Auszge

der Diplomarbeit

Certifying Microfinanced Solar Home Systems Used for Business Purposes

vorgelegt von Klara Lindner im Studiengang Wirtschaftsingenieurwesen in Zusammenarbeit mit Eingereicht bei Prof. Dr.-Ing. Rolf Hanitsch Institut fr Energie- und Automatisierungstechnik Fachgebiet Elektrische Antriebstechnik Berlin, 16. September 2010

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Abstract
In general, Photovoltaic systems are built to last and require little maintenance. However, field studies have revealed a high number of system failures, which are linked to a lack of quality assurance. This paper depicts problems that occur with solar home systems (SHS) disseminated on a market-based approach. The research methodology is based on three pillars: A literature review covers documented projects around the world dealing with solar home system dissemination. Expert practitioners drawn together in a workshop have shared valuable experiences, while a trip to rural Tanzania has been carried out to collect personal insights from the field. They undermined the field research from my colleague Tobias Rothenwnder, whose results served as a valuable contribution to this paper. SHS have been distributed all across the developing world and associated challenges differ strongly among countries. The literature review covers various regions, whereas first-hand data collected in field trips is limited to East Africa and was used to carry out an analysis of qualitative nature. Also, this paper puts a focus on the technically sound performance of the SHS and takes financial issues only into account, when they are linked to the functionality of the system. To facilitate continuous sharing of challenges between different stakeholders, common quality issues are grouped into four categories according to their cause: component quality, system integration, business model and framework conditions. While the solar component and the user are often initially blamed for system failure, it shows that difficulties arise at various levels of the SHS life cycle - this paper highlights focus problems within each stage. As a root, three underlying challenges are suggested: maladjusted systems, inadequate installations and a disorganized after-sales service. A possible instrument to assure better quality in this context is the enforcement of standards also in market-based SHS sales. Microfinance institutions are assumed as an important partner, because only clients with a functioning system are willing to repay the linked loan. As most of these institutions lack technical knowledge, they can only become an agent for their clients wish for customer protection, if an independent facility certifies the systems functionality. The given recommendation is that a sustainable approach for solar home system dissemination should not attempt to increase the affordability by developing cheaper products but by offering end-user finance and by fostering income-generating activities, which facilitate paying for good quality systems and make a service infrastructure viable. Keywords: solar home systems; quality; microfinance; rural energy; standards; certification; service; energy access; developing countries.

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Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 4 4 4 6 6 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 16 16 18 19 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 22 22 23 23 24

2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 3 METHODS 4 THEORY 4.1 SOLAR HOME SYSTEMS 4.1.1 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE TECHNOLOGY 4.1.2 PROVIDED FUNCTIONALITY 4.1.3 BENEFITS 4.1.4 FIELDS OF APPLICATION 4.2 GENERAL QUALITY ISSUES 5 RESULTS 5.1.1 PROBLEM ANALYSIS 5.2 FOCUS PROBLEMS ALONG THE SHS LIFE CYCLE 5.2.1 COMPONENT PRODUCTION 5.2.2 SYSTEM INTEGRATION 5.2.3 PRE-SALES 5.2.4 POINT-OF-SALE 5.2.5 USE 5.2.6 AFTER-SALES 5.2.7 END-OF-LIFE 5.3 STANDARDIZATION OF SHS 5.4 TARGETED TESTING 5.4.1 FUNCTIONALITY OF THE SYSTEM 5.4.2 BATTERY PERFORMANCE 5.4.3 PV PANEL PERFORMANCE ON-SITE 5.5 LOCAL TEST FACILITY 5.6 MICROFINANCING SOLAR HOME SYSTEMS 5.6.1 ADVANTAGES ON ALL SIDES 6 DISCUSSION 6.1 PROBLEM EVALUATION 6.1.1 PROPOSALS TO ASSURE QUALITY 6.1.2 LOCAL TESTING FACILITY 6.2 CORROBORATION OF HYPOTHESIS 6.3 KEY INSIGHT 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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1 Introduction
Currently, close to 1.5 billion people in developing countries have no access to electricity1. Those affected either live in rural areas without connection to electrical power grids or in urban areas with inadequate utility systems and have to rely on diesel gen-sets, kerosene lamps or candles instead. Because of the low population density in remote regions, extending the grid is often not financially viable. Concerns over environmental protection have led to renewable energy technologies being identified as a powerful option for decentralized energy generation. The research focuses on solar home systems (SHS), which are small single-home Photovoltaic systems that provide electricity for lighting and other low-power appliances. While solar technologies have proven to be cost-effective in areas with high irradiation levels, the up-front investment remains a substantial restriction for potential users. Electrification programs funded by international donor organizations have helped to promote the dissemination of solar home systems on a large scale, but a number of studies have put the sustainability of this approach in question. A market-based approach is to incorporate microfinance in the SHS promotion this instrument breaks down the high initial cost into a number of small credit instalments and allows individuals to purchase a system themselves. Users subsequently acquire a sense of ownership over the technology and are more likely to take better care of it. However, most market-based sales of SHS happen on a much lower scale than donor-funded projects. They lack a supervising organisation, which incorporates the necessary understanding about the technology. Most sales are done through smaller private companies that are very price-sensitive, a circumstance directing towards a trade-off between quality and cost. While valuable lessons learnt have been obtained in various large-scale programs, this knowledge has not trickled down to the grassroots and these local entrepreneurs are neither aware of the long-term benefits that good quality products and services have nor do they know how to offer them.

