sticking results in a saw tooth
motion of the string under the bow. A saw tooth wave form is shown below. The
horizontal axis is time and the vertical axis is displacement from the equilibrium position.

The gently sloped portion of the motion is created while the string is stuck to the bow.
When it slips it moves very rapidly back toward the equilibrium point. When the
restoring force weakens as the string reaches the equilibrium point, the string again sticks
to the bow. The motion toward the equilibrium position is so rapid that the slope of the
waveform is nearly vertical during the slipping phase.


58
Fouriers Theorem
Fourier was able to prove that any periodic function can be reproduced from the sum of
infinitely many other periodic functions. In most cases a function can be well-
approximated by the first few terms.
Fouriers Theorem can be written as:
)] sin( ) cos( [
2
) (
1
0
nx b nx a
a
x f
n
N
n
n
+ + =

=

where
}

=
t
t
t
dx nx x f a
n
) cos( ) (
1
and
}

=
t
t
t
dx nx x f b
n
) sin( ) (
1

The series when = N is the Fourier series. For finite N the series is approximately
equal to the function

Consider the plot of f(x)=x . This shows that f(x) is an odd function in that f(-x)=-f(x).
The product of f(x) and cosine is itself an odd function. Since the integral of an odd
function over a symmetrical region is always zero, all of the
n
a are equal to zero. The b
coefficients can be found as:
,
) 1 (
2 ) sin(
1
1
n
dx nx x b
n
n
+

= =
}
t
t
t
1 > n

As more and more terms are included the Fourier sum begins becomes a better and better
approximation of the original function.
The original plots of the series with 1, 3, 5, and 30 terms are shown.



59




The Fourier Transform
Consider a function that is the sum of sine waves, such at the plots shown above. A
process called the Fourier transform allows a plot of power vs frequency for the function.
For our bowed string this process changes an amplitude vs time into a function of power
vs frequency. The transforms of the functions with 1, 3, 5, and 30 terms are shown below
in both semi-logarithmic and linear scaling. It is no surprise that each term in the series
can be associated with a specific peak in the power curve.

60

61

62

(Note that all 30 terms on the final linear graph are not large enough in amplitude to be
seen all at once. The higher the overtone, the smaller the dB rating.)

Physics Interlude: Voltage induced by motion in a magnetic field
Imagine a rod moving in a uniform magnetic field as shown below. Any charged particle
moving perpendicular to a magnetic field experiences a force. This force is called the
Lorentz force after a physicist of that name. For velocity and field perpendicular the
force is given by:
qvB F = where q is the charge on the particle, v is the velocity, and B is the intensity of
the magnetic field.

The Lorentz force will cause charges to move along the length of the rod until an electric
field is created that produces an equal and opposite force on the charges within the rod.
Thus the effect of moving a rod through a magnetic field is to induce an electric field

63
proportional to the velocity of the rod. The effect of an electric field acting over distance
is a potential difference, an electrical voltage.
In summation, a conductor moving perpendicular to a magnetic field will have an
induced voltage which is proportional to the velocity of that conductor.

The measurement of string velocity
Since the violin string is metallic, a small but powerful magnet (a so called rare-earth
magnet because the magnetic material is neodymium) placed below the string will
produce a voltage along the length of the string that is proportional to the velocity of the
string.



Note that the connections to the string are made in a fashion that does not disturb the
motion of the string.


64
As the string is bowed a voltage is produced that is proportional to the velocity. A
typical voltage waveform is shown below. Note that this graph represents the derivative
of the saw-tooth waveform. This is natural since the velocity is the derivative of the
position.


Using the violin bow, run it across the strings in both directions. Observe up bow and
down bow waveforms. Why are they reversed?
Note also that the derivative of a sine function produces a cosine function; the velocity
waveform will have the exact same frequency dependence as the position waveform.
The Fourier transform of the string waveform is shown below. This is the power
spectrum.



65
Note that many overtones are present in the power spectrum. The violin bow is the
stimulator of the resonant object that is the violin body (with strings attached). Note that
the action of the strings flopping in the air produces very little sound. The bulk of the
sound is produced by the violin body as a consequence of the coupling of the strings to
the violin body through the bridge and sound post.

The following are graphs of overtones of different violin strings as well as the waveforms
of these same strings.







