I.

FERROUS MATERIALS
As the most abundant of all commercial metals, alloys of iron and steel continue to cover a broad range of structural applications. Iron ore constitutes about 5% of the earth's crust and is easy to convert to a useful form. Iron is obtained by fusing the ore to drive off oxygen, sulfur, and other impurities. The ore is melted in a furnace in direct contact with the fuel using limestone as a flux. The limestone combines with impurities and forms a slag, which is easily removed. Adding carbon in small amounts reduces the melting point (2,777F) of iron. All commercial forms of iron and steel contain carbon, which is an integral part of the metallurgy of iron and steel. Manipulation of atom-to-atom relationships between iron, carbon, and various alloying elements establishes the specific properties of ferrous metals. As atoms transform from one specific arrangement, or crystal lattice, to another, strength, toughness, impact resistance, hardness, ductility, and other properties are altered. The metallurgy of iron and steel is a study of how these atomic rearrangements take place, how they can be controlled, and which properties are affected.
Ferrous Metals Name Composition 0.15 to0.30% carbon Properties Tough, high tensile strength, ductile. Because of low carbon content it can not be hardened and tempered. It must be case hardened. Stronger and harder than mild steels. Less ductile, tough and malleable. Uses girders, Plates, nuts and bolts, general purpose.

Mild Steel

Medium Carbon Steels

0.30% to 0.70% carbon.

Metal ropes, wire, garden tools, springs.

High Carbon Steel

0.70% to 1.40% carbon. medium carbon, tungsten, chromium and vanadium. 18% chromium, and 8% nickel added. Low carbon steel,, nickel,and chromium. Remelted pig iron with small amounts of scrap steel.

The hardest of the carbon steels. Less ductile, tough and malleable.

Chisels, hammers, drills, files, lathe tools, taps and dies.

High Speed Steel

Can be hardened and tempered. Can be brittle. Retains hardness at high temperatures.

Cutting tools for lathes.

Stainless Steel

Corrosion resistant

Kitchen draining boards. Pipes, cutlery, aircraft.

High Tensile Steel

Very strong and very tough.

Gears, shafts, engine parts.

Cast Iron

Hard, brittle, strong, cheap, self-lubricating.

Heavy crushing machinery. Car cylinder blocks, vices, machine tool parts, brake drums, machine handle and gear wheels, plumbing fitments.

I.1 CARBON STEEL

Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is steel where the main alloying constituent is carbon; the other elements present are in quantities too small to affect the properties. The only other elements allowed in carbon steel are: manganese (1.65% max), silicon (0.60% max), and copper (0.60% max). The term carbon steel may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steel; in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels. Steel with a low carbon content has properties similar to iron. As the carbon content rises, the metal becomes harder and stronger but less ductile and more difficult to weld. In general, higher carbon content lowers the melting point and its temperature resistance. Carbon content influences the yield strength of steel because carbon molecules fit into the interstitial crystal lattice sites of the body-centered cubic (BCC) arrangement of the iron molecules. The interstitial carbon reduces the mobility of dislocations, which in turn has a hardening effect on the iron. To get dislocations to move, a high enough stress level must be applied in order for the dislocations to "break away". This is because the interstitial carbon atoms cause some of the iron BCC lattice cells to distort.

Fig.1. Three plain carbons steels, from left to right: 1018, 1045 and 1095. Increasing the carbon content (from 0.18% to 0.95%) causes the amount of ferrite (light) to decrease and the amount of pearlite (dark, lamellar) to increase.

I.1.A Types of Carbon Steel

Typical compositions of carbon: Mild (low carbon) steel: approximately 0.050.15% carbon content for low carbon steel and 0.160.29% carbon content for mild steel. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.

Medium carbon steel: approximately 0.300.59% carbon content. Balances

ductility and strength and has good wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components.

High carbon steel: approximately 0.60.99% carbon content. Very strong, used for springs and high-strength wires.

Ultra high carbon steel: approximately 1.02.0% carbon content. Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles or punches. Most steels with more than 1.2% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy.

Steel can be heat treated which allows parts to be fabricated in an easily-formable soft state. If enough carbon is present, the alloy can be hardened to increase strength, wear, and impact resistance. Steels are often wrought by cold-working methods, which is the shaping of metal through deformation at a low equilibrium or metastable temperature.

I.1.B Heat Treatment

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The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. Note that the electrical and thermal conductivity are slightly altered. As with most strengthening techniques for steel, Young's modulus is unaffected. Steel has a higher solid solubility for carbon in the austenite phase, therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process annealing, start by heating to an austenitic phase. The rate at which the steel is cooled through the eutectoid reaction affects the rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite. Generally speaking, cooling quickly will give a finer pearlite (until the martensite critical temperature is reached) and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid (less than 0.77 wt% C) steel results in a pearlitic structure with -ferrite at the grain boundaries. If it is hypereutectoid (more than 0.77 wt% C) steel then the structure is full pearlite with small grains of cementite scattered throughout. The relative amounts of constituents are found using the lever rule. Here is a list of the types of heat treatments possible: Spheroidizing: Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 C for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can form at lower temperatures but the time needed drastically increases, as this is a diffusion controlled process. The result is a structure of rods or spheres of cementite within primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on which side of the eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels and allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of steel. The image to the right shows where spheroidizing usually occurs. Full annealing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 40 C above Ac 3 or Ac1 for 1 hour; this assures all the ferrite transforms into austenite (although cementite might still exist if the carbon content is greater than the eutectoid). The steel must then be cooled slowly, in the realm of 38 C (100 F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where the furnace is turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic structure, which means the "bands" of pearlite are thick. Fully annealed steel is soft and ductile, with no internal stresses, which is often necessary for cost-effective forming. Only spheroidized steel is softer and more ductile.[9] Process annealing: A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel with less than 0.3 wt% C. The steel is usually heated up to 550650 C for 1 hour, but sometimes temperatures as high as 700 C. The image to the right shows the area where process annealing occurs. Isothermal annealing: It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the upper critical temperature and this temperature is maintained for a period of time and then the temperature is brought down below lower critical temperature and is again maintained. Then finally it is cooled at room temperature. This method helps in eliminating any temperature gradient. Normalizing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 55 C above Ac3 or Acm for 1 hour; this assures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The steel is then air cooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 C (100 F) per minute. This results in a fine pearlitic structure, and a more uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher strength than annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength and ductility. Quenching: Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing temperatures and then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to the critical temperature. The critical temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a general rule is lower as the carbon content increases. This results in a martensitic structure; a form of steel that possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline structure, properly termed body-centered tetragonal (BCT). This crystalline