2 Research Objectives
In due course, three research questions were put forward. The first aim is to collect problems that arise when solar home systems are disseminated in the open market and to cluster them in a comprehensive model. In addition to that, existing standardization efforts from official quality assurance organizations as well as best practice projects are researched to find means to address these problems. As a last task, it is to be found out, whether a local test laboratory is a useful instrument to improve the quality of solar home system installations in developing countries.

3 Methods
While governmental and donor-based projects for solar home system dissemination must be evaluated in order to secure funding and are hence documented systematically, this is not the case for commercial SHS distribution. In order to achieve the set aim in a structured way, a three-step approach has been chosen, which was developed by the United Nations Global
1

International Energy Agency (IEA PVPS) estimations: http://www.iea.org/weo/database_electricity/electricity_access_database.htm

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Environment Facility (GEF). Painulys framework to identify relevant barriers for a renewable energy technology in developing countries consists of a literature survey, site visits and interaction with stakeholders (Painuly, 2001). In coherence with that, a thorough literature review forms the base of the analysis. On the one hand, general examinations of challenges in quality assurance have been consulted on a global level through evaluations carried out by the World Bank and other donor-funded organizations. Furthermore, East Africa has been chosen as target region, which lead to more detailed readings of project reports specifically about Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. As solar home systems have first been microfinanced in South Asia, surveys from Bangladesh and Sri Lanka serve alongside as a source for long-term observations and successful standardization efforts. Secondly, field research was carried out by a colleague from MicroEnergy International2. In addition to that, the author conducted a visit to the target region, which reaffirmed the findings and brought up first- hand information within a very specific context: Interviews with end-users (see Figure 1) as well as solar companies in rural Tanzania and Uganda may be of limited overall validity but provide indispensable insights about the real world.
Figure 1 Author interviewing SHS users in Arusha, TZ

In addition to that, a workshop with 19 experts was held to collect and compare various experiences across sub-Sahara Africa and Asia3. Personal interviews were carried out thereafter with the participants that provided insights about potential risks and limitations of SHS dissemination in different contexts. Using scientific reasoning, a qualitative evaluation, albeit limited, of emerging problems was carried out, the results of which serve as a foundation enabling the author to propose improvements linked to standardization and certification activities as followings.

2 3

For details about the field research, refer to Rothenwnders report (Rothenwnder, 2009) For details, a summary of the workshop is available upon request.

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4 Theory
4.1 Solar Home Systems

Solar electric systems can vary in size - this paper deals with solar home systems, which are small autonomous systems designed to provide individual households with basic electricity services. In essence, energy in form of sunlight is captured and transformed to power electric appliances. As outlined in Figure 2, the system consists of a Photovoltaic (PV) module to capture the sun light, a battery to store it over time, a battery charge controller that regulates the flow of electricity and an electric load made up of lights and other appliances these need an inverter to function in a solar system. A typical SHS provides power for fluorescent luminaries, radio, TV, a fan or similar low-power appliances generally for about three to five hours a day (TSC Bangladesh, 2005).
Figure 2: Solar Home System schematic (own illustration)

4.1.1

Advantages And Limitations Of The Technology

In comparison with other means to provide electricity, solar home systems have various advantages: In contrast to other power systems, the PV panel generates electricity in a silent and pollution-free way. As there are no moving parts, the generator itself needs low maintenance. Moreover, the fuel, sunlight, is abundantly available and leads to low operative expenses. In areas without grid connection and low population density, solar home systems are a cost-effective means to provide electricity in a sustainable manner. The local generation lowers transmission losses to a minimum. Due to their modular set-up, SHS can easily be transported even to remote regions and be offered in flexible sizes; individual purchases are possible. In comparison with traditional lighting in these areas, their energy consumption is less and they offer the convenience of switching on and off when needed. (Krauter, 2006) On the other hand, the technology does have certain limitations: Because of the PV panel, its initial cost is very high and most parts need to be imported into developing countries. Their functionality depends on the sun and the system requires energy storage. While the system is environmentally benign during operation, the disposal of the battery at end-of-life remains challenging. Additionally, the generator offers DC only and even though AC appliances may be added together with an inverter, supplying motive power is not possible. The modular and portable characteristics have a downside as well, as this leaves them vulnerable to theft and vandalism. The system is simple but still requires end-user training as well as frequent maintenance, regular replacement of batteries is also necessary. (Sandgren, 2001) (World Bank, 2010) It is very important to communicate those limitations to the end-user to create awareness about proper operation and to prevent dissatisfaction with the technology in the long run.

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4.1.2

Provided Functionality

Most important to end-users however is the functionality that the SHS provides them with. The generated electricity can be used to fulfill various functions that can be classified into private and business purposes. Households commonly use the system to light their home and watch television. Radios may be supplied as well, but as end-users tend to only listen to the radio, when they are out of the house. Radios are rarely connected to the solar home system (Nieuwenhout & Vervaart, 2000). Recent research in various developing countries reveals that the ability to charge mobile phones is another important application for SHS (Rothenwnder, 2009). Likewise, SHS may be used for business purposes. The system can be used indirectly to either light shops after dawn and play music to attract more customers, or to light a workspace and therefore prolong working hours e.g. for a craftsman or a seamstress (Allderdice & Rogers, 2000). It can furthermore be used directly to offer a service. The following graph, based on data from Kenya, illustrates how the number of mobile phone users has increased enormously in Africa and by now exceeds the number of grid-connected households (Dalberg, 2010).

