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GXBQ A ? IJA # I .# A ?.D7% r r ( .B0GX%4?? .CB+!X%4GYB?~$B+!$%"G / %4GXF($F(Q4%4G 7BQ A ?D7B I !$B
I F&B?.D.% r > r > r ...s #&BH A ! 6B+?,%4? I B+G7?C5%"C5B?~$%0B+?B# .B r = 0 BGX,%
F(C / #&F IJAE .B r D.FQNF(D.B A r 'B+#U!$BGX$%D.B# A D7F(QhF&GXF&Z4?B+G r = 0 B?~,%"? I BG
B# mcd(a, b) = mcd(r , r ) = r
^ ^ a z t z a"rg z dJb4cyd22tuedhjf"cyx]c&]erfhg  + * -m ,.,0/

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n2

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n1

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8872 = 125 70 + 122

% 7BF&?7D.F I+A .B

mcd(8872, 125) = mcd(125, 122).

F(QhF&D.F(C%4G WB+?,!$B

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125 = 122 1 + 3.
mcd(125, 122) = mcd(122, 3)

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122 = 3 40 + 2,

$! A Q4B

mcd(122, 3) = mcd(3, 2).

3 = 2 1 + 1,

&# % 7BG$F(H4?.F IJA7

mcd(3, 2) = mcd(2, 1).

@#!$BGX$%D.BD.F(QhF(D.F&! / %"! B+GGXF&BC / !$B / %"!)#&% .B-B# mcd(8872, 125) = 1 @OGX$%
G$BGX.B+#(B2F&?.D7F I+A ! I %4C% .B 131 G$%"? rcyd2]gsj=o'r,g '%nr,g z a"ocyxea"d2gsj=oqg
rscyd2]
 3''; ^ ^ cfN]Ej=Nd2gsr,]gsj=o{gsr,] ]scyo'cyx"] a, b Z x"gsrc t$a"jw g
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mcd(a, b) = 1
a z t z a erg z a z khercyo'd25fhg t z c'fhguWg z mcd(247, 9981)

+~
=M]=L;^ #!$BGX,%D.BRD.FQhF&D.F(! B+?,!$B b #(%nD.B+?.%* A !XB+C%4G a mod b I %"C5%
G$B A # A C5%4GB+?B+# I+A / ($.#&% A ?~$B+!$F(%4! a
]tsrsc gWgsj ]g fhtu}+f"ckh5g z a z khercyod2fhg t z c'fhgu

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fh]gsj=oqgsr,] s m t ola z guw g


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mcd(a, b) = sa + tb.

sg d2]sorXahtscl}ej OG0.? AI %4?7G$B I .B+? I F A D.B+# A #(H4%4!XF,CE%D7B2O I &# F(D.B+G !$B I %4!XD.B+C%4G
7B GX / %4?.F(B+?.D7% .B a b $B+? A C%4G.? A B / !$B+GXF&Z4?D.B6# A L%"$! C A7
9

a = q0 b + r0
b = q 1 r0 + r 1
r0 = q 2 r1 + r 2

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rn3 = qn1 rn2 + rn1

rn2 = qn rn1

7D %4?.D.B r = mcd(a, b)
A C%4G A D.B+C%4GX$! A ! .B / A ! AIJA D A
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n1

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ri i 0

si

ti

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ri = si a + ti b.

OGX,% I %"? I #( BB##&BC A / %4! .B r = mcd(a, b)

A D.BC5%"GX,! A"I F(Z4? .B0Q A C5%"G A / !$BG$B+? A !BG D.B A #(H4.? A C A ?.B+! A I %4?7GX,!X I
$F(Q A NF3D.BG / Bq A C%4G r B+?R# A / B+? 7#(,F(C A F&H" A #(D A D B / !$B+G A C%4G-B+# mcd(a, b)
I %4C% I %4CWV.F&? A"I F(Z4?#&F(?.B A #@B?~$B+! A D.B

LB+G,% .F(B+!XB2D.B I F(! 7BB NF&G

$B+?D.%4G6? .CB+!$%"G6B+?,B!$%4G A B D.BErC5%hD7% r.B mcd(a, b) = Ar + Br s
hFOQ A C%4G6D.B+G / B{ A ?7D.% r B+?P# A G$F(H4.F&B?~$BEF&H4 A #&D A D r B?n# AA ?,B!$F&%"!+(
!XB I .!$!XB+?~$B+CB+?,BQ A C%4GGX.GX$F(, B+?.D.%B?# A GEB / !XB+G$F(%4?.BG A ?~,B!$F(%4!$BG A # =? A #
B / !$BG A C%4G mcd(a, b) I %4C5% I %"CV7F&? A"I F&Z"?#(F&?.B A #B?~$B+! A D.B a b .BBGOX.GX A
CB+?,B6#(% .B 7B+!$BC5%"G+
=%4!$C A #(F A CE%4GB#! A %4? A CF(B+?~$% / %4!F&?.D. I+I F(Z4? I %4C / #(B A B? i
O# IJA GX% i = 0 B+G I F&B!X,% / 7B+GX$% .B
n1

n1

n3

n2

n3

n2

n3

n2

r0 = a q0 b.

3%"! A ?~,% s = 1 t = q .
O# IJA GX% i = 1 B+GY A CWV7F +? I F&B+!,% / .B+G,% .B
GX.GX$F(, B+?.D7%2# A F(H4 A #(D A D A ?~$B+!$F(%4!),B?.B+C%4G
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r 1 = b q 1 r0

r1 = b q1 (a q0 b) = (1 + q1 q0 )b q1 a.

B0B+G,BC%hD.%
'

3%"! A ?~,% s = q t = 1 + q q
@B A C5%4G A .%4! AE .BG$FB+##(B+C A B+G I F&B+!,% / A ! AEI A # .F(B+!Q A #&%"!BGX$!$F I A CB?~,B
CB+?7%4! .B i A CV7F ?#(%EBG / A ! A i
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ri = ri2 qi ri1 .

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ri1

ri2

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ri = (si2 a + ti2 b) qi (si1 a + ti1 b).

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ai = si2 qi si1

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A"I B? .BGXB6Q4B+!XF .B6B+##(B+C A

+ :nT3 ^ ^  b r,gu+a"r2g z mcd(35, 20) tued2tued cyj;ahtscl}ej z cyj|g$a z fhg( * m

9
A GB / !$+B GXF&%4?7B+GYD.B+# A #(H4%4!$F ,CE%D7B0O I #&F(D.B+G



35 = 20 1 + 15
20 = 15 1 + 5

@?,%4? I BG D.BG / B{ A ?.D.%B# -B+?5# A G$BH4.?.D A F(H4 A #(D A D%4VN,B+?7B+C%4G 5 = 20 15 1

B+G / B{ A ?.D7%B# B+?R# A / !XF&CB+! A F&H4 A #&D A D
N.G,F, B?.D.%SB#
20 1
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B+GD.B I F&!
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M

5 = 2 20 + (1) 35.

;' ^ ^ g$a"j
fh]Wj=Nd2gsr,]Wj|Sj|glka"ocyx"] c
ug jgsj=oqgsru ]scyo'cyx"w g2a,f"bcyx]c'fhg2Z a z| ru+f tsoq ab m mcd(a, p) = 1 1gsj=<o{epj|<tugu abp
f"cyx]c'fhg0a b
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D.B6C%hD.p)% =.B 1
:



1 = sa + tp.

.#($F / #(F I+A ?.D7% / %4! b G$B%"V7,F(B+?.B .B

)%4C% p D.F(QhF(D.B A

b = sab + tpb.

GXB6,F(B+?7B .BB 7F(GX$B

m

ab

cZ

A # .B

ab = pc

b = spc + tpb = p(sc + tb).