structure has a very high amount of internal stress. Due to these internal stress quenched steel is extremely hard but brittle, usually too brittle for practical purposes. These internal stresses cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is approximately three (lower carbon content) to four (high carbon content) times harder than normalized steel. Martempering (Marquenching): Martempering is not actually a tempering procedure, hence the term "Marquenching." It is a form of isothermal heat treatment applied after an initial quench of typically in an oil or brine solution at a temperature right above the "martensite start temperature". At this temperature, residual stresses within the material are relieved and some bainite may be formed from the retained ferrite which did not have time to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control the ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching time, the ductility increases with a minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this solution until the center and surface temperatures equalize. Then the steel is cooled at a moderate speed to keep the temperature gradient minimal. Not only does this process reduce internal stresses and stress cracks, but it also increases the impact resistance. Quench and tempering: This is the most common heat treatment encountered, because the final properties can be precisely determined by the temperature and time of the tempering. Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to a temperature below the eutectoid temperature then cooling. The elevated temperature allows very small amounts of spheroidite to form, which restore ductility, but reduces hardness. Actual temperatures and times are carefully chosen for each composition. Austempering: The austempering process is the same as martempering, except the steel is held in the brine solution through the bainite transformation temperatures, and then moderately cooled. The resulting bainite steel has a greater ductility, higher impact resistance, and less distortion. The disadvantage of austempering is it can only be used on a few steels, and it requires a special brine solution.

I.2 HIGH SPEED STEEL

High speed steel (often abbreviated HSS, sometimes HS) is a material usually used in the manufacture of machine tool bits and other cutters. It is often used in power saw blades and drill bits. It is superior to the older high carbon steel tools used extensively through the 1940s in that it can withstand higher temperatures without losing its temper (hardness). This property allows HSS to cut faster than high carbon steel, hence the name high speed steel. At room temperature HSS and high carbon steel have an equivalent hardness; only at elevated temperatures does HSS become advantageous To increase the life of high speed steel, tools are sometimes coated. One such coating is TiN (titanium nitride). Most coatings generally increase a tool's hardness and/or lubricity. A coating allows the cutting edge of a tool to cleanly pass through the material without having the material gall (stick) to it. The coating also helps to decrease the temperature associated with the cutting process and increase the life of the tool.

I.2.A Types of High Speed Steel

High speed steels belong to the Fe-C-X multicomponent alloy system where X represents chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, and/or cobalt. Generally, the X component is present in excess of 7%, along with more than 0.60% carbon. (However, their alloying element percentages do not alone bestow the hardness-retaining properties; they also require appropriate high-temperature heat treatment in order to become true HSS) The grade type T-1 with 18% tungsten has not changed its composition since 1910 and was the main type used up to 1940, when substitution by molybdenum took place. Nowadays, only 5-10% of the HSS in Europe and only 2% in the United States is of this type. The addition of about 10% of tungsten and molybdenum in total maximises efficiently the hardness and toughness of high speed steels and maintains these properties at the high temperatures generated when cutting metals. Alloying compositions of high speed steel grades (by %wt) Grade C Cr Mo W V T1 0.650.80 3.754.00 17.2518.75 0.91.3 M2 0.95 4.2 5.0 6.0 2.0 M7 1.00 3.8 8.7 1.6 2.0 M35 0.94 4.1 5.0 6.0 2.0 M42 1.10 3.8 9.5 1.5 1.2 Note that impurity limits are not included

Co 5.0 8.0

Mn 0.10.4 -

Si 0.20.4 -

(a)

M35

M35 is similar to M2, but with 5% cobalt added. The addition of cobalt increases heat resistance.

(b)

M42

M42 is a high speed steel alloy made up of roughly 8% cobalt. It is widely used in metal manufacturing because of its ability to resist wear over conventional high speed steels, allowing for shorter cycle times in production environments due to higher cutting speeds or from the increase in time between tool changes. M42 is also less prone to chipping when used for interrupted cuts and cost less when compared to the same tool made of carbide. Tools made from high speed steel and cobalt can often be identified by the letters HSS-Co.

I.2.B Applications
The main use of high speed steels continues to be in the manufacture of various cutting tools: drills, taps, milling cutters, tool bits, gear cutters, saw blades, etc., although usage for punches and dies is increasing. High carbon steel remains a good choice for low speed applications where a very keen (sharp) edge is required, such as files, chisels and hand plane blades.

I.3 STAINLESS STEEL

In metallurgy, stainless steel is defined as a steel alloy with a minimum of 11.5% chromium content by mass. Stainless steel does not stain, corrode or rust as easily as ordinary steel (it "stains less"), but it is not stain-proof. It is also called corrosion resistant steel when the alloy type and grade are not detailed, particularly in the aviation industry. There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment to which the material will be subjected in its lifetime. Common uses of stainless steel are cutlery and watch straps. Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by amount of chromium present. Carbon steel rusts when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide. Stainless steels have sufficient amount of chromium present so that a passive film of chromium oxide forms which prevents further corrosion. Stainless steel is 100% recyclable. In fact, an average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material, 25% originating from end-of-life products and 35% coming from manufacturing processes.