Figure 3 Mobile phone adoption vs. grid connection in Kenya (Dalberg, 2010)

Mobile phone charging can thus be seen as a lucrative service to offer in unelectrified areas.

4.1.3

Benefits

Enabling rural households in off-grid areas to switch from traditional sources of light and electricity to the operation of solar home systems has beneficial impacts, which can be classified into direct and indirect economic effects. (Eiffert, 2002) The term direct refers to the possibility of measuring this effect directly in monetary values. In this context, solar home systems have the potential to substitute the use of battery cells, kerosene for lamps and candles. This can be measured by a decrease in monthly energy

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spending of the end-user. Moreover, the solar home system can be used directly to generate income through the provision of services as outlined in the previous section. (Allderdice & Rogers, 2000) Indirect effects on the other hand are difficult to quantify but nevertheless a gain for the SHS user. The Photovoltaic Power System Program of the International Energy Agency (IEA-PVPS) states that the ability to read after dawn offers a potential to improve the educational level of the households. Moreover, health risks originating from the use of kerosene lamps can be lowered and an increased comfort achieved through the convenience of turning the light on and off when needed and providing a feeling of security at night (McNelis, 2008). Over and above, the provision of modern electricity increases the attractiveness of a life in the village and is hence a powerful tool to decelerate rural exodus (Microenergy International, 2007).

4.1.4

Fields Of Application

The International Energy Agency estimates that close to 1.5 billion people in the developing world have no access to modern electricity sources (IEA, 2010). Sub-Sahara Africa has the lowest electrification level worldwide, with rural electrification rates below 5%. In spite of continuous migration into the cities, World Bank estimations from 2000 show that a majority of 68% resides in rural areas. To provide modern energy services has been therefore seen as a key for development. (Karekezi & Kithyoma, Renewable Energy Strategies for Rural Africa: Is a PV-led Renewable Energy Strategy the Right Approach for Providing Modern Energy to the Rural Poor of Sub-Saharan Africa?, 2002) Despite major electrification programs, further research concludes that gains made in other regions of the world will be largely negated with Africas unelectrified, which are projected to grow to 700 million (Dalberg, 2010).

Figure 4 Unelectrified population [millions] (Dalberg, 2010)

Conventional grid electrification is not perceived as viable for most of rural Africa, because the national electricity generation cannot keep up with the rising demand and availability of

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transmission is limited. Especially in Southern an Eastern Africa, where the majority of the regions poor population lives in dispersed settlements, decentralized energy technologies are given a big potential (Karekezi & Kithyoma, Renewable Energy Strategies for Rural Africa: Is a PV-led Renewable Energy Strategy the Right Approach for Providing Modern Energy to the Rural Poor of Sub-Saharan Africa?, 2002). As of 2000, estimations vary from 50 to 125 MWp of off-grid PV installed in Africa, whereas solar home systems accounted for approximately 30% of this amount (Nieuwenhout & Vervaart, 2000). Large donor-driven investments in SHS helped drive a compounded annual growth of 13% in the number of installed SHS since then and an analysis based on over 40 SHS Africa surveys and country-specific data suggests a total number of 890,000 systems installed by 2009 (300,000 in 2000, 465,000 in 2005) (Dalberg, 2010).

4.2

General Quality Issues

A review carried out by the International Energy Agency (IEA) in 2004 concludes the following: In spite of good intentions, many programs implementing Photovoltaics (PV) in developing nations have failed in one way or another, and only a very few, if any, programs can be regarded as all round success stories. A large number of failures can be attributed to lack of quality, both in terms of components and installation quality as well as in the organization and management of implementation programs. (Wilshaw, Bates, & Oldach, 2004) The most comprehensive review of solar home system distribution reports in the developing world has been carried out by F. Niewenhout and was documented in several papers (Nieuwenhout & Vervaart, 2000) (Nieuwenhout, et al., 2000) (Nieuwenhout, et al., 2001). The conclusion is that in spite of the successful dissemination achieved through donor-funded programs, the sustainability of such projects remains in doubt. The reason is that the small- scale distribution on a market-based approach is hardly documented and large projects are screened only in the first or second year also, negative experiences are seldom narrated. Niewenhout states that untargeted subsidies as well as a weak service infrastructure are the main reasons, why the lifetime of many SHS is much shorter than expected. However, he limits his results by noting that the numbers of direct sales hint that most SHS are bought locally and not received through a well-monitored program (Nieuwenhout, et al., 2001). As todays supply is even better, these sales are likely to be even bigger. Recent documentation from the World Bank-program ESMAP further concludes that solar technology has a positive impact on the sustainable development, if paid for by the actual end-user as he acquires a sense of ownership; and this can only be achieved if the SHS actually increase productivity and offer income-generating activities (World Bank, 2010). Discussions with World Bank advisor A. Cabraal will elaborate on these findings at a later stage of this paper. The gtz has carried out well-monitored programs throughout the last two decades, most projects targeting for community empowerment through the electrification of e.g. schools or health clinics. Fahlenbock & Haupt look in their analysis deeply into the technical details that lead to system failures and conclude that not the solar panel but the battery is the most vulnerable component; furthermore, wrong system design in the beginning lead to a shorter lifetime (Fahlenbock & Haupt, 2000). Discussions with Photovoltaic expert N. Pfanner as well as

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battery manufacturer P. Zhlsdorf will clarify in the following problem analysis, which real-life issues lead to such technical drawbacks. As the IEA also summarizes in their report from 2003 that every analysed implementation model highlights different success and failure factors, the problem analysis of this paper relied heavily on profound field research done over several weeks by university graduates. Notable is the research carried out in Uganda by Kristjansdottir about proper education about solar technology and Sandgren about the problems linked to the battery component of a solar system (Kristjansdottir, 2003) (Sandgren, 2001). Ultimately, Rothenwnders insights collected in Tanzania and Uganda by assessing microfinanced SHS formed a basis for this papers analysis (Rothenwnder, 2009).

