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Control charts are defined by the center line, upper control limit, and lower control limit. These values are related to the expected value and variance of the statistics plotted on the charts. In Chapter 13, the upper and lower control limits were specified through the use of certain constants given in Appendix B. This section shows how these factors are developed and discusses the statistical basis for the rules used to interpret control charts.
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Table 13A.1 Rule Probabilities for x Charts When the Process Is in Control
x is normal Probability (sensitivity) x is slightly skewed x is seriously skewed
Rule Description 1 2 x is more than 3sx above mx x is more than 3sx below mx Of three consecutive values of x, two are above mx 1 2sx Of three consecutive values of x, two are below mx 2 2sx Two consecutive values of x are above mx 1 2sx Two consecutive values of x are below mx 2 2sx Of five consecutive values of x, four are above mx 1 1sx Of five consecutive values of x, four are below mx 2 1sx Four consecutive values of x are above mx 1 1sx Four consecutive values of x are below mx 2 1sx Seven consecutive values of x are above mx Seven consecutive values of x are below mx Eight consecutive values of x are above mx Eight consecutive values of x are below mx Six consecutive values of x are in a monotone increasing pattern Six consecutive values of x are in a monotone Decreasing pattern 6 Of 10 consecutive values of x, a subset of eight (reading from left to right) are in a monotone increasing pattern Of 10 consecutive values of x, a subset of eight (reading from left to right) are in a monotone decreasing pattern 7 Of two consecutive values of x, one is more than 4sx larger than the other
Sample size is irrelevant 0.135% 0.135% 0.153% 0.153% 0.052% 0.052% 0.277% 0.277% 0.063% 0.063% 0.781% 0.781% 0.391% 0.391% 0.139%
Sample size 5 0.254% 0.021% 0.237% 0.076% 0.080% 0.026% 0.284% 0.284% 0.065% 0.065% 0.631% 0.961% 0.306% 0.495% 0.139% 10 0.209% 0.046% 0.212% 0.098% 0.072% 0.033% 0.281% 0.284% 0.064% 0.065% 0.680% 0.896% 0.333% 0.457% 0.139% 25 0.191% 0.080% 0.190% 0.119% 0.064% 0.040% 0.280% 0.278% 0.064% 0.064% 0.705% 0.865% 0.347% 0.439% 0.139%
Sample size 5 0.488% 0.000% 0.342% 0.020% 0.117% 0.007% 0.273% 0.268% 0.063% 0.061% 0.494% 1.202% 0.231% 0.639% 0.139% 10 0.380% 0.008% 0.281% 0.048% 0.096% 0.016% 0.274% 0.273% 0.063% 0.063% 0.568% 1.060% 0.271% 0.554% 0.139% 25 0.281% 0.035% 0.235% 0.082% 0.080% 0.028% 0.277% 0.276% 0.063% 0.063% 0.636% 0.953% 0.309% 0.491% 0.139%
2a
3a
4a
0.139%
0.139%
0.139%
0.139%
0.139%
0.139%
0.139%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.069%
0.234%
0.229%
0.230%
0.232%
0.282%
0.261%
0.243%
Source: Robert Hoyer and Wayne C. Ellis. A Graphical Exploration of SPC, Part 2, Quality Progress 29, no. 6 (June 1996), 5764. 1996. American Society for Quality. Reprinted with permission.
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Figure 13A.1 Area Under the Normal Curve Within One Standard Deviation of the Mean
68%
Three-sigma limits on the parameter p are therefore given by UCLp 5 p 1 3!p 1 1 2 p 2 /n LCLp 5 p 1 3!p 1 1 2 p 2 /n The critical assumptions in using a p-chart are the constant probability of a defective and the independence of the trials. If these assumptions cannot be assured, the p-chart is not appropriate.
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The expected value of R is estimated by the sample range R. Thus R/d2 is an estimate of the process standard deviation sx. To establish control limits for an Rchart, an estimate of the standard deviation of the random variable R, namely sR, is needed. From the distribution of the statistic R/sx, the ratio sR /sx can be computed for each n, resulting in another constant d3. sR 5 d3sx When R/d2 is substituted into the equation as an estimate for sx, d3 R/d2 then becomes the estimate for sR. The control limits for the R-chart are based on three standard deviations about the estimate of the mean. Thus, UCLR 5 R 1 3d3R/d2 5 1 1 1 3d3 /d2 2 R 5 D4R LCLR 5 R 1 3d3R/d2 5 1 1 1 3d3 /d2 2 R 5 D3R For convenience, the constants 1 1 3d3 /d2 and 1 2 3d3 /d2 are computed as D4 and D3, respectively. The control limits for the R-chart are therefore based on the distribution of the process standard deviation, adjusted to correspond to the range. x-Chart The statistic x is an estimate of the population mean m. Because R/d2 is an estimate of sx, an estimate of the sample standard deviation is sx 5 R d2 !n
Letting A2 5 3/d2 !n provides the control limits presented in Chapter 13: UCLx 5 x 1 A2R LCLx 5 x 2 A2R
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If the process is in control, either of these events is highly unlikely. Table l3A.l shows the probabilities associated with seven common rules used for interpreting control charts for normal, slightly skewed, and seriously skewed process outputs. Note that, even for the skewed distributions, almost all of the conditions have probabilities less than 0.01 when the process is in control. Close analysis of this table suggests the following: Unless the process is susceptible to small shifts in its center or has low capability, Rule 4a should be used instead of Rule 4. The probabilities of the extreme zone rules (1, 2, and 2a) are unusually small for patterns below the center line when the process output is skewed to the right. Observing a pattern below the center line is nearly impossible unless the process is out of control. When a pattern is consistent with either Rule 5 or Rule 6, it is almost guaranteed that a trend exists. When the distribution of process output is seriously skewed to the right, it is not unusual to observe a point above the upper control limit when the process is in control. Understanding such issues can help to minimize errors in interpretation.
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