I.3.A Types Of Stainless Steel

There are different types of stainless steels: when nickel is added, for instance, the austenite structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal structure makes such steels non-magnetic and less brittle at low temperatures. For greater hardness and strength, carbon is added. When subjected to adequate heat treatment, these steels are used as razor blades, cutlery, tools, etc. Significant quantities of manganese have been used in many stainless steel compositions. Manganese preserves an austenitic structure in the steel as does nickel, but at a lower cost. Stainless steels are also classified by their crystalline structure: Austenitic, or 300 series, stainless steels comprise over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy. A typical composition of 18% chromium and 10% nickel, commonly known as 18/10 stainless, is often used in flatware. Similarly, 18/0 and 18/8 are also available. Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as alloy AL-6XN and 254SMO, exhibit great resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion due to high molybdenum content (>6%) and nitrogen additions, and the higher nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-corrosion cracking versus the 300 series. The higher alloy content of superaustenitic steels makes them more expensive. Other steels can offer similar performance at lower cost and are preferred in certain applications.

The low carbon version of the Austenitic Stainless Steel, for example 316L or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion problem caused by welding. The "L" means that the carbon content of the Stainless Steel is below 0.03%, this will reduce the sensitization effect, precipitation of Chromium Carbides, due to the high temperature produced by welding operation. Ferritic stainless steels are highly corrosion-resistant, but less durable than austenitic grades. They contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if any, but some types can contain lead. Most compositions include molybdenum; some, aluminium or titanium. Common ferritic grades include 18Cr-2Mo, 26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and 29Cr4Mo-2Ni. Martensitic stainless steels are not as corrosion-resistant as the other two classes but are extremely strong and tough, as well as highly machineable, and can be hardened by heat treatment. Martensitic stainless steel contains chromium (12-14%), molybdenum (0.2-1%), nickel (0-<2%), and carbon (about 0.1-1%) (giving it more hardness but making the material a bit more brittle). It is quenched and magnetic. It is also known as series-00 steel. Precipitation-hardening martensitic stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than the other martensitic grades. The most common, 17-4PH, uses about 17% chromium and 4% nickel. There is a rising trend in defense budgets to opt for an ultrahigh-strength stainless steel when possible in new projects, as it is estimated that 2% of the US GDP is spent dealing with corrosion. The Lockheed-Martin Joint Strike Fighter is the first aircraft to use a precipitation-hardenable stainless steelCarpenter Custom 465 in its airframe. Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim being to produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys, the mix may be 40/60 respectively. Duplex steels have improved strength over austenitic stainless steels and also improved resistance to localised corrosion, particularly pitting, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. They are characterised by high chromium (1928%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels. The most used Duplex Stainless Steel are the 2205 (22% Chromium, 5% Nickel) and 2507 (25% Chromium, 7% Nickel) sometimes the 2507 is also called "SuperDuplex" due to the higher Corrosion resistance.

I.3.B Applications
Stainless steels resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, relative inexpense, and familiar luster make it an ideal base material for a host of commercial applications. There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are most common. The alloy is milled into coils, sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, hardware, surgical instruments, major appliances, industrial equipment, and as an automotive and aerospace structural alloy and construction material in large buildings. Orange juice and other food transport and storage tankers are often made of stainless steel, due to its corrosion resistance and antibacterial properties. This also influences its use in commercial catering kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam cleaned, sterilized, and does not need painting or application of other surface finishes. Stainless steel is also used for jewellery and watches. The most common stainless steel alloy used for this is 316L. It can be re-finished by any jeweller and will not oxidize or turn black

I.4 HIGH TENSILE STEEL

High tensile steel or HSLA steel (high strength low alloy steel) is a type of steel alloy provides many benefits over regular steel alloys. In general, HSLA alloys are much stronger tougher than ordinary plain-carbon steels. They are used in cars, trucks, cranes, bridges, other structures that are designed to handle large amounts of stress, often at very temperatures. that and and low

Typically, HSLA steels are low-carbon steels with up to 1.5% manganese, strengthened by small additions of elements, such as columbium, copper, vanadium or titanium and sometimes by special rolling and cooling techniques. Improved-formability HSLA steels contain additions such as zirconium, calcium, or rare-earth elements for sulfide-inclusion shape control. Since parts made from HSLA steels can have thinner cross sections than equivalent parts made from low-carbon steel, corrosion of an HSLA steel can significantly reduce strength by decreasing the load-bearing cross section. While additions of elements such as copper, silicon, nickel, chromium, and phosphorus can improve atmospheric corrosion resistance of these alloys, they also increase cost. Galvanizing, zinc-rich coatings, and other rust-preventive finishes can help protect HSLA-steel parts from corrosion. Grades known as "improved-formability" HSLA steels (sheet-steel grades designated ASTM A715, and plates designated ASTM A656) have yield strengths up to 80,000 psi, yet cost only about 24% more than a typical 34,000-psi plain-carbon steel. Because these alloys must compete with other structural metals such as AISI 1010 steel and aluminum, they must be as inexpensive as possible. However, formulating and rolling a steel that meets this cost requirement is not easy, and the finished product presents a number of trade-offs. For example, the increase in strength from 35,000 to 80,000 psi may be accompanied by a 30 to 40% loss in ductility. Improved-formability HSLA steels were developed primarily for the automotive industry to replace low-carbon steel parts with thinner cross-section parts for reduced weight without sacrificing strength and dent resistance. Typical passenger-car applications include door-intrusion beams, chassis members, reinforcing and mounting brackets, steering and suspension parts, bumpers, and wheels. Trucks, construction equipment, off-highway vehicles, mining equipment, and other heavy-duty vehicles use HSLA sheets or plates for chassis components, buckets, grader blades, and structural members outside the body. For these applications, sheets or light-gage plates are specified. Structural forms (alloys from the family of 45,000 to 50,000-psi minimum yield strength HSLA steels) are specified in applications such as offshore oil and gas rigs, single-pole powertransmission towers, railroad cars, and ship construction. In equipment such as power cranes, cement mixers, farm machinery, trucks, trailers, and powertransmission towers, HSLA bar, with minimum yield strengths ranging from 50,000 to 70,000 psi is used. Forming, drilling, sawing, and other machining operations on HSLA steels usually require 25 to 30% more power than do structural carbon steels. Most HSLA alloys have directionally sensitive properties. For some grades, formability and impact strength vary significantly depending on whether the material is tested longitudinally or transversely to the rolled direction. For example, bends parallel to the longitudinal direction are more apt to cause cracking around the outside, tension-bearing surface of the bend. This effect is more pronounced in thick sheets. This directional characteristic is substantially reduced in HSLA steels that have been treated for sulfide shape control.