D.B6B+G,BC%hD.%

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:
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/ !$F&C%4G
NF n = 1 B# I %"!$%4# A !$F(%WB+G,!$FQhF A # / %4!D.B =?.F I F&Z4?D7B? .CB+!$% / !$F(C%.
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.B p D.F(QhF(D.B A # / !X%hD. I $% ap NF mcd(a, p) = 1 B+?,%4? I B+G / %4!-B+# I %4!X%4# A !$F(%
A ?~,B!$F(%4! p B+G@.?5? .CB+!X% / !XF&C% .BYD.FQNF(D.B A p .B A CWV.F ?EBG / !$F(C%. 3%"!
A ?~$% I %4? I #&7F&C%4G .B p = p 3%hD.BC5%4GB+?,%4? I B+GG$ / %"?.B+! r = mcd(a, p) 6=
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1
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? .CB+!$%"G / !$F(C5%"G+
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i := 2
.F&#(B a mod i 6= 0
i := i + 1
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NF7D.FQNF(D.F&CE%4G3B+?,!XB -%"V7,B?.B+C%4G .B 135 = 345 3%"! A ?~$% -B+GO.? A*I $%4!
!/ $F(C5%WD.B N
B+F&?7F I F A CE%4G6B# A #(H4%4!XF,CE% I %4? N % A"I B A #( A / !$%"V A ! I %4?#(%4G / !$F&C%4G
7B ?.%D.F(QhF(D A ? A #? .C5B!$%D7B / A !X,F(D A / %4! .B?.% / 7B+D.B?D.F(QhF(D.F&! A # I % I F(B+?~$B
Q4B+!B{XB+! I F I F(%EG$F(H4.F&B?~$B s
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O# I % I F&B?~,B6D.B6?~.BQ4%5BGYD.FQhF&G$F( V.#(B-B?~,!XB 45 =153 = 315 5

5 B+G.?? .CB+!X% / !XF&C% 135 = 3 5

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^ ^ CB ahtso{ercltugsd2]D ,.,0/

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D.B?h.BsQ4% 8872 = 2 1109

O# I % I F(B+?,BB+GD.B?h.BsQ4% / A 8872
! 8872= =2 2 4436
2218

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GX%4? = 33.3001
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8872 = 23 1109.

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BGX$%6BG p D.FQNF(D.B A a(bb ) NF mcd(a, p) = 1 / %hD.BC5%"G.G A !B# )%4!X%4# A !$F(% 7 7
2A G p D.F(QhF(D.B A b b #&% .B I %4? I #& B# A D.BC5%4G,! A*I F(Z4? NF r = mcd(a, p) 6= 1
B?~$%4? I BGB 7F(GX$B+?B?~,B!$%4G s t A #&BG 7B a = rs p = rt 1 < t < p B6B+GX$B
C%hD.% 0 mod p )%4C% ab 1 mod p B+?,%4? I B+G t B+GY7?C .#($F / #(%WD.B p #(%
.B6B+GY abt
.? AEI %4?,! A D.F II F(Z4? AE .B 1 < t < p
[< ~ \7='; ^ ^ j z ae-dc&sdae0tuej;f"cltsclej|gu-fhg z o{guer,gsdae3sc mcd(a, p) =
j|SgXb4c&soqg b Z ola z w g ab 1 mod p
r 6= 1
S : ;<M =L;^ )%4C% mcd(a, p) = r 6= 1 B?~,%"? I BGB NF&G,B+?B+?,B!$%4G s, t Z
A #&BG .B a = rs p = tr I %4? 1 < t < p BBGX,BC%hD.% at 0 mod p
h / %4?.H A C5%4G .BB NF&GX$B b Z A # 7B ab 1 mod p @O?~$%4? I BG
<

bat t mod p

hXW N   YUs
D.B6B+G,BC%hD.%
+ + )

#x

S3 @E @

+)

'+

t 0 mod p

#&% 7BB+G.? AEI %"?~,! A D.F I+I F&Z4? / .B+G 1 < t < p
B6B+GX A C A ?.B! A B+#$B+%4!XB+C AEA ?~$B+!XF&%4! # A G%4V.G$B!XQ A*I F(%4?.B+GYGX.V.G$F(H4.F(B+?,B+G IJA
A! "I ,B+!XF A ? I A ?7D.%B NF&G,BB+#@F(?~Q4B!$G$% / A ! A B+# / !$%hD. I ,%CZhD..#&% p A D.B+C "G6B+#
,B+%"!$B+C A F&?7D.F I+AI %4C% IJA # I .# A !$#(%7 A]S .B7G A !B# A #&H4%"!$F$C%WD.BO I #(F&D.BG / A ! A
#&#&BH A ! A # A F&D.B?~,F(D A DSD.B+##(B+C A D7B B +%"7J
^ ^ g$a"j z ]0j=hd2gsr,] * m  a"d2]at$a z t z a"rg z cyj.x"gsru]2fhg

+ :nT3
d2}+f z 11 ed2S]ej rcyd2]Sgsj=or,gE -gsj=ao{e` j|tuguSgXb4c&soqg a Z ola z w g 5a 5
a z t z a"d2]g z xea z erfhg a z a z khercyo'd2fhg t z c'fhguYfa z ac'fhgsj=oc'faf
1 mod 11
fhbg 5-8g 7 ol
1 = 11 + 5 (2).
iYer6ola"j=oq]d2}+f z 

1 5 (2) mod 11.

iYer z w g a = 9 gug z cyj=x"gsr,]fhg * d2}Jf z  U csrx"gu]gw g 2

9 mod 11
@G,% / B+!XC5F,B!XB+GX%4#(Q4B!# AWI %4?.H"!$.B? I F AE .B / %4? A C%4GB?.?B{XBC / #&% A ?~$B+!$F(%4!
!

3x + 3 4 mod 5.

NB A # A C%4G .BD.F I AEI %4?.H4!X.B+? I F A B+! A B .F(Q A #&B?~$B / A G A ?.D.%B# E!XB+GX A ?.D.% A


3x 1 mod 5.

3%4!B+#U,B%4!$BC A2A ?,B+!XF&%4! I %4C% 5G$%4? / !$F(C5%4GYB+?,!XBWG 3B NF(GX,BWB#3F&?~Q"B+!$GX%SD.B

SCZhD..#&% h #$! A V A A !C5ZhD7.#&% 2$%hD.%? .CB+!$%SB+G I %4?.H4!X.B+?,B I %4?.?.%D.B+#
I %4?eX7?~,% {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 3%hD.B+C%4GB?~$%4? I B+GV7.G I+A !YB#F&?~Q4B!$GX% / !$%4V A ?.D.%

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7 h

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3 0 0 mod 5
3 1 3 mod 5
3 2 1 mod 5
3 3 4 mod 5
3 4 2 mod 5

@GD.B I F&!B+#F(?~Q4B!$G$%D.B# EBGYB+# AE .B

i

3 2 1 mod 5


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3x 2 1 2 mod 5,

BGYD.B I F(!

x 2 mod 5.

3%"!O A ?~$%,%hD.%4GO#&%"GO? 7C5B!$%4GOB+?,B!$%4G x .BG$%"?G$%4#( I F(Z4?D.B# A-I %"?.H4!$7B+? I F A G$%4?
D7B# A L%4!XC A
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x = 5K + 2

K Z.

.V G$B!XQ A ! .B.B+C%4G / !$% / .B+G,%D.%4GC A ?.B! A GD7B IJA # I .# A !YB#3F(?~Q4B!$G$%2D.B.?
? .CB+!$% a C5ZhD.7#&% p 3%4!7?E# A D.%.G A !# A F&D.B?~$F&D A DD.B )B %47 / %4!%",!X%-# A D.%F&!
/ !$%4V A ?.D.% I %4?2#&%4G@D.F&G,F&?,%4G / !X%hD. I $%4G a 1 a 2 ( a (p 1) A G A B? I %4?,! A !
B# / !$%hD7 I $% .BQ A #(H A
^ ^ ed2

+ :nT

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3 1 3 mod 6
3 4 0 mod 6

3 2 0 mod 6 3 3 3 mod 6
3 5 3 mod 6 3 0 0 mod 6

sg j=oqej|tugu-j|oclgsj|g@cyj=x"gsru]d2}Jf z E U c srx"gu]gw gj|]go'clgsj|gsj z aeOhc }eoqgusc&

fhg z oqguerugsdae@m"aSw g mcd(3, 6) = 3
gsd2]sorXa"rw g z atejhk"r gsj|st c'a z cyj|g$a z

+~ '
9

3x + 4 5 mod 6

j|Eo'clgsj|g] z tscl}ej
Cd a zyz a"r6oq+fae z ae-] z tsclej|guWgsj=oqgsrXaefhg z atu*j~k"r gsj|tsc'a

+~ '

5x + 2 5 mod 7.

NFYG$B / .BD.B+? / # A ?~,B A !B I A*I F&%"?.B+G2#(F&?.B A #(B+G B+G5? A $.! A # A .%"! A / # A ?~$B A !B#
/ !$%4V.#(B+C A D.B!XB+G$%"#(Q4B! <J<sM :n=< ;UK eU U'=<' = < B+GYD.B I F&! B / !$B
GXF&%4?7B+GD.B#$F / %

x a1 mod p1

hXW N   YUs
+ + )

#x

S3 @E @

+)

'+

x a2 mod p2
...

x an mod pn

O# e :nfeU  ;< e <M < BG@B+#=F(?.GX$!$.CB+?,% A D.B I A D.% / A ! A G A V;B!