5 Results
A review carried out by the International Energy Agency in 2004 concludes the following: In spite of good intentions, many programs implementing Photovoltaics (PV) in developing nations have failed in one way or another, and only a very few, if any, programs can be regarded as all round success stories. A large number of failures can be attributed to lack of quality, both in terms of components and installation quality as well as in the organization and management of implementation programs. (Wilshaw, Bates, & Oldach, 2004)
The aim of the proposed model is to summarize the generally stated problems of the consulted literature and then connect it to real-life experiences, which have been made by various practitioners in the field of SHS quality assurance; the results from the field research aim to further enrich the uncovered issues. To increase the visibility and foster further collection and sharing of these challenges, four main clusters have been developed (see

Figure 5). On the technical level, problems that result from the product components themselves are separated from those problems that materialize once the technology is integrated into complete systems. A division on the meta-level is made into problems that emerge from the implemented business model on the one hand and challenges linked to the respective framework conditions on the other hand.

Figure 5: Model outline with 4 problem clusters and their change agent

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For each cluster, a dominant change agent is named: while the problems within the business model are to be addressed by the project implementer, enabling framework conditions can only be set by official authorities. The challenges arising from system integration should be tackled by the designated technical staff on-site, while those arising from the individual components have to be taken care of by the product manufacturer.

5.1.1

Problem Analysis

1) Most obvious are problems, which are linked directly to the product itself in this case to the individual parts that make up a solar home system. As the PV panel is the main component of a solar home system, it is often initially blamed for a system breakdown but as various studies reveal, the pure solar part rarely fails (Egido, 2001). Due to their significant portion on the upfront investment, great efforts in assuring quality have been taken in the past. By now, they are highly standardized and commonly certified through internationally validated procedures, which let them become the least problematic part of the system (Nieuwenhout, et al., 2001). The battery on the other hand embodies a great number of issues this is very alarming because when the complete life span of a solar home system is considered, frequent replacements of the battery let it become the most expensive component (Nieuwenhout, et al., 2001). The charge controller makes up only a fraction of the system cost, which lessens its importance in the eyes of many. But because its functionality is crucial to a properly working battery, failures are very severe (Egido, 2001). In various cases, charge controllers that are not suited for high outside temperatures have been chosen for the installation and lead to a lower system performance (Nieuwenhout, et al., 2000). With regard to the SHS load, the absence of suitable appliances has been reported to be most challenging (Laufer, 2010). Within the existing range of appliances, many problems are related to the lighting source, whose quality decreases rapidly or cannot be assured at all, as product imitations have spread widely (Rothenwnder, 2009). 2) Yet even if the best quality components are used, a number of issues arise once those individual parts are integrated into a system, designed and installed locally and put into operation. In terms of system design, a lot of problems originate from misevaluations (Rothenwnder, 2009). Either because assumptions made upfront are inaccurate and lead to unsuited system sizes or because important safety principles are ignored and calculations based on a rule of thumb (Egido, 2001). The outcome may then vary from a minor decrease in usability to a severe drop of service life leading to complete system failure (Fahlenbock & Haupt, 2000). Field experience has shown that the system life decreases significantly, if car batteries instead of appropriate deep-cycle batteries are used (Kristjansdottir, 2003). According to Kristjansdottir, the origin of early system failure can be traced back to the wrong installation of the charge controller: a study that checked 20 different charge controller from 7 countries stated that none of those regulators disconnected the battery as it should; even more alarming is his comment that sometimes the technician himself bypasses the regulator to allow for deeper discharge of the battery. (Kristjansdottir, 2003) In due course, problems arise once the system is put into use. While constant overuse or tempering with the system leads to a shorter lifetime, other challenges are connected to the limited availability of productive appliances or a lack of feedback potential (Rothenwnder,

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2009). Nieuwenhout states that an early battery failure is mostly only a symptom of other problems and as a quick replacement does fix the system, complete checks to insure system functionality remain scarce (Nieuwenhout, et al., 2000). 3) The chosen business model defines the way the solar home systems get to the end-user, starting with pre-sales activities such as product testing through training and financing to after-sales services. Many of the challenges that have been reported originate from the partnership that is needed in most cases of coupled microfinance and solar home system dissemination. Roles are not clearly allocated, risks are shared unevenly and responsibilities are moved back and forth from partner to partner (Kebir, Microfinance & Energy, 2008). Marketing activities do not follow organized planning and in order to increase the willingness- to-pay, unrealistic promises are made; Sandgren for example reports that in Uganda, potential clients were convinced by implying that not only lighting and radio or TV are possible, but also ironing and cooking, as soon as more PV panels are added at a later stage (Sandgren, 2001). It is challenging to find suitable employees in the right quantity in rural areas to carry out necessary services such as raising awareness through proper marketing and training of all stakeholders (Nieuwenhout & Vervaart, 2000). The problem most pressing however, is reported to be the provision of proper maintenance and repair: If a system is broken, in many cases the end-user is blamed for incorrect operation, overuse or skipping routine maintenance activities (Sandgren, 2001). At the end of system-life, the issue of battery disposal is usually not covered by the technology provider. End-users are not given information on health and environmental risks about the materials within and either leave the battery in their home or burn it with the regular waste. (Sandgren, 2001) 4) A number of external conditions set a framework in which the particular business model has to be placed in. Those realities may derive from the respective location, for example regional climatic conditions, can be formed by the actual public policy or are set by the situation on- site. In various cases, a look into the respective public policy environment shows that oftentimes a lack of institutional involvement leads to difficulties in scaling up SHS dissemination (Nieuwenhout, et al., 2001). Examples for this are the unavailability of mechanisms to disseminate information or a lack of strong measures and enforcement capacities against product imitations (Painuly, 2001). Depending on the economic participation of potential SHS users, the entrepreneurial environment may play for or against their widespread implementation. Solar home systems are dependent on favourable weather conditions, a frequently stated drawback, because long rainy seasons are often not considered in the planning process (Rothenwnder, 2009). With regard to the infrastructure, difficulties arise from a limited road accessibility, making it hard to transport goods into rural areas. Moreover, limited communication infrastructure hinders various commercial activities (Painuly, 2001).