I.4.A APPLICATIONS
Components for the aircraft, automotive and general engineering industries eg. Propeller shafts, connecting rods, gear shafts, and other automobile parts. Heavy forgings, eg. Rotors, shafts, discs.

I.5 CAST IRON

Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of ferrous alloys, which solidify with a eutectic. The color of a fractured surface can be used to identify an alloy. White cast iron is named after its white surface when fractured due to its carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron is named after its grey fractured surface, which occurs because the graphitic flakes deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks. Iron (Fe) accounts for more than 95 %wt of the alloy material, while the main alloying elements are carbon (C) and silicon (Si). The amount of carbon in cast irons is 2.1-4 %wt. Cast irons contain appreciable amounts of silicon, normally 1-3 %wt, and consequently these alloys should be considered ternary Fe-C-Si alloys. Despite this, the principles of cast iron solidification are understood from the binary iron-carbon phase diagram, where the eutectic point lies at 1154 C and 4.3 wt% carbon. Since cast iron has nearly this composition, its melting temperature of 1150 to 1200 C is about 300 C lower than the melting point of pure iron. Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of applications, including pipes, machine and car parts. Cast iron is made by remelting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of scrap iron and scrap steel, and taking various steps to remove undesirable contaminants such as phosphorus and sulfur. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are reduced to the desired levels, which may be anywhere from 2% to 3.5% and 1% to 3% respectively. Other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Iron is most commonly melted in a small blast furnace known as a cupola (see blast furnace for more details). After melting is complete, the molten iron is removed or ladled from the forehearth of the blast furnace. This process was devised by the Chinese, whose innovative ideas revolutionized the field of metallurgy. Previously, iron was melted in an air furnace, which is a type of reverberatory furnace.

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I.5.A Classifications of Cast Iron

Grey cast iron; Silicon is essential to making grey cast iron as opposed to white cast iron. When silicon is alloyed with ferrite and carbon in amounts of about 2 percent, the carbide of iron becomes unstable. Silicon causes the carbon to rapidly come out of solution as graphite, leaving a matrix of relatively pure, soft iron. Weak bonding between planes of graphite lead to a high activation energy for growth in that direction, resulting in thin, round flakes. This structure has several useful properties. The metal expands slightly on solidifying as the graphite precipitates, resulting in sharp castings. The graphite content also offers good corrosion resistance. Graphite acts as a lubricant, improving wear resistance. The exceptionally high speed of sound in graphite gives cast iron a much higher thermal conductivity. Since ferrite is so different in this respect (having heavier atoms, bonded much less tightly) phonons tend to scatter at the interface between the two materials. In practical terms, this means that cast iron tends to damp mechanical vibrations (including sound), which can help machinery to run more smoothly. All of the properties listed in the paragraph above ease the machining of grey cast iron. The sharp edges of graphite flakes also tend to concentrate stress, allowing cracks to form much more easily, so that material can be removed much more efficiently. Easier initiation of cracks can be a drawback once an item is finished, however: grey cast iron has less tensile strength and shock resistance than steel. It is also difficult to weld. Grey cast iron's high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity are often exploited to make cast iron cookware and disc brake rotors.

White cast iron; with a lower silicon content and faster cooling, the carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as the metastable phase cementite, Fe3C, rather than graphite. The cementite which precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles, usually in a eutectic mixture where the other phase is austenite (which on cooling might transform to martensite). These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide precipitation hardening (as in some steels, where cementite precipitates might inhibit plastic deformation by impeding the movement of dislocations through the ferrite matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron simply by virtue of their own very high hardness and their substantial volume fraction, such that the bulk hardness can be approximated by a rule of mixtures. In any case, they offer hardness at the expense of toughness. Since carbide makes up a large fraction of the material, white

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cast iron could reasonably be classified as a cermet. White iron is too brittle for use in many structural components, but with good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost, it finds use in such applications as the wear surfaces (impeller and volute) of slurry pumps, shell liners and lifter bars in ball mills and autogenous grinding mills, balls and rings in coal pulverisers and (conceivably?) balls for rolling-element bearings and the teeth of a backhoe's digging bucket (although the latter two applications would normally use high quality wrought high-carbon martensitic steels and cast mediumcarbon martensitic steels respectively). It is difficult to cool thick castings fast enough to solidify the melt as white cast iron all the way through. However, rapid cooling can be used to solidify a shell of white cast iron, after which the remainder cools more slowly to form a core of grey cast iron. The resulting casting, called a chilled casting, has the benefits of a hard surface and a somewhat tougher interior. White cast iron can also be made by using a high percentage of chromium in the iron; Cr is a strong carbide-forming element, so at high enough percentages of chrome, the precipitation of graphite out of the iron is suppressed. High-chrome white iron alloys allow massive castings (for example, a 10-tonne impeller) to be sand cast, i.e., a high cooling rate is not required, as well as providing impressive abrasion resistance.

Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting, that is then heat treated at about 900 C. Graphite separates out much more slowly in this case, so that surface tension has time to form it into spheroidal particles rather than flakes. Due to their lower aspect ratio, spheroids are relatively short and far from one another, and have a lower cross section vis-a-vis a propagating crack or phonon. They also have blunt boundaries, as opposed to flakes, which alleviates the stress concentration problems faced by grey cast iron. In general, the properties of malleable cast iron are more like mild steel. There is a limit to how large a part can be cast in malleable iron, since it is made from white cast iron. Nodular or ductile cast iron. Tiny amounts of magnesium or cerium added to these alloys slow down the growth of graphite precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along with careful control of other elements and timing, this allows the carbon to separate as spheroidal particles as the material solidifies. The properties are similar to malleable iron but parts can be cast with larger sections.