G$F.?G$ F(GX,BC A D7BBGX$B6,F / %,F(B+?.BG$%4#( I F&Z4? / B+!XC5F,B I+A # I .# A !$# A
:P ^ ^ g$a"j
j=hd2gsru]gsj=oqgsr,]m p , p , ..., p gsj=oqgsr,]
]scyocyx"]x"gsrsc t$a"j;fh" a , a , ..., a
c p > 1 a"rXat$afa i = 1, yy n
a"rXat$afa i, j = 1 yy n tuej i 6= j
cyc
j=oqej|tumcd(p
guWg z c&,spo{gs)d=a 1

x a1 mod p1

x a2 mod p2
...

x an mod pn

oclgsj|g-] z tscl}ejNj=clt$a5d2}+f z 2g z7 r,+f tsoq P = p p ...p

gsd2]sorXahtscl}ej hB A ? P = p ...p P = P/p I %"? i .?nB?~$B+!$%B+?,!$B n
3%4!).F / Z"$B+GXF&G)#(%4G p G$%"? / !$F(C5%"GB+?,!$B-G I %"?S#&% I A # mcd(P , p ) = 1 i = 1 (
)%"C5%E.BC5%"GQhF&GX$% A ?~$B+G gYUB+%4!XB+C A 7 N / A ! AEI+A D A cB NF&G,F&! q A # 7B
n
1 2

<

i
2

i
m

qi Pi 1 mod pi .

NB A B+?,%"? I BG

x0 = a1 P1 q1 + a2 P2 q2 + ... + an Pn qn

D.B6C5%hD.% .B A #|,%4C A ! I %4?.H4!X.B+? I F A C5ZhD.7#&% p G$B6%4V7,F(B+?.B

G$F j 6= i B+?,%4? I B+G P BGYD.FQhF&GXF&V.#(B / %4! p / %4! A ?,% P 0 mod p
G$F j = i B+?,%4? I B+G P q 1 mod p
/ %4! A ?~,% x a mod p i = 1 n I %4C5% .B! A C5%"GD.B+C%4GX$! A ! G .$%hD.%4G
#&%4G? .CB+!$%"GD.B6# A L%4!$C A
i

i i

x = x0 + KP

 31
I %4?

 OJ3h-+ Us SU-

G$%"?GX%4#& I F&Z"?D.B#GXF&G,B+C A
KZ
B+C%4G,! A C5%4G A .%4! A # A .?.F I F&D A DPD.B5# A G$%"#& I F&Z4?CZhD..#&% P OGX,% / !X.B+V A
A D.B+C "G .B$%hD A G$%"#& I F&Z4?D.B#7G$F(GX,BC A B+GD.B# A L%4!$C A x = x +KP I %"? K Z

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3Y %"C5BC5%"G D7%4GG$%4#( I F(%4?.B+G@D.B#;GXF&GX$B+C A B?~,%"? I BG

GXF&G,B+C A D.B I %"?.H4!$7B+? I F A G

B+GGX%4#& I F&Z"?D.B+#

x 0 mod p1

x 0 mod p2
...

x 0 mod pn

BGD.B I F&! mod P A2 .B B+GC .#,F / #(%ED.B

D7B+CW.B+G,! A # A .?7F I F&D A DSD.B6# A GX%4#( I F(Z4?CZhD..#(% P
^ ^  gu] z x"gsrg z sc&so{gsda

+ :nT

pi

/ A ! A5IJA D A i#(% .B

x 2 mod 3
x 3 mod 5
x 2 mod 7

)%4C% GX%4? / !XF&C%4GB+?,!XBG B+#;,B%4!$BC AI .F(?.%WD.B-#&%"G)!$BGX,%"G / B!$CF(,B

I+A # I .# A !# A .?.F IJA G$%4#( I F(Z4?CZhD..#(% 3 5 7 = 105
NF&H".F&B?.D.%# A ?.%" A*I F&Z"?D.B#$B+%4!XB+C A

P1 = 105/3 = 35
P2 = 105/5 = 21
P3 = 105/7 = 15

.%"! A BGB+#)F(?~Q4B!$G$%1D7B CZhD..#(% 7 )%4C% 35 2 mod 3 B?~$%4? I B+G

B?~$%4? I BG q q = 2 AE 7B 2 2 1 mod 3
B0# A CF&GXC A C A ?7B+! A q BGB+#UF(?~Q4B!$GX%2D.B h CZND7.#&% BGD7B I F(! B+#F&?Q4B+!XG$%
D7B C5ZhD7.#&% / %"! A ?~,% q = 1
F&? A #&CEB+?,B q = 1
3%4! A ?~$%
z

<

x = 2 35 2 + 3 21 1 + 2 15 1 = 233

h XW N   YUs S3 @E @

B+G# A .?.F IJA G$%4#( I F(Z4?CZhD..#&% D7BC%hD.% .B),%hD A G# A G3GX%4#& I F&%4?7B+GD7B+#NG$F&G,BC A
G$%4?
+ + )

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x = 23 + 105K

K Z.

? -A A / #(F IJA*I F(Z4? .B / %hD7! A C5%"G / !$BG$B+? A !D7B+#h,B+%"!$B+C AI .F&?.%D.B)#&%4G3!XB+G,%4GBG

# A %4V.GXB+!Q A"I F(Z4?ED.B .B#&%"G!$BGX$%4G@CZhD.7#&%-7? I %4?X.?~$%6D.B? .C5B!$%"G / !XF&C%4GB+?,!XB
G / B+!XC5F,B?D.B$B+!$CF&? A !7? (Q4% I+A CB+?~$B7?1? .C5B!$%7 BWB+G A C A ?.B+! A ? .CB+!X%4G
D.B2H4! A ?P A C A .%G$B / %hD7! A ?n!XB / !XB+GXB+?~ A ! / %"!0G$.G!$BGX,%"GWCZhD..#(%.?.%4G I F&B!X,%"G
/ !$F(C5%4G SA G !$BD. I F&!GX.GX A ? I F A #(C5B?~,B-GX A C A .%. )%"?BGX,%"G!$B+G,%4GG$B / 7B+D.B?
A"I B!% / B! A"I F&%4?7B+G # A !$B I / B! A"I F&Z4?D7B+#U? .CB+!$%B+? I .B+G,F&Z"? / A G A / %4!Y# A !$BG
%4#& I F&Z"?1D.B7?G$F&G,B+C A D.B I %4?.H4!X.B+? I F A GOGX,%!$BG$%4#Q4B+! A / A ! I F A #(CB+?,B I %4C%
Q4B+!$BC%4GYB?B#B{XBC / #(%EGXF&H47F&B?~,B # A #&F(CF A"I F(Z4?D.B6D &H4F,%"GD.B6.? A C .F(? A
^ ^ ejhka"d2]nw gno{gsj|gsd2] j;a t$a z t z afherXafhh

+ :nT3
g ,`f k"cyo{]Pm
w gsr,gsd2]7aNtugsr z a- da0fhg z ]j=hd2gsr,] * ,.,.,., *   * ,m +*.i E   j/ eda"d2]u
ergLJgsd ;z ] z ]j=hd2gsr,] rcyd2]gsj=o'r,g  9.9 i.i m i /t m r,+f tso{ P gu
i E 9  9k9 Od2gsj|erfhg6,tsc r$ae

z7 rcyd2gsrj=Nd2gsr,Ex"gsrc t$a

z ] glk j;fhEx"gsrc t$a

5888851358 58 mod 100

5888851358 72 mod 99
5888851358 78 mod 97.