5.2

Focus Problems Along the SHS Life Cycle

While the cluster model4 serves as a tool to visualize and share a variety of problems related to solar home systems, the most profound issues are described along the SHS life cycle. This
4

The complete list of problems in the cluster model is available upon request.

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section draws from personal experiences made by experts and field researches and can better be attached to a life stage of the SHS rather than to one of the general problem clusters. The applied paradigm (see Figure 6) is made up of seven different stages, starting with the production of each component as first of these. After system integration and pre-sale activities such as testing and marketing, the product shifts from the seller to the end-user at the point-of sale. Then, the SHS is sized accordingly, put into operation at the use-stage and needs after- sales services until the components are disposed of on life cycle completion.

Figure 6: Lifecycle view of a solar home system (own illustration)

5.2.1

Component Production

In the very first stage, the use of bad quality product components carries a great risk of ruining the reputation of solar home systems. If one part does not function as it is supposed to, the entire system becomes weak and cannot deliver the desired output. Field research indicates that components are not well-adapted to local conditions, as for example charge controllers cease to work under high ambient temperatures (see Figure Figure 7), because the electronic circuit is encapsulated (Rothenwnder, 2009).

Figure 7 Damaged charge controller (Rothenwnder, 2009)

Additionally, components may be of good quality, but their long-term performance under typical SHS conditions is not ensured and especially the battery has repeatedly been stated as unreliable element. But even if awareness about the need for quality exists, counterfeiting has spread widely and local implementers as well as end-users are unsure whether or not they deal with product imitations. This may be exemplified by the looking into the decision-making

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process for the PV generator. Amorphous panels are advantageous over crystalline panels for a number of reasons: They may have a smaller power output under standard test conditions, but the material can handle higher ambient temperatures better and catch more energy from scattered radiation during rainy season, which makes is more suitable for the target region. Seeing that they are also less expensive, their dissemination could be much higher - but due to the limited ability of checking panels in the field, traditional crystalline modules are preferred, as their quality is sufficient even when product imitations are used (Schnuurhuizen, 2010).

5.2.2

System Integration

Once all components are integrated into a complete system, product imitation again is the issue most worrying. Besides imitations of light bulbs and batteries, fake cabling material as pictured in Figure 8has been reported in various cases (Rothenwnder, 2009).
Figure 8 Comparison Cable Diameter 2.5 mm2 [Blue: Germany, Red/Black: Tanzania] (Rothenwnder, 2009)

While this is one of the cheapest BOS- components, it is of no lesser importance than the others if imitations are used that do not really have the marked diameter, the voltage drop within the electric circuit can severely damage the system. Another challenge is to match the right components. Whereas cheaper automotive batteries are used instead of deep-cycle tubular lead-acid batteries and shorten the system life significantly, improper system calculations oftentimes leave out safety factors like days of autonomy and a certain allowed depth of battery discharge and further weaken the system. (Pfanner, 2010)

5.2.3

Pre-Sales

A distribution chain starting with a global manufacturer in Germany or China and ending in a remote village in Central Africa may become very complex and hard to manage; trade barriers, such as high import taxes on the components, hinder the procurement even more (Painuly, 2001). Experts further state that finding proper means of transportation and monitoring the correct distribution is a challenge (Cabraal, 2010). In terms of product testing, the problem is that products are tested with the trial-and-error method on the back of end-users, because proper knowledge about his true needs and abilities is missing on the manufacturers side (Namazzi, 2010). Laboratory testing is not widespread in the developing world as needed equipment, such as flash solar simulators are very costly (Pfanner, 2010). Thirdly, the marketing concept is ill-conceived in many cases: Statements such as one-in-a-lifetime- investment generate unrealistic expectations and lead to annoyance as soon as battery replacements become necessary. Furthermore, if SHS examples made up of small PV panels and big TV sets are used for advertisement through village presentations, this induces a wrong picture within potential customers (Hankins, 2010) (Schnuurhuizen, 2010).

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5.2.4

Point-of-Sale

At the point-of-sale, the high upfront-investment remains as a big issue. While the incorporation of microcredits lowers this barrier, the following illustration highlights that there are not enough microfinance institutions present in African rural areas to work with (Dalberg, 2010).