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II. NON-FERROUS MATERIALS

Nonferrous metals offer a wide variety of mechanical properties and material characteristics. Nonferrous metals are specified for structural applications requiring reduced weight, higher strength, nonmagnetic properties, higher melting points, or resistance to chemical and atmospheric corrosion. They are also specified for electrical and electronic applications. Material selection for a mechanical or structural application requires some important considerations, including how easily the material can be shaped into a finished part and how its properties can be either intentionally or inadvertently altered in the process. Depending on the end use, metals can be simply cast into the finished part, or cast into an intermediate form, such as an ingot, then worked, or wrought, by rolling, forging, extruding, or other deformation process. Although the same operations are used with ferrous as well as nonferrous metals and alloys, the reaction of nonferrous metals to these forming processes is often more severe. Consequently, properties may differ considerably between the cast and wrought forms of the same metal or alloy. To shape both nonferrous and ferrous metals, designers use processes that range from casting and sintered powder metallurgy (P/M) to hot and cold working. Each forming method imparts unique physical and mechanical characteristics to the final component.
Non-Ferrous Metals Name Composition Properties Greyish-White, soft, malleable, conductive to heat and electricity, It is corrosion resistant. It can be welded but this is difficult. Needs special processes. Uses Aircraft, boats, window frames, saucepans, packaging and insulation, pistons and cranks.

Aluminium

Pure Metal

Aluminium alloysDuraluminium)

Aluminium +4% Copper+1%Manganese

Ductile, Malleable, Work Hardens.

Aircraft and vehicle parts.

Copper

Pure metal

Red, tough, ductile, High electrical conductor, corrosion resistant, Can work hard or cold. Needs frequent annealing. Very corrosive, yellow in colour, tarnishes very easily. Harder than copper. Good electrical conductor.

Electrical wire, cables and conductors, water and central heating pipes and cylinders. Printed circuit boards, roofs.

Brass

65% copper +35%zinc.

Castings, ornaments, valves,forgings.

Gilding metal

85% copper+15% zinc.

Corrosion resistant, golden colour, enamels well.

Beaten metalwork, jewellery.

Lead

Pure metal

The heaviest common metal. Soft, malleable, bright and shiny when new but quickly oxidizes to a dull grey. Resistant to corrosion.

Protection against X-Ray machines. Paints, roof coverings, flashings.

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Zinc

Pure metal

A layer of oxide protects it from corrosion, bluish-white, easily worked.

Makes brass. Coating for steel galvanized corrugated iron roofing, tanks, buckets, rust-proof paints

Tin

Pure metal

White and soft, corrosion resistant.

Tinplate, making bronze.

II.1 ALUMINUM & ALUMINUM ALLOYS

Though light in weight, commercially pure aluminum has a tensile strength of about 13,000 psi. Cold working the metal approximately doubles its strength. In other attempts to increase strength, aluminum is alloyed with elements such as manganese, silicon, copper, magnesium, or zinc. The alloys can also be strengthened by cold working. Some alloys are further strengthened and hardened by heat treatments. At subzero temperatures, aluminum is stronger than at room temperature and is no less ductile. Most aluminum alloys lose strength at elevated temperatures, although some retain significant strength to 500F. Besides a high strength-to-weight ratio and good formability, aluminum also possesses its own anticorrosion mechanism. When exposed to air, aluminum does not oxidize progressively because a hard, microscopic oxide coating forms on the surface and seals the metal from the environment. The tight chemical oxide bond is the reason that aluminum is not found in nature; it exists only as a compound. Aluminum and its alloys, numbering in the hundreds, are available in all common commercial forms. Aluminum-alloy sheet can be formed, drawn, stamped, or spun. Many wrought or cast aluminum alloys can be welded, brazed, or soldered, and aluminum surfaces readily accept a wide variety of finishes, both mechanical and chemical. Because of their high electrical conductivity, aluminum alloys are used as electrical conductors. Aluminum reflects radiant energy throughout the entire spectrum, is nonsparking, and nonmagnetic.

II.1.A Properties
Lightweight - Aluminum is about one-third the weight of an equal volume of copper, steel or brass. Strength - Aluminum can withstand heavy loads and pressure; when alloyed appropriately, its strength approaches that of steel. High strength-to-weight ratio - The ratio of the tensile strength of aluminum, divided by density, is higher than any other metal.

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Corrosion resistance - The formation of a microscopic film of aluminium oxide on the surface of the metal protects it against the corrosive influences of water, salt and other influences. Resilience/Flexibility - Some applications require some flexibility in addition to strength; an aluminum sailboat mast can spring back where necessary and bend slightly. Aluminum streetlights also provide necessary resilience with safety benefits of flexibility. Electrical conductivity - Aluminum has twice the conductivity of an equal weight of copper. Thermal conductivity - Aluminum spreads heat or cooling energy evenly and quickly. Non-toxicity - Aluminum is ideal for packaging and cooking material finishes because it is non-toxic. Reflectivity - Aluminum reflects light and other forms of radiant energy. Ductility - Aluminum is easy to cold work and fabricate. Malleability - The vulnerability of aluminum to heat and pressure make it ideal for extruding into formed, intricate shapes with ledges, grooves, hinges, screwholes and interlocking parts. This allows the creation of single components, whereas other metals must be manufactured into pieces that must then be assembled to create a final product. Mixability - Aluminum can be easily modified by the addition of alloys to make a final metal that is even more resilient, conductive or malleable than aluminum alone. Finishing - Aluminum can be finished with a variety of coatings and finishes such as paint, lacquer, porcelain or organic coatings, which can be anodized to bond to the metal. Recyclability - Aluminum can be easily reclaimed and recycled into new, final aluminum products. Availability - Alumina is the most abundant metallic element in the earth's crust. Cost-efficiency - Aluminum processing is inexpensive.