259632147 47 mod 100

259632147 93 mod 99
259632147 7 mod 97.

l a"rXa7ahtugsr z a6 da
aesola7ahtugsr z a6 daWfhg z ]r,guso{]uUm0fhgu u rugu] z x"gsr
g z sc&soqgsda

x 47 + 58 mod 100
x 72 + 93 mod 99
x 78 + 7 mod 97

jguso{gY z ocyd2 ae]] a4rXa0rugut gsrXa"r-g z j=Nd2gsr,]7a"mw g7ahtugsr- gsrXahtsclej|gu

tuejgsj=oqgsru]Wfhgd5efhg\,f k"cyo{]u er z w gu r, c'a"d2gsj=o{gutuejm,f k"cyo{]6]} z
Jfhgsd2]7ahtugsra"rcyo'd soclt$aWtuej z aer,g r,gu]gsj= oahtsclej|gu er r,guso{]d2}+f z  9.9
i.i m i /

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Y A CWV.F ? / .B+D7B7G A !XG$BB+G,B,B%4!XB+C A / A ! A A"I B+!!$B I .B+?,%"G I %"?? .CB+!X%4G
H"! A ?.D7B+G+
^ ^
ejhka"d2]Ww gWoqgsj|gsd2] j;aSda"j=c Jgusoahtscl}ejw g0+a gsd2]

+ :nT
w gW7atu*j~k"ruglkafha d2gsj|]fhg jdc zyz }ejpfNg gsr,]ej;aemw gsr,gsd] ufhgu+fhg z a
erka"j=Ac 7]ahtscl}ej7+a gsrg z j=hd2gsr,pgXb~ahtsoqPfhgRtuejhk"ruglkafh] _ gu g$f"cyd]w gSJg
a]k"r gsjfhg  9.9 gsj  9.9 mRa j=ola"d2]g z r,gusoq iYejhka"d2]w g]ej 9 soq
cyj;f"cl t$a2w gWg z j=hd2gsru x fhg a" ro'cltsc a"j=o{gux"gsrc t$a
W/

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x 30 mod 100.

ug u z gu g$f"cyd2]Yw g]ga]k"r gsjgsjk"r ]fhg i.i Um6] r$a"j +* mEgsjk"r ]

fhg i /Em ] rXa"j   fhgutscyr,]go'clgsj|gg z sck clgsj=o{g-sc&soqgsd5a2fNgWtuejhk"r gsj|tsc'ae+
x 30 mod 100
x 25 mod 99
x 13 mod 97

ed2  9.9 i.i m i /6]ej rcyd2]gsj=o'r,g- &)g z sc&soqgsdao'clgsj|g-] z tscl}ej ed2

gsj=oqej|tugu z ahj=clt$a] z tscl}ej ]scyo'cyxeamd2gsj|erEw ggu]g
100 99 97 = 960.300
j=hd2gsr,gug z j=Nd2gsr,5fhg a"ro'cltsc a"j=o{gugsj z a5da"j=c Jgusoahtscl}ej
 gso{gsrdcyj;a"rSg z j=hd2gsr,1fhg a"ro'cltsc a"j=o{gugsj z aa"j=o{gsrcler5da"j=cP

+~ '
Jgusolahtscl}ej

[
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LG$F(GX,BC A D.B2?h7C5B! A"I F&Z4?nD7B I F(C A # 7F *GWD7B+V.F(D ARA ?~.BGX,! A / !$% / F AA ? A $%4C A
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BG-!XB+#(BQ A ?~,B0B+?RCB+D.F(D A GY$B+C / %4! A #&BG / %4!! A +%4?.BGG$F&CF&# A !XB+G A # A V A G$B Y A
C%4G A Q4B+! .B$%hD.%4GBGX$%4GGXF&GX$B+C A G / B+!$CF,B+?S!XB / !XB+GXB+?~ A ! CB+D7F A ?,B?.%" A*I F&Z"?
/ %"G$F I F&%4? A # I A # 7F&B+!? .CB+!$%EB+?,B!$% A"I B+!% / B+! A"I F(%4?.BG I %4?BGX A ?.%" A"I F(Z4?
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7
) A ?7D.%B+G I !$F(V.F&C%4GB+#? .CB+!X% B?V A G$B B+G A C%4G).G A ?.D.%#&% .BGXB
#&# A C A MJ=';T ;<J' ;= IJA D A D &H"F(,%,F(B+?7B.?PG$F(H4?.F IJA D7% / %4!6B+#@#(.H A !
7B1% I / A G B+C / B A ?.D.% / %4!2# A D.B!$B I A # A / !$F(CB+! API F L! A BGS# A D7B1# A G
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12345 = 5 100 + 4 101 + 3 102 + 2 103 + 1 104 .

vB+G,% .BGXB A"I B I %"?# A V A G$B B / !$BG A !B+#|? .CB+!X% I %"C5% I %4CWV.F&? A*I F(Z4?
#&F&?7B A #D7B6# A G / %",B? I F A GD.B# A V A GXB GXB / .BD.B6 A"I B+! / A ! A .?SQ A #(%4! A !XV.F($! A !XF(%WD.B
# A V A G$B*
j| ]6 xe:Pa z e rugu^ N^ j=cltu] g$a"j a m b j=Nd2tuegsj r,]gsj=o{gsr,] mS]stucyo'ecyj x"]utuej )bfh>g6d21 + fh 5b4w c&soqg gsj

a , a , ...a
0a <b
a 6= 0

a = a0 b0 + a1 b1 + a2 b2 + ... + an bn .

gsd2]sorXahtscl}ej F(QhF&D.F(C%4G a B?~,!XB b / A ! A %4V7$B+?.B!

a = q0 b + r0 .

@G,%CW.BGX$! A .B
D.B+C "G-CW.B+G,! A # A .?.F I F(D A D
/ %4! 7B
D.B a AE .BB+#$B+%4a!XB+C =A rD.B+#!XB+GX$%H 0A ! A ?~r,F <WA b.BB#!$BGX,%BG .?.F I %.
NFD.FQhF&D.F(C%4G A .%4! A q B?~,!XB b G$B%"V7,F(B+?.B

q0 = bq1 + r1

B+?,%4? I B+G

a = b2 q1 + br1 + a0 ,

I %4?#(% I A # a = r LD.B?h.BsQ4% .?7F I % / %4! .B6BG.?!XB+GX$% A G |G$ I B+GXF(Q A CB?~,B
A GX AE .BB# I % I F(B+?,B q G$B A ?CB+?.%4! .B b
c&]gs;a"r jRa z kherscyo'd2 a"r$a2gu]tsrsc cyr jj=Nd2gsr,5gu]tsrcyo{5gsj ae]g

+~
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10
c&]gs;a"r ja z khercyod2 a"r$agu]tsrsc cyr jj=Nd2gsr,gu]tsrcyo{gsj ae]g a gsj ae]g
b

OJ3h-+ Us SU-

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101001001

12101

342104

+~ '  ]tsrc cyrg z j=hd2gsru   E * gsj ae]g * mn/

.? A #(C5B?~,B1G$B / 7B+D.B? B+G I !$F(V.F&! A #&H"%4!$F$C%"G / A ! A A*I B!% / B+! A"I F(%4?.BGD.B
GX.C A / !$%hD. I ,%D7BE? 7C5B!$%4GB+G I !XF(,%"G6B+? I A # .F&B!V A G$BED.BE?~.CB+! A*I F(Z4? G$F&?
C "G 7B$B+?.B!UB+? I .B+? AY .B#&% .B@,! A D.F I F(%4? A #CB?~,BG$BB / !XB+G AI %4C%6d2g zyz gsx"
j;a .BB?V A GXB GXB A"I B I A ?.D.%G$B#&#(B+H A6A B+?2.? A V A GXBD.B?~.CB+! A*I F&Z"?
I A # 7F&B+! A G$B6 A"I B I A ?.D.%G$B6#&#(B+H AWA #|Q A #(%4!D7B# A V A G$B*
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+ :nT


1101
1001

10110

j z a rcyd2gsr$atsc rXa2=gsd2]6 dafh  oY w gEfa w ga z t$a"j+7]aa z a ae]gu er

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11

1101
1101

100111

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+~ 3%4?.B!YD7%4GB{XBC / #(%4GD.B

F ? 7C5B!$%4G I %4?.H"!$.B?~,BG I %4? CZhD..#(%
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F&F(F ? 7C5B!$%4G I %4?.H"!$.B?~,BG I %4? 4 C5ZhD7.#&%
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B A #&F A # A GGXF&H47F&B+?,BG% / B! A"I F&%4?7B+G
F .q .qD1 9 8 84 rq N C5ZhD.7#&%
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F&F(F .q .q 31 9 8 84 rq N CZhD..#&% N

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1234

 

 z

1234

1234

49 #

x 2 mod 6
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F


BC5%"GX,! A ! .B#(%4G0GXF&H4.F(B+?,B+G0G$F(GX,BC A G0$F&B+?7B+?G$%"#& I F&Z4? !$B

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F&F

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c = 1

PO?~,%"? I BGE.G A ?7D.%# A G!$BH4# A GD.BS# A

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. %"! A $G / %"?.H A C%4G .B

D7B# A GX.C A G$B, F(B+?.B

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

B?~.BQ4%5D.B# A G!XB+H4# A G

(a + b) + s(c) = s((a + b) + c) = s(a + (b + c)) = a + s(b + c) = a + (b + s(c)).