66













67








Physics Interlude: Observing the waveforms
The environment characteristic of a physics lab is one in which there is a great deal of
changing magnetic fields, mostly from AC wiring and transformers. These extraneous
fields can easily induce voltages that are as large as those we hope to study. Fortunately
special amplifiers have been developed that reject this noise. The special amplifier used
in this exercise could also be used to study the tiny voltages produced by the heart

68
(EKG). This rejection is called common mode rejection because the signals are present
on both conductors. Probes with wire shielding are also critical.
Below is a picture of the amplifier used the above experiment.





Procedure
Connect the differential amplifier as shown in the photos above. Also connect the
microphone to channel 2 of the scope. Compare your waveforms and Fourier transforms
to those shown below.


69


70




71
The Theremin: An Introduction to Synthetic Music

When President John Kennedy made the commitment to go to the moon a tremendous
evolution began in the electronics industry. Integrated circuits with hundreds of
thousands of parts on a single chip made all kind of complex circuits practical.

But the history of electronic instruments goes back much farther. In the late 1920's radio
had emerged as a profitable enterprise. Efforts to improve radio operation resulted in the
development of a technique called heterodyning. The first AM radio using the technique
was produced by RCA in 1928.


Many attribute the first major electronic instrument to Leon Theremin (1896-1993), a
Russian and Soviet inventor. Besides the musical instrument that bears his name, he
invented the first motion detector and the interlace technique still used today to improve
video quality.

While working to improve an electronic device developed for another purpose, Theremin
noticed that the pitch of an interference tone between two radio frequency oscillators
changed as his hand moved.

Theremin developed a volume control circuit and then he had his instrument. By 1928 he
had secured a patent and was giving public concerts.

Radio frequency oscillators have a natural frequency that strongly depends of a small
value of capacitance. The human hand has sufficient capacitance to affect oscillator
frequency. Thus the pitch of the instrument is controlled by the proximity of the
musician's hand to an antenna. Various effects such as vibrato can be produced by a
variety of hand motions.

Two radio frequency oscillators are adjusted so that they differ in frequency by a few
hundreds of cycles. One oscillator has an antenna connected to its capacitor, so the
human body can add to this capacitance by its proximity.


Shown below is the output of our Theremin and its FFT.

72



Note the very large number of overtones. Since uncontrolled radio frequency oscillators
naturally oscillate at the fundamental as well as many overtones, the superposition of the
output from two oscillators will have many overtones as well.



It is interesting to compare the Theremin output to the output from a simple timing chip,
the LM555. This chip can be connected in an astable fashion that turns the chip on and
off at a rate controlled by two resistors and a capacitor.

Below is a diagram of a circuit using the 555 chip. Note that the 100k resistor is variable.

73



The output of this device will be a square wave with a longer "on" time than "off".
Typical output and the FFT are shown below.



74
The 555 chips output can easily drive a speaker. It is interesting to note that when the
output of the above diagram is connected to a speaker as shown below, the sound
produced by the speaker has a differently shaped waveform and FFT.




Observe the effects that changing the value of C and the setting of the 100k resistor have
on the sound.




Interlude: Theremin and "The thing"

Included among Theremin's many accomplishments was the construction of a cold war
"bugging" device that allowed interception of secret conversations inside the American
Embassy.


75

The "Thing"
(Source: http://www.forensicgenealogy.info/)

The carved replica of the great seal of the United States shown above is a Trojan horse of
sorts. It contains a listening device designed by Theremin. It was presented to the US
ambassador by Soviet school children in 1946.

The heart of the device was a hollow brass cavity which was coupled to the room through
a hollow tube that ran to the eagle's open mouth. The device had no power source and no
iron (it was fashioned from brass) so it was not easily detected even though the embassy
was scanned for such devices often.

The brass cavity was resonant with microwave radiation beamed at the embassy from a
truck parked down the block. Sounds near the seal caused the brass chamber to vibrate.
These vibrations slightly changed the resonant frequency of the cavity. As the cavity
oscillated it was more or less resonant with the external microwaves and hence absorbed
and re-radiated more or less of the incident microwave beam.

When Air Force Pilot Gary Powers was shot down during a spying mission over the
Soviet Union the Soviets introduced a motion in the UN condemning the US got spying.
When the US produced this device as evidence of Soviet spying the motion was quickly
defeated. The device is currently on display at the Spy Museum in Washington DC.