II.1.B How Aluminum Is Obtained

As a highly reactive metal, aluminum is very difficult to separate from the other elements that are combined with it in its minerals and compounds. In spite of its great abundance on Earth, the metal itself remained unknown for centuries. In 1825, some impure aluminum metal was finally isolated by H. C. Oersted by treating aluminum chloride, AlCl3, with potassium amalgam potassium dissolved in mercury. Then in 1827, H. Whler obtained pure aluminum by the reaction of metallic potassium with AlCl3. He is generally given credit for the discovery of this element. But it was still very expensive to produce aluminum metal in any quantity, and for a long time it remained a rare and valuable metal. In 1852, aluminum was selling for about $545 a pound. The big breakthrough came in 1886, when Charles M. Hall, a 23-year-old student at Oberlin College in Ohio, and Paul L-T. Hroult, another college student in France, independently invented what is now known as the Hall or Hall-Hroult process. It consists of dissolving alumina in melted cryolite, Na3AlF6, a common aluminum-containing mineral, and then passing an electric current through

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the hot liquid. Molten aluminum metal collects at the cathode (negative electrode) in a process called electrolysis. Not long after the development of this process, the price of aluminum metal plummeted to around 30 cents a pound. In the production of aluminum today by the Hall-Hroult process, the aluminum oxide is dissolved in a molten mixture of sodium, calcium, and aluminum fluorides, which melts at a lower temperature than cryolite. The aluminum oxide is in the form of bauxite, a white, brown, or red earthy clay; it was first found near Les Baux, France, in 1821 by P. Berthier, and is now the main source of all aluminum. It is mined in various parts of Africa and in France, Surinam, Jamaica, and the United Statesmainly in Alabama, Arkansas, and Georgia. The world's supply of bauxite appears to be immense enough to last for hundreds of years at the rate it is being mined today.

II.1.C Aluminum Alloy Types

Wrought aluminum: A four-digit number that corresponds to a specific alloying element combination usually designates wrought aluminum alloys. This number is followed by a temper designation that identifies thermal and mechanical treatments. To develop strength, heat-treatable wrought alloys are solution heat treated, then quenched and precipitation hardened. Solution heat treatment consists of heating the metal, holding at temperature to bring the hardening constituents into solution, then cooling to retain those constituents in solution. Precipitation hardening after solution heat treatment increases strength and hardness of these alloys. Wrought aluminum alloys are also strengthened by cold working. The high-strength alloys -- either heat treatable or not -- work harden more rapidly than the lower-strength, softer alloys and so may require annealing after cold working. Because hot forming does not always work harden aluminum alloys, this method is used to avoid annealing and straightening operations; however, hot forming fully heat-treated materials is difficult. Generally, aluminum formability increases with temperature. Other significant new materials are the aluminum-lithium alloys. These lightweight metals are as strong as alloys now in use and can be fabricated on existing metalworking equipment. Although impressive structural weight reductions (from 7 to 10%) are possible through direct substitution, even greater reduction (up to 15%) can be realized by developing fully optimized alloys for new designs. Such alloys would be specifically tailored to provide property combinations not presently available. Producing an alloy that will provide these combinations is the object of second and third-generation low-density alloy development efforts.

Cast aluminum: Aluminum can be cast by all common casting processes. Aluminum casting alloys are identified with a unified, four-digit (xxx.x) system. The first digit indicates the major alloying element. For instance, 100 series is reserved for 99% pure aluminum with no major alloying element used. The second and third digits in the 100 series indicate the precise minimum aluminum content. For example, 165.0 has a 99.65% minimum aluminum content. The 200-900 series designate various aluminum alloys, with the second two digits assigned to new alloys as they are registered. The fourth digit indicates the product form. Castings are designated 0; ingots are designed 1 or 2. Letter prefixes before the numerical designation indicate special control of one or more elements or a modification of the original alloy. Prefix X designates an experimental

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composition. The material may retain the experimental designation up to five years. Limits for the experimental alloy may be changed by the registrant. Permanent-mold casting technology involves several variations having to do with how the metal gets into the mold cavity. Initially, molds were simply gravity filled from ladles, in the same manner as sand molds. Subsequently, low pressure on the liquid-metal surface of a crucible was used to force the metal up, through a vertical tube, into the mold cavity. This refinement produces castings with higher mechanical properties and is more economical than gravity filling because extensive gates and risers are unnecessary. Designation 1xxx 2xxx Major Alloying Element Unalloyed (pure) >99% Al Copper is the principal alloying element, though other elements (Magnesium) may be specified Manganese is the principal alloying element Silicon is the principal alloying element Magnesium is the principal alloying element Magnesium and Silicon are principal alloying elements Zinc is the principal alloying element, but other elements such as Copper, Magnesium, Chromium, and Zirconium may be specified Other elements (including Tin and some Lithium compositions) Reserved for future use

3xxx 4xxx 5xxx 6xxx 7xxx

8xxx 9xxx

Superplastic aluminum: Superplastic forming of metal, a process similar to vacuum forming of plastic sheet, has been used to form low-strength aluminum into nonstructural parts such as cash-register housings, luggage compartments for passenger trains, and nonload-bearing aircraft components. New in this area of technology is a superplasticformable high-strength aluminum alloy, now available for structural applications and designated 7475-02. Strength of alloy 7475 is in the range of aerospace alloy 7075, which requires conventional forming operations. Although initial cost of 7475 is higher, finished part cost is usually lower than that of 7075 because of the savings involved in the simplified design/assembly.

II.2 COPPER & COPPER ALLOYS

Copper conducts electricity at a rate 97% that of silver, and is the standard for electrical conductivity. Copper provides a diverse range of properties: good thermal and electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, ease of forming, ease of joining, and color. In addition, however, copper and its alloys have relatively low strength-to-weight ratios and low strengths at elevated temperatures. Some copper alloys are also susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking unless they are stress relieved.