+~ ' F A CE%4G n N YU%4C A C5%"GOB+# I %4?X.?~$% A = {m N : nm BGX

D7B =?.F(D.% } A / !$F&CB+! A !$B+H"# A D.B# / !$%hD. I ,%SH A ! A ?~$F A2 .B 1 A A G$B+H".?.D A
!XB+H4# A D.F I B .BGXF m A B+?,%4? I B+G s(m) A B2B+GX$BC%hD.% A = N / %"!0B+#
/ !$F&? I F / F&%WD.B6F&?.D. I+I F&Z4?

+~ '
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1I A !X A H A ! A ?~,F A ? 7B s(m) A 1 .B a(m) A 3%4! A ?~,% A = Z / %4!
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B?#(%4G? 7C5B!$%4GB+?~$B+!X%4GY?.%E?.B+H A ,F(Q4%"G N
B .?.F&C%4G I %"C5%SB+G6 A V.F, A #B+#Q A #&%4! A V7G$%4#(7,%SD.B n Z I %4C% |n| = n GXF

G$F
n N |0| = 0 |n| = n n N


u [

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a b = |a| |b|

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a<0

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# AA GX% I F A ,FQNF(D A DD.BW# A GX.C A D.BWC A ,!$F I BGB+G I %4?.GXB I .B+? I F A D.B# AA G$% I F A ,FQhF&D A D
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u o

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'+

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0 0

O#B#&BC5B?~$%F&?Q4B+!XG$% / A ! A # A $G .C A D.B.? A C A ,!XF A BG)# A C A ,!XF A !$BG$.#
A D.%D.B I+A CWV.F A !D.B-GXF&H4?.% I+A D A B+? ,! A D A D.B A D.B?.%4CF&? A D A0I %4?S# A #&Bs,! A a G$
I %4!X!$B+G / %4?.D.F(B+?,BGX.V &?7D.F I B"

A =

a11 a12
a21 a22

NB A ?D.%"GC A $!$F I B+G A B I A GUB?~,! A D A GG$%"?D.B?.%4CF&? A D A G!$BG / B I ,FQ A CB+?,B
I %4?# A G#&B$! A G a b GX.G I %4!X!$BG / %4?.D7F&B+?,BGG$7V &?7D.F I B+G O# / !$%hD7 I $%D.B
C A $!$F I BGG$B6D.B =?7B

AB =

a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22

a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b11 + a22 b21

)%4C / !$%"V A C%4G .BBG A G$% I F A $F(Q4% B+G,%PBG (AB)C = A(BC) D.%4?.D.B# A G
B+?~$! A D A GD7B C B+GX "?2D.B?.%4CF&? A D A G I %"?2# A #&Bs,! A c %0 A"I BC5%"G / A ! A # A B?~,! A D A
D.BGX.V (?.D.F I B 4 D.B# / !X%hD. I ,% D.B2F&H4 A #@C A ?7B+! A GXB A ! A / A ! A # A G0%",! A G0$!$BG
B+?~$! A D A G+
O?B# / !$%hD7 I $% (AB)C G$B,F(B+?.B 7BD.F I A B+?,! A D A BG

O?B# / $! %hD7 I $%

(a11 b11 + a12 b21 )c11 + (a11 b12 + a12 b22 )c21 .
A(BC)

G$B,F(B+?.B 7BD.F I A B+?,! A D A BG

a11 (b11 c11 + b12 c21 ) + a12 (b21 c11 + b22 c21 ).

BGY.? AEI %4C / !$%"V A"I F(Z4?Q4B+!XF I+A ! .B A CV A GB / !XB+GXF&%4?.BGGX%4?F(H4 A #&B+G
O#4B+#(B+CB+?~$%?.B+7$!$% / A ! A B# / !$%hD. I ,%B+G# A C A ,!XF F(D.B+?,F(D A D I %4?6# A D7F A H4%"? A #
L%4!$C A D A / %4!.?.%"G B#!$BGX,% I B+!$%"G+

1 0
0 1

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?7%B+G I %4?.CW7 A ,FQ4%.

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B+?,!XB N B+G NO#!$B+G,%0D.BYD.FQhF&D.F(! 7 B+?,!XB BG 4 OO#!XB+GX$%0D.BYD.F(QhF(D.F&!
B?~$!$B " BG 3%4! A ?,%
Du

-

J-

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mcd(9981, 247) = mcd(247, 101) = mcd(101, 45) = mcd(45, 11) = mcd(11, 1) = 1.

+~ '
O?~,! A D A7 a, b N a b
i := a j := b
.F&#(B j 6= 0

r := i mod j
i := j
j := r
i

A #(F&D A7

+~ '
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B NF&GX$B.?WB+?,B+!X% s D.BC%hD.% .B as = q OG,%F(C / #&F IJA c = abs B? I %"?~,! A D.F I+I F(Z4?
I %4?B+#.B I .%5D.B .B a ?.%D.FQNF(D.B A c

+~ '
O#? .CB+!X% E?.%5BG / A ! / B+!$%5G UBGC .#,F / #(%D.B 7)@?,%4? I B+G
D7F(QhF&D.F(B+?.D7%B+?,!XB G$B1%"V7,F(B+?.B 1653 = 3 551 .%4! A V.F&B? 23 = 529
3%4! A ?,% A D7B6,B?.B+!Y7? A"I ,%4!C5B?.%4!%F(H4 A # .B 7O#
24 = 576
D7F(QhF&D.B A NB,F(B+?.B .B 551 = 19 29 )%4C5% BG / !XF&C%GXB6,F(B+?.B

xu

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1653 = 3 19 29.

+~ ' hF
B?~$%4? I B+GGXBS,F(B+?.B .BB NF&G,B?
p
b = pq + r NB0G$F&H".B .B
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A #&BpG =.B bamod
=
pq
+
r
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a b = p(q q )


~u D

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NF(? / B+!XD.F&D A D.BWH"B+?.B! A #(F&D A DRGX / %4?.H A C5%"G a b 3%"!-B#3,B%4!$BC A D7B+#!$BGX$%
B?~$B+!$%"G r r A #&BG .B 0 r < p 0 r < p a = pq + r
q,
q

{0}
b = pq + r )O?,%4? I B+G a b = p(q q ) + (r r ) BB+GX$B0C%hD.% r r =
B+GW.?pC 7#(,F / #(%D.B p )%4C% p < r r < p B?~$%4? I BG
(a I b)

p(q

q
)
?.B B+G A !$F A C5B?~$B r = r I %4C% .B+! A C%4GD7B+C%4GX$! A !

+~
2 4 mod 2 / %4! .B 2 4 = 2
%4! .B 13 + 2 = 5 3
13 2 mod 5 /
%4! 7B 15 3 = 4 3
15 3 mod 3 /

+~
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4

'+

J+

'+

<

u 

NF

b d mod p

a c = sp.

B?~$%4? I BGB NF&GX$B7?B?~$B+!$% t A # .B

m

b d = tp.

N.C A ?.D7% A CWV A GF&H" A #&D A D.BGG$B,F(B+?.B

(a + b) (c + d) = p(t + s).

B6C5%hD.% .B a + b c + d mod p
3%4!%",!X%E# A D.%CW.#,F / #(F IJA ?7D.% / %4! b # A / X! F&CB+! A F(H4 A #(D A DG$B,F&B?.B

<

ab bc = spb.

.#,F / #&F IJA ?.D.% / 4% ! c # A GXB+H".?.D A F(H4 A #(D A DG$B6$F&B?.B

bc dc = tpc.