Figure 9 Presence of microfinance institutions in rural areas (Dalberg, 2010)

Savings made through less spending on traditional fuel like kerosene are not enough to pay back the loan within the short credit period many microfinance institutions demand. Furthermore, the need to replace the battery during system lifetime is not communicated properly and thus no savings set aside for this event (Rothenwnder, 2009). Another challenge arises once the system is customized for the client the technical assessment of user electricity needs and the economic assessment of his financial abilities are not synced and lead to dissatisfaction on either the end-users or the MFIs side. Even worse cases have been reported, where the system is purposely either oversized to receive higher subsidies or undersized to patronize the end-user. In addition to that, the lack of quality installations further reduces the system lifetime at this stage - Figure 10 shows a typical result. The designated technician is improperly trained and ill-equipped many installations are carried out with as little as a screwdriver, flat pliers and a knife (Rothenwnder, 2009).
Figure 10 Bad quality installation of a SHS

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5.2.5

Use

Solar home systems are made up of different components and only function as good as its weakest link. Many times, the SHS works properly in the beginning but starts to malfunction in the long run as its components are not harmonized with each other and its environment. Besides this technical challenge, a financial challenge is of great importance: To cope with the need to repay the loan within the demanded period, the SHS should induce increased income generation in the use phase. But as proper DC appliances as well as knowledge about entrepreneurial activities linked to electricity lack, the client does not take advantage of potential business opportunities. The biggest problem in that lifecycle stage is to ensure proper maintenance of the system. The end-user rarely receives proper training on maintenance tasks such as cleaning dust off the PV panels (see Figure 11)and refilling the lead-acid battery with distilled water (Rothenwnder, 2009). In addition to that, off-grid solar systems are in many cases seen as a temporary solution that loses value once the grid arrives at the location because of this perception, even fostered by promises frequently made by local governments, it becomes difficult for small technical companies to defend long-lasting and expensive systems (Namazzi, 2010).
Figure 11 Dusty Module Lowers PV Panel Efficiency

5.2.6

After-Sales

Considering after-sales services, the root of most problems lies in the allocation of roles between both partners, the solar company on the one hand and the microfinance institution on the other (Namazzi, 2010). The responsibility to act on user complaints is pushed to and fro and leaves the end-user uncertain about what to do or whom to contact. As systems are not monitored properly, it remains unclear, whether the user tempered with the system, for example through by-passing the charge controller, or if the technology itself has caused a failure, and warranty enforcement becomes a challenging task. Most clients go through several credit cycles with the MFI and are afraid to lose their reputation, if they do not pay their instalment as protest measure against broken systems. In very remote regions, spare parts are simply not available even though the end-user would pay for them and self-made repairs, e.g. replacing a blown fuse with metal thread, exacerbate the problem (Sandgren, 2001).

5.2.7

End-of-Life

At the end of the system life, the biggest issue is the disposal of the battery. The material within is not only environmentally harmful but also valuable when recycled, but nevertheless

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most of them end up being dumped or burned with the household trash. As systems are not traced, the component manufacturer is not able to receive feedback about the product and can therefore not include user experiences into design iterations (Zhlsdorf, 2010). For a better overview, all focus problems are illustrated along the lifecycle of a solar home system in Figure 12.

Figure 12 Focus Problems along the Life Cycle

Taken together, these results imply three underlying assumptions: 1. Maladjusted systems 2. Inadequate installations 3. Disorganized after-sales service The first statement summarizes a number of reported problems charge controllers overheat due to ambient temperatures, they are not adapted to, batteries have a much shorter life time than expected, because of daily cycling patterns, the overall system output is lower than planned, because the amount of scattered radiation was not taken into account and product counterfeits of insufficient quality lower the system performance. The second assertion explains, how methodologically flawed system design leaves end-users dissatisfied with a system that does not meet their electricity requirements, how a mismatch of components leads to early system failure and how a lack of quality in activities such as wiring increases system losses significantly. And thirdly, irresponsible after-sales organization leaves the end-user alone and allows that minor problems, which could be fixed without great effort, weaken the whole system and impede a sustainable solar home system dissemination.

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5.3

Standardization of SHS

Experiences made in different field studies show that the quality of installed solar home systems is better, if standards have been enforced. Demands made on solar home system quality and performance vary widely, partly because of particular country characteristics or the regional supply situation, but also because of a lack of binding standards or knowledge on their existence (Fahlenbock & Haupt, 2000). Thus, to define a good compromise between affordability and quality, various sources have been consulted: international standards from recognized standards committees, national standards from countries that have adopted solar home systems widely, best practices from organizations such as the World Bank and IEA PVPS and specifications for the evaluation of tenders of substantial aid-funded programs have been researched for suitable certification approaches that specifically address the problems identified earlier. In addition to that, these specifications have been backed up by opinions from experts in the field of SHS dissemination. The leader in standards development for the Photovoltaic panel as well as the balance of system (BOS) components is the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) as representative of relevant committees and working groups of standards agencies from most manufacturing countries. While a number of IEC standards deals with batteries in general, appropriate sizing for PV systems or correct charging procedures are not covered to date (Wilshaw, Bates, & Oldach, 2004). According to a World Bank guidance note, the attempt to fill this gap and to assure quality through the PV Global Approval Program with a quality seal stating PV GAP certification has shown to be largely ineffective in practice, because neither manufacturers nor end-users requested it (World Bank, 2010). While IEC specifications detail on how to conduct component testing in a standard and repeatable manner, the value of the measured feature is then set in procurement standards (Cabraal, 2010). A look at such standards from countries that have implemented solar home systems successfully facilitates the proposal of adequate values for decent quality at affordable prices. For this, the technical specifications developed for the Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Development Project (REREDP) in Bangladesh have been found very suitable (TSC Bangladesh, 2005). Valuable recommendations are also made in the proposal for a Universal test standard for solar home systems (UTS-SHS) the Instituto de Energia Solar (Spain) created this document together with standardization bodies from the European Community as a whole (JRC Ispra), France (GENEC) and Germany (WIP) to provide a basis for a global standard for SHS. For this, it took over formulations of the formerly named procurement specifications and made use of standards and guidelines from 20 countries, many of which in developing countries. The UTS- SHS however is limited to technical aspects and does not include recommendations related to after-sales services. (Wilshaw, Bates, & Oldach, 2004) A report published by the gtz called Quality Standards for Solar Home Systems and Rural Health Power Supply evaluated various tender documents and other SHS specifications to develop a set of text modules that can directly be used for future project descriptions. In these, minimum requirements for a reliable technical set-up according to the current state-of-the-art, are stated, which assist in the procurement and installation of solar home systems. (Fahlenbock & Haupt, 2000) Over and above, quality is important on all levels of SHS dissemination, including technician and end-user training, pre-sales and after-sales activities as well as disposal arrangements at