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Copper-based alloys form adherent films that are relatively impervious to corrosion and that protect the base metal from further attack. Certain alloy systems darken rapidly from brown to black in air. Under most outdoor conditions, however, copper surfaces develop a blue-green patina. Lacquer coatings can be applied to retain the original alloy color. An acrylic coating with benzotriazole as an additive lasts several years under most outdoor, abrasion-free conditions. Although they work harden, copper and its alloys can be hot or cold worked. Ductility can be restored by annealing or heating incident to welding or brazing operations. For applications requiring maximum electrical conductivity, the most widely used copper is C11000, "tough pitch," which contains approximately 0.03% oxygen and a minimum of 99.0% copper. In addition to high electrical conductivity, oxygen-free grades C10100 and C10200 provide immunity to embrittlement at high temperature. The addition of phosphorus produces grade C12200 -- the standard water-tube copper. High-copper alloys contain small amounts of alloying elements that improve strength with some loss in electrical conductivity. In amounts of 1%, for example, cadmium increases strength by 50%, with a loss in conductivity to 85%. Small amounts of cadmium raise the softening temperature in alloy C11600, which is used widely for printed circuits. Tellurium or sulfur, present in small amounts in Grades C14500 and C14700, has been shown to increase machinability. Copper alloys do not have a sharply defined yield point, so yield strength is reported either as 0.5% extension under load, or as 0.2% offset. On the most common basis (0.5% extension), yield strength of annealed material is approximately one-third the tensile strength. As the material is cold worked or hardened, it becomes less ductile, and yield strength approaches tensile strength. Copper is specified according to temper, which is established by cold working or annealing. Typical levels are: soft, half-hard, hard, spring, and extra-spring. Yield strength of a hard-temper copper is approximately two-thirds of tensile strength. For brasses, phosphor bronzes, or other commonly cold-worked grades, the hardest available tempers are also the strongest and represent approximately 70% reduction in area. Ductility is sacrificed, of course, to gain strength. Copper-beryllium alloys can be precipitation hardened to the highest strength levels attainable in copper-base alloys. All copper alloys resist corrosion by fresh water and steam. Copper nickels, aluminum brass, and aluminum bronzes provide superior resistance to saltwater corrosion. Copper alloys have high resistance to alkalies and organic acids, but have poor resistance to inorganic acids. One corrosive situation encountered, particularly in the high-zinc alloy, is dezincification. The brass dissolves as an alloy, but the copper constituent redeposits as a porous, spongy metal. Meanwhile, the zinc component is carried away by the atmosphere or deposited on the surface as an insoluble compound.

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II.2.A How Copper Is Obtained

Extremely pure copper (greater than 99.95%), called electrolytic copper, can be made by electrolysis. The high purity is needed because most copper is used to make electrical equipment, and small amounts of impurity metals in copper can seriously reduce its ability to conduct electricity. Even 0.05% of arsenic impurity in copper, for example, will reduce its conductivity by 15%. Electric wires must therefore be made of very pure copper, especially if the electricity is to be carried for many miles through high-voltage transmission lines. To purify copper electrolytically, the impure copper metal is made the anode (the positive electrode) in an electrolytic cell. A thin sheet of previously purified copper is used as the cathode (the negative electrode). The electrolyte (the current-carrying liquid in between the electrodes) is a solution of copper sulfate and sulfuric acid. When current is passed through the cell, positively charged copper ions (Cu2+) are pulled out of the anode into the liquid, and are attracted to the negative cathode, where they lose their positive charges and stick tightly as neutral atoms of pure copper metal. As the electrolysis goes on, the impure copper anode dissolves away and pure copper builds up as a thicker and thicker coating on the cathode. Positive ions of impurity metals such as iron, nickel, arsenic and zinc also leave the anode and go into the solution, but they remain in the liquid because the voltage is purposely kept too low to neutralize them at the cathode. Other impurities, such as platinum, silver and gold, are also released from the anode, but they are not soluble in the solution and simply fall to the bottom, where they are collected as a very valuable sludge. In fact, the silver and gold sludge is usually valuable enough to pay for the large amount of electricity that the electrolytic process uses.

II.2.B Copper Alloy Types

High-copper alloys: Both wrought and cast compositions have a designated minimum copper content and may include other elements or additions for special properties. Brasses: These alloys contain zinc as the principal alloying element and may have other designated elements. The wrought alloys are comprised of copper-zinc alloys, copperzinc-lead alloys (leaded brasses), and copper-zinc-tin alloys (tin brasses). The cast alloys are comprised of copper-zinc-tin alloys (red, semired and yellow brasses), manganese bronze alloys (high-strength yellow brasses), leaded manganese bronze alloys (leaded high-strength yellow brasses), and copper-zinc-silicon alloys (silicon brasses and bronzes). Bronzes: Wrought bronze alloys comprise four main groups: copper-tin-phosphorus alloys (phosphor bronzes), copper-tin-lead-phosphorus alloys (leaded phosphor bronzes), and copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes). Cast alloys also have four main families: copper-tin alloys (tin bronzes), copper-tin-lead alloys (leaded and high-leaded tin bronzes), copper-tin-nickel alloys (nickel-tin bronzes), and copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes). Copper-nickels: These are either wrought or cast alloys containing nickel as the principal alloying element. Copper-nickel-zinc alloys: These are known as nickel silvers, from their color. Leaded coppers: These are cast alloys containing 20% lead or more.

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II.3 LEAD
Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, ductile, very soft, highly malleable, bluish-white metal that has poor electrical conductivity. This true metal is highly resistant to corrosion, and because of this property, it is used to contain corrosive liquids (e.g., sulfuric acid). Because lead is very malleable and resistant to corrosion it is extensively used in building construction, e.g., external coverings of roofing joints. Lead can be toughened by adding a small amount of antimony or other metals to it. Lead is also poisonous because it is a potent neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bone over time.