N.C A ?.D7%# A GD.%"GF&H4 A #&D A D.B+GSG$B,F&B?.B 7B ab dc = p(ab + tc) I %"C5%

7B+! A C%4GD.BC5%"GX,! A !+

+~
2345 + 214 432 6 mod 7

2419 + 987 4 mod 7


+~
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D7BC%hD.% 7BB NF&G,B6.?B+?,B+!X% k A # .B
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3x = 6k + 1

 1
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$B+%4!XB+C AI 7F&?.%ED.B6#&%4G!$B+G,%4G F I A G$%"#& I F&Z4?SB+G
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mcd(10223, 33341) = mcd(33341, 10223)

33341 mod 10223 = 2672

mcd(33341, 10223) = mcd(10223, 2672)

10223 mod 2672 = 2207

mcd(10223, 2672) = mcd(2672, 2207)

2672 mod 2207 = 465

mcd(2672, 2207) = mcd(2207, 465)

2207 mod 465 = 347

mcd(2207, 465) = mcd(465, 347)

465 mod 347 = 118

mcd(465, 347) = mcd(347, 118)

347 mod 118 = 111

mcd(347, 118) = mcd(118, 111)

118 mod 111 = 7,
mcd(118, 111) = mcd(111, 7)

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7 mod 6 = 1

mcd(7, 6) = mcd(6, 1) = 1

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mcd(385, 1729) = mcd(1729, 385)

1729 mod 385 = 189

mcd(1729, 385) = mcd(385, 189)

385 mod 189 = 7

mcd(385, 189) = mcd(189, 7)

189 mod 7 = 0

mcd(189, 7) = mcd(7, 0)

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(1) mod 5
(245 + 1321) mod 5 = (0 + 1) mod 5 = 1 mod 5

(4 + 5) mod 2 = (0 + 1) mod 2 = 1 mod 2

(1044 + 8) mod 2 = (0 + 0) mod 2 = 0 mod 2
(9 8) mod 2 = (1 0) mod 2 = 0 mod 2
841234 mod 2 = 01234 mod 2 = 0 mod 2
(245 + 1321) mod 2 = (1 + 1) mod 2 = 0 mod 2

(3 + 75) mod 7 = (3 + (2)) mod 7 = 1 mod 7

(234 + 458) mod 7 = (3 + 3) mod 7 = 6 mod 7
(9 8) mod 7 = (2 1) mod 1 = 2 mod 1
841234 mod 7 = 01233 mod 7 = 0 mod 7
(245 + 1321) mod 7 = (0 + 5) mod 7 = 5 mod 7.

84 mod 5 =

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/ A ! AA*I %4C / A A ! A #CF&?.F(GX$!$%WD.BB h,B+!XF&%4!XB+G B?~,%"? I BG AJ IJA ?7D.F&D A ,%4GB+#(B
H4F&V.#(B+G .B / %hD.B+C%4G2?h.CB+! A ! I %"? # A G I F L! A G2D7B+# A # B+GD.B I F(!GXB / .B+D.B
B+GX A V.#(B I B+!.? A L7? I F(Z4?nV7F B I ,FQ A L!$B I %4!XD A !$BC5%"G0G$D7B =?7F I F(Z4?PB+?n# A / !$Z NF(C A
G$B II F(Z4? B+?,!$B6B+# I %4?eX7?~,%D7B / %"G$F&V7#&B+GCF&?.F(G,!$%"G A"I %"C / A A ?,B+G B+# I %4?eX.?,%
F

N14 = {1, 2, 3, 4, ..., 13, 14}.

O# / !X%4V.#(B+C A B+GWD.B I F&! I "?~$%4G nI "#&BGWG$%"?p#&%4G0G$.V I %4?eX.?,%4GD.BD.%"GWB+#(B

C5B?~,%"GD.B N %E A"I B+C%4G%4!XD.B+? A D A CB+?,B
%4GEGX.V I %"?eX.?~$%4G .B I %4?~$F&B?.B+? A #B#&BC5B?~,% GX%4?#&%4G 1G$7V I %4?eX7?~,%"G
L%4!$C A D.%"G / %4!B+# %"$!$%ECF&?.F(GX$!$% I A # .F&B! A B+G,%5BG
9

14

{1, 2}, {1, 3}, ..., {1, 14}.

A ! A B+#hB#&BC5B?~$% V A G A B+#(B+H"F&!B+?,!XB A"I %4C / A A ?,BG 'D.B# A # / %"! .B
A .B+C%4G$B+?.F(D.%EB+? I .B ?~ A # A / A !XB{ A {1, 2} G G$%4?
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{2, 3}, {2, 4}, ..., {2, 14}.

OGX$B / X! % I B+GX%GXB / 7 B+D.B5F(!6!XB / F,F(B+?.D.% BG I !$F&V7F&!6# A #&F&G AI %4C / (# B A A D.BC *G

G$F&!Q4B / A ! A 7D B+C%4GX$! A ! .B# A G / A !XB{ A G / %"G$F(V.#&BGGX%4?

13 + 12 + 11 + 10 + 9 + ... + 1.

/ "% !# A LZ4!XC7# A D.B6# A G$.C A D.B#(%4G / !XF&CB+!X%4G? .CB+!$%"G? A $.! A #&B+G

(14 13)/2.

3%4!Y A ?~,% / !$F&? I F / A #(CB+?,B ;MJ / B!$%2 A CWV.F ? : h EGX%4?R#&%"G%4VhXB

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A C5%"G A / !XB I F(G A !# A GD.B =?7F I F(%4?.BGD.B6#&%4G I %4? I B / $%4G .B.BC5%4G / !$BG$B+? A D.%.
S U''; ^ ^ g$a"j A m B tuejJ j=oq]u]g5fhgL@j|g j;a-q 3L A
m]gfhgsj|eoa A B a j 7 tejJ j=oqfhg z; r,+f tsoqt$a"ro{gusc'a"j| A B
B
fhg z aYJ*rda {(a,f f:(a))
: a A} A B
S U''; ^ ^ g$a"j A m B fh]tuejJ j=o{]m f : A B j;a j|tscl}ejfhg A
gsj B
gf"cltug2w g f gu '{ "My\. sc a"rXat$a~fa a"r2fhgSg z gsd2gsj=o{] a, b A w g
x"gsrc t$a"j f (a) = f (b) ]g6oclgsj|g0w g a = b
gf"cltugw g f gu < e "My\. sc a"r$ant$afa b B gXb4c&soqg j g z gsd2gsj=oq
fhg6d2+fh5w g b = f (a)
aA
gf"cltug0w g f gu 3 "M]L\7 sc)gu6cyj=m~gutso'cyxea5mE] r,gsm~gutso'cyxea
m
w gEa*ck"j;aaRt$afa
gz

+ :nT ;< ^ ^
|g,a
xea z erfhg t af"r$afh fA(x)= =B x= RgWfoclgs: j|RgE
w g Rf j| gucyj=mgutsocyxea exr$w gRfh]
j=hd2gsr,]-rug$a z gu6f"c&so'cyj=o{]u er0gLJgsd ;z g z 2 m2g z 2 Ox"gsrsc t$a"j f (2) = f (2) =
4
a"d ]tgu] r,gsm~gutso'cyxea er$w g7a"m2j=hd2gsr,]0r,g$a z gu5oq+fh] z ]j|glka"ocyx"]

w gj|W]g g$fhgsjPgu]tsrc cyrtued2g z t af"rXafh5fhg j1j=hd2gsruEr,g$a z

ed2Ej|gucyj=mgutsocyxeaj=cola"d ]tu] r,gsm~gutso'cyxea j|gu cymgutsocyxea
S U''; ^ ^ g$a"j m fh]tuejJ j=oq]u]g6f4cltug6w g 4 3'U=
<LK . N U4 U'U=A BB Um]g-gu]tsrc g |A| = |B| scUgXb4c&so{g j;a j|tscl}eAj
cymgutsocyxeaX cym~gututscl}ej gsj=o'rug A m B
S U' ; < ^ ^ jtuejJ j=o{ A ]gf"cltug ULM sc&- clgsjgu2g z tuejJ j=o{
xeaht l]S clgsjgXb4c&so{g
m j;a cym~gututscl}ej
gsj=or,g m
sclgsj;fh N g z tuejJ j=oqnfhg Nz ]j= hd2gsr, ]j;a"o r$a fz gu: d2Agsj|er,guN1Pck a z guAw g Nn
N = {1, 2, ..., n}
c A gu6g z tuejJ j=o{0xeaht l A = fhgL@j=cyd2]g zN4 U= fhg A tued2 9 guso{
]g0fhgsj|eoa
J.