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end-of-system-life. The World Bank has developed four quality assurance manuals, which cover various aspects from manufacturing to design, to installation and maintenance and to laboratory accreditation, which are summarized under the term QuaP-PV. For further details on SHS standardization, refer to the IEA PVPS Task 3-Survey written by Wilshaw, Bates, & Oldach. (Wilshaw, Bates, & Oldach, 2004)

5.4

Targeted Testing

Conform to all researched standard documents is the requirement to put only components into operation, whose quality has been certified under international IEC standards. Whereas it is possible for local laboratories in developing countries to become versed in running those test sequences, component testing should be left to major approved laboratories. The financial effort to acquire and maintain the necessary equipment is enormous, as for example, prices for solar flash simulator to test PV modules start at 50,000, and makes only sense for experienced laboratories that perform those tests on a large scale (Pfanner, 2010). However, during the evaluation of problems, three main obstacles were collected that could be overcome by local hardware certification: the functionality of the system as a whole, the performance of different batteries under realistic load currents in usual SHS and the verification of the PV panel energy yield on-site.

5.4.1

Functionality of the System

To be able to certify the performance of a complete solar home system in operation, the IEC has developed a well-thought-out standard filed under 62124 - Photovoltaic (PV) stand-alone systems Design verification. The procedure includes both outdoor testing in prevailing conditions and indoor testing under simulated conditions and validates not only the functionality, but also the autonomy and ability to recover after periods of low state-of-charge of the battery a pass can thus reasonable assure that the system will not fail prematurely (IEC, 2004).

5.4.2

Battery Performance

The need for a benchmark test to compare prices with lifetimes has been expressed by various experts (Schnuurhuizen, 2010) (Sandgren, 2001). According to Wiesner, the load current laid down in the IEC battery-standard 61427 does not correspond to realistic load currents in usual solar home systems and furthermore takes a long time to test (Wiesner, Test facilities for long- time survey on small decentralised PV-supplied energy systems, 2003). Thus, a regional standard, which has been drafted to assure the functionality under realistic conditions, is proposed instead: The East African Standards Community (EASC), which is made up of the official standardization entities of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi, has found the battery of a solar home system to be the most crucial part (EASC, 2003). In order to assure satisfying operation, the EASC with the Kenyan Bureau of Standards as its leader, has developed recommended practices for installation, maintenance, testing and replacement of this component, filed under CD/K/04/2003 Batteries for use in photovoltaic power systems. To evaluate the overall performance of a battery in a SHS, the test not only evaluates the usable capacity, but also estimates the battery life and its reliability. Typically, life expectancy

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for a lead-acid battery will halve for every 10 C rise in temperature above the recommended operating temperature. However, in solar home systems, the cycle life plays a much more important role, as the batteries are subject to a daily cycle superimposed upon a seasonal cycle. The cycle endurance is the ability of a battery to withstand repeated charging and discharging. The EASC-standard specifies the number of cycles to be achieved by solar batteries. An accelerated simulation of battery operation in a PV system under increased ambient temperatures validates the values. Over and above, valuable design considerations as well as recommended installation practices are explained, which create awareness about important factors, such as the time required accessing the site or measures against thermal runaway. (EASC, 2003)

5.4.3

PV Panel Performance On-Site

On-site measurements are essential in validating the actual performance of the PV system, especially in projects where the panel is suspected of product imitation (Pfanner, 2010). Hence, the local test laboratory shall be able to offer a tool kit for local inspections that verifies the installed array power performance relative to design specifications. The East African standard CD/K/10/2003 - Crystalline silicon photovoltaic array-on-site measurement of I-V characteristics proposes two different methods that use the junction temperature and the I-V characteristics for validation.

5.5

Local Test Facility

As standards are useless without their proper application, setting up a test laboratory may serve as a valuable tool to enforce them locally. This facility may not only verify the performance of the system and its components, but also fulfil further activities: The evaluation of problems has shown that a lack of awareness exists about limitations and potentials of solar home systems. Therefore, the laboratory could exhibit the functionality of SHS to interested microfinance institutions, their clients and other stakeholders involved. While the MFI is then able to understand and implement crucial elements of quality assurance and may furthermore negotiate with the technology provider at eye level, end-users see a real system in operation and cannot be fooled by creative advertising. Being conscious of the fact that systems depend on favourable weather conditions and may not be used for e.g. ironing or cooking will lower dissatisfaction at a later stage. Regarding the potential of SHS, it would make sense to put systems with various appliances on display, which provide again both the MFI and its client with knowledge about income-generating services based on SHS use.