II.3.A How Lead Is Obtained

The raw material from which lead metal is produced is either a naturally occurring ore or, more commonly today, lead products returned for recycling. In the United States, more than half of all lead produced comes from recycled materials, especially recycled storage batteries. After initial treatment, the major steps by which lead is obtained from either ore or recycled material are very similar. In the case of a naturally occurring ore of lead, the first step is usually to concentrate the ore and separate it from other metallic ores. This step often involves the froth flotation process in which the mixture of ores is finely ground and then added to a water mixture that contains one or more other materials, such as hydrocarbons, sodium cyanide, copper sulfate, or pine oil. Air is then pumped through the ore/water/secondary material mixture, producing a frothy mixture containing many small bubbles. The added material causes secondary ores such as ores of copper or zinc either to adhere or not adhere to the bubbles in the froth, allowing their separation from lead ores which respond in the opposite manner to the secondary material. The use of copper sulfate in the flotation process, for example, aids in the separation of zinc ores from lead ores. After separation, lead sulfide is heated in a limited supply of air to convert it to lead oxide. The lead oxide is then mixed with coke (carbon) and a flux such as limestone in a blast furnace. Within the blastfurnace, coke burns to form carbon monoxide which, in turn, reacts with lead oxide to form metallic lead and carbon dioxide. In a variation of this procedure, the lead oxide can be mixed with lead sulfide and heated. The reaction that takes place results in the formation of lead metal and sulfur dioxide gas.

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The lead produced by either of these methods is still impure, containing small amounts of copper, tin, arsenic, antimony, and other metals. Each metallic impurity is then removed by some additional step. In the case of copper, for example, the impure lead is heated to a temperature just above its melting point. At this temperature, copper is still a solid. Any copper mixed with the lead floats on top of the lead, and can be scraped off.

II.4 ZINC
Zinc is a moderately reactive bluish grey metal that tarnishes in moist air and burns in air with a bright bluish-green flame, giving off fumes of zinc oxide. It reacts with acids, alkalis and other non-metals. If not completely pure, zinc reacts with dilute acids to release hydrogen. The one common oxidation state of zinc is +2. From 100 C to 210 C (212 F to 410 F) zinc metal is malleable and can easily be beaten into various shapes. Above 210 C (410 F), the metal becomes brittle and will be pulverized by beating. Zinc is nonmagnetic.

II.4.A How Zinc Is Obtained

The usual process for the extraction of zinc from sulphide ores is as follows. First, the ore must be roasted in air to burn off the sulphur as SO2. When this gas is released to the atmosphere, it devastates the vegetation over a considerable area. However, it can be recovered and made into sulphuric acid, which can be used in the smelting process. A good deal of acid is left over for sale to improve the economics. The oxide from the roasting is then leached with the acid produced from the sulphur to produce zinc sulphate, which is then electrolyzed to the metal. This produces a good, pure zinc and is the currently favored process Alternatively, the oxide from roasting can be mixed with carbon, from anthracite coal for example, and sintered if desired. When this is heated in a retort to about 1100C, the zinc vapor is driven off and condensed in molten zinc. Under certain conditions, "blue powder" can be formed, that is a valuable product in its own right. It consists of colloidal zinc particles covered with ZnO, produced by the reaction of Zn with CO2. It will not melt to zinc metal. The condensed zinc from the retort is cast into ingots, and the material is called spelter. Spelter can be refined by liquation, where impurities are skimmed from the top, and the liquids separated into one containing lead and cadmium, and the other purified zinc. Better purification can be obtained by fractional distillation, since zinc vaporizes at a conveniently low temperature. There is also electrolysis, but zinc produced by this method is quite pure anyway. All purification costs money and loses zinc, so where less purity is satisfactory, it is allowed. Lead, copper and tin, for example, do not have a bad effect on brass. For die casting material, on the other hand, it is essential to reduce lead, copper and tin to very small amounts to avoid swelling and embrittlement.

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Cadmium is recovered in the purification of spelter, or in the initial treatment of the ore. Copper, cadmium and a little zinc and other impurities are precipitated from the zinc sulphate solution that is prepared for electrolysis. This is roasted, to reduce arsenic, leached with sulphuric acid, and then the sulphates of zinc, iron and lead are precipitated by lime, and copper by sodium sulphide. It is then filtered; the filtrate contains about 12% Cd. The cadmium is deposited by electrolysis on sheet aluminium cathodes. The cathodes are stripped, melted under NaOH and cast into ingots. There are various methods for cadmium recovery, depending on the characteristics of the particular zinc smelter.

II.5 TIN
Tin is a malleable, ductile, highly crystalline, silvery-white metal; when a bar of tin is bent, a strange crackling sound known as the tin cry can be heard due to the twinning of the crystals. Tin is malleable at ordinary temperatures but is brittle when it is cooled. One of the most important properties of tin is the ease with which it alloys or mixes with the majority of other metals, it is this quality together with the low melting point which makes it an essential ingredient of most solders. It is not toxic and it does not corrode all that rapidly making it ideal as a protection for steel for food and drinks 'tin cans' properties which are also important in pewter. The very high boiling point allows it to be used as a smooth molten surface to make 'float' glass.

II.5.A How Tin Is Obtained

The simple oxide ore of tin, cassiterite (SnO2), accounts for virtually all the tin that has ever been recovered. It is noted for its high specific gravity (its heaviness), approximately three times the weight of a comparablysized piece of the granite with which it is normally associated. Where tin lodes have reached the surface, weathering and erosion over millions of years have broken up the vein structure and released the cassiterite which is stable and durable and resists rapid breakdown. It tends to lie on the surface as coarse eluvial material, often mixed with quartz. When washed into river valleys, it forms concentrated alluvial deposits of dark coloured pebbles and gravel. Cassiterite is smelted to metal by reduction with carbon most commonly in a reverberatory furnace. Temperatures in excess of 1200C are required. The difficulty is that cassiterite is hardly ever produced entirely free from other minerals many of these are reduced to metal at the same time forming alloys with the tin. It is therfore necessary to refine the tin to make it commercially useful. Fire refining involves various procedures on the molten metal. Iron is removed by passing steam through the molten metal, arsenic and antimony are removed by additions of aluminium alloy and copper is removed with sulphur. Very impure tin can be refined by electrolysis to very high purity.

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