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|| = 0.

c gu jntuejJ j=o{@j=cyoqj|Exeaht lgsj=oqej|tugu a"rXa n

j tsclgsroq
gXb4c&soqg
j ;a cyAmgututscl}e j f : A N mfhgL@j=cyd2]g z=4 3'U. fhg A ut ed2 nn N

|A| = n.

h N3Ys  E Y
1
V.G$B!XQ A C5%"G .B6# A ?.% I F&Z4?SD.B I+A !$D7F&? A #|BGX V.F&B?D7B =?.F(D A / %4! .B6GXFB 7F(GX$B
.? A V.F B II F&Z"?B+?,!XB N N B?~$%4? I BG n = m

+ :nT3 ;< ^ ^
c g$a g z tuejJ j=oqfhg z ae z gso'r$aeEfhg z a z a gsoqgu a"| z _ a
er$fhgsj;ahtscl}ej a z a so'clt$afhgsAo{gsrdcyj;a j;a cymguttscl}ejvgsj=or,g A m N iYer1ola"j=o{
|A| = 29
cyc )z t$a"r$f"cyj;a z fhg z tuejJ j=oqPfhg z ]Sj=Nd2gsr,]Sj;a"o rXa z guu j| g$fNg2]gsr
@j=cyo{ er$w gj|7a"mj=cyjhk j; aa ;z clt$ahtscl}ej cymgutsocyxea1gsj= o'r,g N m N jP 7 tu *j+ j=oq
m2fhg z aYJerda N
A C%4G AA ? A #(F A ! A #&H4.? A GD.B@# A G / !$% / F(B+D A D.B+GD.B@#&%"G IJA !XD.F&? A #&B+GD.B I %4?eX7?~,%"G
=?.F($%4G+ hB A ?B+? IJA D AEIJA GX% A B D.%"G I %4?eX.?,%"GYD.B I+A !$D.F(? A # =?.F($%.
> T U. ^ NF A B = B?~,%"? I BG |A B| = |A| + |B|
> T U. ^ A D.%EB+#G$.V I %4?eX.?,% B A D.B =?.F&C%4GB+# I %4C / #(B+CB+?~ A !$F(%D.B
B+? A B+G I !$F,% B I %"C5% A B = {x A : x / B} B+?,%4? I B+G
B
F

29

f
t

|B| = |A| |B|.

> T U. ^ NF A B B+?~$%4? I B+G |A| |B|.

> T U. U^ |A B| = |A| + |B| |A B|.
> T U. ^ |A B| = |A| |B|.
@G A / !X% / F(B+D A D G$B5GX.B+#(B5D.B+?7%4C5F(? A !Er,glk z a1fhg z| ru+f tso{eSOGX A V.#(B I B2#(%GXF&H4
F&B+?,B GXF=B+#=? .CB+!$%6D.B / %4GXF&V.F(#&FD A D7B+G / A ! A .? A G$F, A"I F&Z" ? / %"?.H A C%4G# A / !$F(C5B! A
#&B$! A D.BW.? A / A # A V.! A B+G n B#? .CB+!X%SD7B / %"G$F&V7F&#&FD A D7B+G / A ! A %"$! A G$F, A*I F&Z"?
/ %4?.H A C5%"G# A GXB+H4.?7D A #&B$! A D.B.? A / A # A V.! A @BG B+?,%"? I BG# A G / %4GXF&V.F(#&FD A D.BG
D.B# A GD.%4GGXF(, A"I F(%4?.BG I %4?eX7?~ A C5B?~,B 'D.F(H A C%4Gm / A # A V.! A GED7BD7%4G#&Bs,! A G WBG

nm
> T U. ^> ULT n )T3. ;:n ^ NF |A| > |B| B+?,%4? I B+G?.%5 A] 7? A
L.? I F(Z4?F&? B I ,F(Q A D.B A B? B
gsd2]sorXa"rw g z ae ru clg$fafhgu% pm E ]ej g$w cyxea z gsj=oqgu g P

+~
d2]sorXa"r z ae r, clg$fafhgu  a *
[E< h \7= < U^ ^ c _ a r, clg$faf a ;z clt$afa5aor,guWtuejJ j=o{]@j=cyoq]]g
g$fhgkhgsj|gsrXa z cA7]a"r+

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|A B C| =

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z aea"B|j; z $k|Bae a"C|rXaRt$a|Afa C|

]g = g$|A|
fNgsjp+gu]|B|
tsrc + cyr|C|J}erd |A
j=cl}e+j@|Aj=cyolaBfhg5C|.
tuejJ j=o{]
@j=cyoq]
cyc )z i)rcyj|tsc clWfhg z ia z eda"r]g g$fhgkhgsj|gsr$a z cA7]a"rfhg z asck clgsj=oqgda"j|gsr$a
g$a"j m, n j=Nd2gsr,]ja4o r$a z gutuej m > n cw gsr,gsd2]tu z ]t,a"r m Jgsoq]gsj n
t$aXaeuOgsja z k j;aWfhgg zyz a7a r$0j|gutugu+a"rc'a"dgsj.o{g j;a5t$a"j=o'c'faffhg Jgsoq]Yda"mer
Eck a z w g z a a"ro{gWgsj=o{gsrXafhg z t]tsclgsj=oqg m/n
cycyc 1 a"d c sj z a r, clg,faf5fhg z7 r,+f tsoqt$a"rsoqgusc'a"j|WJgkhgsj|gsrXa z Ac 7]a
l

|A1 A2 ... An | = |A1 | |A2 | ... |An |.

+ :nT ;< ^ ^ fhg0a ;z clt$ahtscl}ej1fhg z ae ru clg$fafhgu

c g$a g z tuejJ j.o{fhga z dj|]2da"orclt z afhgsja z k j;aPaesck"j;a"o r$afhg
rcyd2 gsr,] BA g z tuejJ j=o{fhgRa z dj|]da"orclt z afh1gsj`a z k j;aaesck"j;a"o rXapfhg
]glk j;fh z tuejJ j=o{ A oclgsj|gt$a"r$f"cyj;a z+*+9 mpg z tuejJ j=oq B oclgsj|gt$a"rXf"cyj;a z
9 d a"mgXb~ahtsola"d2gsj=o{g *+9 a z dj|]w g0oclgsj|gsja z k j;aaesck"j;a"o r$aSfhg rcyd2gsr,
ma z k j;apfhgS]glk j;fh j=oqej|tugu1g z j=hd2gsruoqeoa z fhga z dj|]fhg rcyd2gsrum
]glk j;fhW]gsr 'aea ;z clt$a"j;fh z air, clg$fa6f 


|A B| = 250 + 220 50 = 420.

cyc g$a P g z tejJ j=oqfhg a z a rXaeRfhgPt a"or, z gso'rXae c zyz a"da"d2]

a z a gsoqgu a"| z ]go'clgsj|g+

az

P = A A A A.

ej z t a z +a"j;fhErugscyoqgsrXa~fa"d2gsj=oqg z air, clg$faf *

|P | = 294 .

yc cyc cUa z a]glk j;fa z gso'rXa z g g$f"cyd2]Yw g]g$ax"]t$a z Ogsj=oqej|tuguuOg z tejJ j=oq R
fhg z ae a z a rXaefhgt a"or, z gso'rXae6t m4a]gk j;fa z gso'rXa5gu jaWx"]t$a z gug z" ru+f tso{
t$a"roqgusc'a"j|

fhej;fhg

gug z ut ejJ j=oq5fhg z Rae6=x"]At$a z guuV er6Aola"j=A,

o{
|R| = 293 5.

yc x j1t a z w clgsrtejJ j=oqfhg E , gsr,]ej;ae7a4mfh]6t m]t d z g,a"|]]ej

g z dc&sd2pf 'a jvgLJgutso{]Stued2g z tuejJ j=oqpfhg gsr,]ej;ae oclgsj|gt$a"rXf4cyja z
da"merw g0g z fhgf 'aefhg z a"| D 368 > 365 = |D| gsj.o{ej|tuguuP er6g z~ rcyj|tsc cl
fhg z= a z eda"r,Yt a z w clgsr j|tscl}ejnfhg gsj guWj|2cyj=m~gutso'cyxeaegufhgutscyr7a"mfh]
gsr,]ej;aew gWt d ; z gsja"| ]g z dc&sd2Pf 'a D