Figure 5-13 Mobile phone charging business product development (Sow, 2009)

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Suitable DC appliances have not spread widely yet, but various activities are thinkable and a number of innovative tools have been developed in recent years. The test laboratory could receive direct feedback on those new product developments and help to adapt them to local needs.

5.6

Microfinancing Solar Home Systems

Connecting the distribution of solar home systems with microfinance is seen as measure, which all stakeholders can profit from. Its implementation makes the market less price sensitive and allows emphasizing on high quality products instead of trying to find the cheapest ones available a reliable, well-performing system is a crucial condition for a high willingness and ability to pay for the instalments (Kebir, Microfinance & Energy, 2008).

Figure 14 Comparison of long-term payments for battery/kerosene lamp and SHS (Kebir, Microfinance & Energy, 2008)

5.6.1

Advantages On All Sides

The end-user benefits gets the ability to split the high initial price into a number of instalments and to acquire a solar home system in order to fulfil his primary electricity needs. Furthermore, experience in the field shows that SHS are used to generate additional income and thus support households in breaking the vicious circle of poverty (Harsdorff & Bamanyaki, 2009). Microfinance institutions may supply their clients demand for modern electricity and furthermore attract new clients through broadening their product portfolio with an energy loan. Solar home systems are visible and friends and may thus serve as marketing tool for microfinance. Because SHS are potentially income generating, the MFI may mitigate the risks regarding non-repayment of the loan. Over and above, this type of loan attracts investors, who see it as a productive instrument for low-income households and not as a charity action. Such energy programs may also profit from subsidies by the World Bank and other international funding agencies, which eases the need to re-finance for the MFI. (Barbalata, 2010)

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Solar technology providers also state various reasons for a corporation with a microfinance institution: Firstly, it allows the company to recover its money in the shortest time possible and enables the client to receive a solar home system upfront, which indirectly encourages others to also purchase a system. Moreover, they believe that the MFI is respected by the end- user, who will therefore not dare to default. In addition to that, MFIs already have an existing customer base that helps to market the product. And finally, loan officers are in close contact with the end-user on a frequent base and may help to report back customer complaints. (Namazzi, 2010)

6 Discussion
6.1 Problem Evaluation

The first aim of this paper was to identify problems that arise during solar home dissemination by means of a market-based approach and to categorize them accordingly. While the solar component and the user are often initially blamed for system failure, the analysis of problems suggests a different cause. It was found that difficulties arose at various stages of the SHS life cycle and three underlying causes were suggested: maladjusted systems, inadequate installations and a disorganized after-sales service.

6.1.1

Proposals to Assure Quality

In a next step, existing standardization efforts regarding solar home systems were researched to ascertain elements of a certificate for microfinanced SHS, which specifically address the problems evaluated earlier. It became clear, that most binding standards from international quality assurance organizations refer to the pure solar part or to the performance of individual components only. Due to this gap, many dissemination projects defined their own regulations in the past.

6.1.2

Local Testing Facility

In order to provide a means of enforcing standards, a local test laboratory was proposed. Different test processes were identified as crucial to address the problems at a local level. In due course, the test lab may serve another purpose exhibit the functionality of solar home systems. By furthermore including appliances into the exhibited system end-users may be informed about various activities that can be carried out with solar power to generate income and can also provide direct feedback on the development of new products. This proposal partly reflect conclusions that were made in a similar research project carried out by the gtz: i.e. in order to increase the sustainability of electrification projects, a study on socio-economic and productive impacts of solar home systems in Uganda recommends the development of business lines that especially promote Solar Business Systems that power hair shaving machines, charge cell phones and are flexible to new business ideas like fridges to sell cold drinks/ice cream and are adaptable to other innovations. (Harsdorff & Bamanyaki, 2009)

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6.2

Corroboration of Hypothesis

When a comparison is drawn between the original objective and the outcome reached, it becomes apparent that the certification elements together with a local test laboratory may address the underlying problems only to a certain extent. The proposed set-up can guarantee system functionality under the given conditions, which would lead to more robust solar home systems and lower maintenance requirements. Moreover, the supplementary exhibition function of the test laboratory can improve the allocation of roles between project partners and thus foster a clear share of responsibility of after-sales services. However, even if necessary procedures are standardized, the maintenance effort is reduced and servicing responsibilities are clearly defined, this does not guarantee that installation and after-sales procedures are actually carried out properly. To be able to ensure sound execution of those operations, high-quality training of involved stakeholders becomes crucial. Considering that, the World Bank has developed a useful guide for implementing a national quality trainer accreditation and practitioner certification system of PV systems design, installation and maintenance. For more information, readers are encourage to refer this document: Certification for the PV Installation and Maintenance Practitioner: Manual for Implementing Qualified Certification Programs written for the Quality Program for Photovoltaics (QuaP-PV) in 2000 by Mark C. Fitzgerald (Fitzgerald, 2000).

6.3

Key Insight

First and foremost, experiences made worldwide have underlined that the implementation of standards is of great value in projects that involve numerous stakeholders, because it provides a common language facilitating direct communication. Secondly, a sustainable approach for solar home system dissemination should not attempt to increase the affordability of the technology by developing cheaper and cheaper products but by offering end-user finance and by fostering income-generating activities, which facilitate paying for good quality systems and make a service infrastructure viable.

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