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/ %4G$F(V.#&BG!$BG$.# A D7%4G / .BD.B+? / !X%hD. I F&!$GXB / A ! A B# / %hD7F&.C '%"!$% / # A AW V7!$4% ? I B
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B# I %4?X.?~$%-D.B / A !,F I F / A ?~$B+G .B L%4!$C A .? I %4?eX.?,%-D.B B#&B+CB+?,%4G / %4!
AA
?,% A D.C5F,B-.? A V.F B I+I F&Z4? I %" ? N AEI+A D AEI %4!X!$B+D7%4!.?D.%4!XG A #?~.C5B! A D7% s
NB A B B# I %4?eX.?,%6D.B# A G$!$BG@C5BD A #(# A G .B A D.CF(,B).? A V.F B I+I F&Z"? I %4? N / %"!
B{XB+C / #(%EB#%"!$% A # # A / # A AA # B+#V.!X%4? I B A # s hB6,! A A D7BD.Bs,B!$CF&? A !B+#
? .CB+!X%D7B L.? I F(%4?.B+GF(? B I ,FQ A GD7B N B+? N
>  :n + N L\7= ;M ^ A # I .# A !YB+#U? .CB!$%2D.B L7? I F(%4?.BGF&? B I ,F(Q A GD7B N
B+? N
@?PB LB I ,% A CWV;%4G / !X%4V.#&BC A G6G$%4?PB .FQ A #(B+?,B+G / %"! .B5.? A L.? I F&Z"?PF&? B I ,F(Q A
D.B N B+? N I %4?.GXF&G,BPB? D A ! f (1) = a N f (2) = b N
f
.BG$%4?,!XB+G? .CB+!$%"GD.BD.%"!$G A #ND.F&G,F&?,%4G A .B f F&? B I ,F(Q A
f (3)A = c N
X.GX C5B?~$B#(%4G 7B0GX.V;B+? A # / %hD.F&.C '# A / B+!XG$%4? AI %4?B#D.%"!$G A # a H A ? A B#%"!$%
# A D.B6D.%4!$G A # b # A / # A AW # A D.B c B#V.!$%"? I B s
V.G$B!XQ A C5%"G .B / A ! A B#H A ? A D.%4!D7B+#%4!X% A] / %4GXF&V.F(#&FD A D7B+G I A # .F(B+!
I %4!X!$B+D7%4! -.? A Q4B .BRG$B A B+G A V.#(B I F&D.% 7F ? A H A ? A D.%nB+#%4!$% / A ! A B+#
H A ? A D.%4!)D.B# A CBD A #&# A D7B / # A A AJ / %4G$F(V.F&#(F(D A D.B+G G A V.F&B?.D.%B+#|H A ? A D.%4!
D.B+#@%4!$% # A / # A A $B+?.BC5%"G !$BG$.# A D7%4G / %"G$F(V.#&BG / A ! A B+#@V.!$%"? I B* B5B+G,B
C5%hD.%Y A] 154153152 / %4GXF&V.#(B+GU!$BG$.# A D.%"G3D.B)# AYI+A !$!$B! A %B .F(Q A #&B?~,BCB+?~$B
A] 154 153 152 L.? I F&%"?.B+GF&? B I ,FQ A GD.B N B+? N
OGX$%?.%4G / B+!XC5F,B / # A ?~$B A !YB+# / !$%4V7#&B+C A H4B?.B+! A # .B A A .B A # I %4? I B / ,%SD.B
\. L= <
>  :n^ B$B+!$CF&? A !B#? .C5B!$% V D7B L.? I F&%4?.BG)F&? B I ,FQ A GD.B+# I %4?eX.?,%
B+?B+# I %4?eX.?,% N
N

154

i/ o

154

154

154

154

154

154

|m

154

m,n

[E< h \7=L ^ ^ `z ircyj|tsc clEfhg zh a z eda"rY]gs;a z a2w gsc

j|7a"mola z gu@ j|tsclej|gu6cyj=mgutsocyxeaeu)guso{guu V = 0


m,n

n>m

gsj=o{ej|tugu

1
 -O+3CFh  n){Y)Yq
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.B6G$F m n


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Vm,n = m (m 1) ... (m n + 1) = m!/(m n)!.

+ :nT ^ ^ )z j=hd2gsru5fhg@ j|tsclej|gu6cyj=mgutsocyxeae0w g6]g g$fhgsjngusola z gutugsr

gsj=o'r,g N m N ug +

10

V10,5 = 10 9 8 7 6.

S U''; ^ ^ z j=Nd2gsr, V fhg j|tsclej|gucyj=m~gutso'cyxeae-gsj=or,g jtuejJ j=o{

fhgPt$a"rXf"cyj;a z n meo'rufNgPt$a"rXf"cyj;a z m tuej m n ]g z g zyz a"da |3: ~
\7 L= ; < m : M ;<M ;:n= <E n n mE]g6oclgsj|g
4

m,n

Vm,n = m (m 1) ... (m n + 1).

+ :nT ;< ^ ^  gso{gsrdcyj;a"rfhg6t "j=olaed5a"j|gsrXae]g g$fNgsjg z glk"cyrg z4 rugP

sc'fhgsj=oqgmg z x]cltug r,gu sc'fhgsj=o{gfhg j;aae] ]tsc'ahtscl}ejfhga 9.9 dcl gsd r,] j|tsclej|gu
cyj=mgutsocyxeae0fhg N gsj N "

300

V300,2 = 300 299

g-t "j=olaeYda"j|gsrXae]g g$fhg-g z glk"cyr jg$w c 0fhgt a"or,r,g z gsx]c&soae a"rXa

tuerr,gsr5gsj z a1t$a"rr,gsrXafhg 4 100 gsj=or,g z ]  9 ]g z gututsclej;afh]2Xgsj=o{gsj;f"clgsj;fhSw g
7a"m2w gcyj;f"clt$a"rg z er$fhgsjPgsjPg z w g]gWtuerrug "
V10,4 = 10 9 8 7

cYg z tuerr,g,fher0deWr$ c'fhSfhg z gLJgsd ;z Sa"j=o{gsrcleroclgsj|gEw 5g tuerrugsrj|gutugP

+a"rc'a"d2gsj=oqggsj rcyd2gsr z ka"r,gsj=o{ej|tuguEg z= ru z gsdagut$a z t z a"r z ] g$w c ]fhg

o'r,gurug z gsx]c&solaeWgsj=o'r,g z ] i ]g z gututsclej;afh]6w gw g$fa"j


V9,3 = 9 8 7

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; < =U.<6 n : M <
J M  m : M ;<"^

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g z r,gu z olafh  +a z g2g z fh z gfhgx"gutuguw g2 g z r,gu z oafh g z +a z g2g z fh z gfhg
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p(6) = a
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a = 1/10

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p(2) = 2/10
p(i) = 1/10

i = 3, 4, 5, 6.

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tued2 j=cl}ejf"c&L j=olafhgS S tuejJ j=o{] j=cyoa"rcl] iYergLJgsd ;z RJg,a S g z
er z 5w g
tugu] g z rugu z ola fh]g$a a"r gsj=7oq ej|tugu S = {2,
4, 6}
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p(S) = p(2) + p(4) + p(6) = 2/10 + 1/10 + 1/10 = 4/10.

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V (X) = (0 5.52)2 (1/40) + (1 5.52)2 (2/40) + (2 5.52)2 (3/40)+
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E := {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}

84

 
E
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:= {(1, 2), (1, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}

:= {(1, 2), (1, 2), (3, 4), (3, 4)}
:= {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1)}
:= {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 4)}

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A2 := {2, 8, 11}

A3 := {3, 54, 21, 12}.

4 "+WQ# 6 #T Q#W3cH"+W-OtN=P%R 6 `N 6 O#TUb3P%N,W( 6 

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Q#DN P%W(#T.)V/) W 6 OR1bNV-W 6

V := {1, 2, 3, 4}.

UW- h N-N 6 #P'OR 6 R. W )AQN=ODN(b3P%N,W( 6 #TUQ)W3cH* W-OCNP*R 6 N 6 E

R E =
R.R E = {(1, 2)}
R.R1R E = {(1, 2), (1, 3)}
R h E = {(1, 2), (4, 3)}
h E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4)}
h R E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)}
h R.R E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}
h R.R1R E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
RZ E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4)}
Z E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4), (3, 4)}
kR K
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M !W3#P' H*)V/YT1W(O 6 u

,Q)R.WDNV-R.) WM
n=a
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W
Q#DNOP+NODiN(=O 2n nR1T. 1v = 0
R n mod i 6= 0 # i := n + 1
#T 6  j := i N=O
R1T. j < n OW j := j j
4

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b v = 0 # s : W-)T 6  s :=6
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4 H*#V-YT.W 4  P+NON

Q#WV/W 9 mod 2 6= 0 # W3Q# 6

i=2
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j=3
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Q#W3V-W j = 9 6  6 NT1<O#TU\Q)T. j i v = 1
Q#W3V-W v = 1 ) W3Q) 6]6  6 NT.<O)Tm\Q#T1 i
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A1 := (p q)
A2 := (r q)
A3 := r
B := p
A1 A2

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p q

0
1
M= 0
1
0

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0
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0
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R 476 Q)P%R.\R.P WZOW 6 T1W 6 YDNP* 6 ,W3P*V"NXTfNBP%)TfNQ)R.S M
476 Q)P%R.\R.V-W 6 V = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} M 4  W3Q) 6
0

R := {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3),
(3, 1), (1, 4), (4, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (2, 4), (4, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)}

R.R W0 #P%V-R.NP 6 RUT.N P*#TfN=Q#R1S3 R  6 P*)DkR h Nk 6 R.V P%R.Q#Nj P+N 6 R R h NM

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1
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