Periodization in European History* Author(s): Dietrich Gerhard Reviewed work(s): Source: The American Historical Review, Vol.

61, No. 4 (Jul., 1956), pp. 900-913 Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the American Historical Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1848823 . Accessed: 30/12/2011 07:58
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in Periodization EuropeanHistory*
DIETRICH GERHARD

periodsis artiknows thatany divisionof timeinto definite THE historian has ficial.Recentexperience taughthim thateven in the midstof upheavals thereis no completebreak with the past. Fragments and utterdestruction and are or of whether institutions of buildings, put back together of forms, historical research the the old formsoftenreappear.Furthermore, intensive of revealedthe complexity every has of thepast few generations increasingly consources whileat the same timemanydifferent persist age. Old traditions leaves Yet, as soon as the historian of new currents. to tribute the formation a and attempts wider view of familiar the fieldwith whichhe is intimately to generalizations give orderand meaning the past,he mustrelyon abstract to thecomplexity history. of of The concepts periodsare among the mostpotentof such abstractions. who,to use a phrase of not They are powerful onlyin thecommunity scholars createthese signs and then glue themon their of Fernand Braudel,1first over theircontents. to preciousbottles, end by giving the signs authority wheresuchnotions weightin the lifeof universities, even greater They carry continueto formthe backbone of the as ''medieval" or "modern"history zeal unshakenby the reforming of deans or curof organization instruction, riculumcommittees. the subdivisions, periodization If we therefore must have chronological and fromthe ought at least to be acceptablein the lightof recentresearch we of viewpoint our own age. By thesecriteria should be guided when we
* Read at the annual meeting the American in Association New York, DecemHistorical of is on of ber 28-30, I954. In line withthe program the sessionthe presentation focused instituForcesin European on of The paper is a by-product research "The Steadying tionsand society. time.These studieshave been for History"with which I have been concerned a considerable by a research Foundation(I95I-52), of by greatlyfacilitated a fellowship the Guggenheim at membership Society(summer,I954), and by a visiting Philosophical grantof the American of the acknowledge co-operation for the Institute AdvancedStudy (1954-55). I also gratefully leave. me St. University, Louis, in granting sabbatical Washington 70. VIII Societes, Civilisations, (953), "Qu'est-ceque le XVIe siecle?" Annales:kconomies,

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our into approach specific subject, division European the of history medieval and modern times.' a SinceI am concerned principally presentingpositive with proposition, I shallbe brief mycritical in remarks. Attempts a more at limited periodization haveresulted terms as theAgeoftheBaroque, theEnlightenin such of of ment, Absolutism, Nationalism-classifications whileopen to of which, at to a feature a period. of Unlikethese, debate, leasttry reveal dominant our customary maindivision medieval modern into and times devoidof is anymeaning dependent uponan understanding theperiods of themselves. The significancetheterms of "medieval" "modern" either and is negative or it is derived from relation theperiod question another to the of to in age: thepresent, toan earlier antiquity. or past, The negative connotation theterm of "medieval" already is apparent in itsearly history whenthephilologists denoted Latinlanguage the usedin the period between antiquity itsrevival thehumanists that a period and by as of ofdecline, the"Medium of Aevum."'Influenced their by practice, Cellarius in i688 usedtheterm denote historical to a period. Several decades passed before new division timereplaced olderconcept universal histhe of the of tory a succession empires as of underGod. Untilthistimethe scholars' withthehistory individual had growing concern of states nations not and of the Christian of the destroyed common tradition regarding history manincarnaChrist's interference. tradition kindas shaped God'sdirect by In this was tion formed center history theDay ofJudgment tobe theend of and the
2 Europe,forthepurpose excluding therefore of thispaper,is the worldof theLatin Church, whichOscar as regions the Ukraine, on of Russia.The influence the West,however, such border stresses, Halecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History(New York, I950) rightly shouldnot be denied. of 8 Numerousstudiesexist which deal with specific relatedto the interpretation problems (Baden, I932). Mittelalter vom Finsteren theMiddle Ages,such as Lucie Varga,Das Schlagwort to of of But I knowof no history theconcept theMiddleAges whichcould be compared Wallace "Medio in K. Ferguson'sThe Renaissance HistoricalThought (Boston, 1948). Luigi Sorrento, e in e Evo: il termine il concetto" his Medievalia:problemi studi (Brescia,I943) is an interestGiorgioFalco, La polemicasul medio evo (Turin, I933) ing but not verydetailedtreatment. of towardthe centuries the Middle Ages. It leads up to the of analyzesthe attitude historians of on but century, is focusedneither the emergence the termnor of beginning the nineteenth period.Sorrento(p. 47) and Falco (p. 92) on the conceptof the Middle Ages as a specific the when he introduced new affiliation by show that Cellariuswas influenced his Protestant as of is division.Less convincing Sorrento'sinterpretation the new terminology specifically Geschichte in of The Protestant-German. usefulbibliography textbooks Emil ClemensScherer, im (Freiburg Br., I927) provesthatthe Universititen an und Kirchengeschichte den deutschen Even program. in entrenched the Germanteaching to divisionaccording empireswas strongly a made forthespreadof thenew division, Protestant of when the popularity Cellarius'textbook und Mittelalter to According Karl Heussi, Altertum, opposedit in a special treatise. theologian churchhistorians adoptedthe Protestant (Tiibingen,I92I), Neuzeit in der Kirchengeschichte discendae docendaeque about I8oo. Leibniz' use of the termin his Nova methodus new division not with continuity, He in iurisprudentiae I667 has oftenbeen misinterpreted. was concerned betweenRoman, canon, and feudal law, the latter topically with divisions.He distinguished seu rerum Germanicarum Medii Aevi. beingtheHistoria

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concept of time.Werner Kaegi rightly datestheend of thisold Christian the from Voltaire's Essai sur les moeurs (1757),4 and relates breakto the advanceof thoseforces whichPaul Hazard in his Crisede la conscience I68o to 1715: europe'enne (Paris,1935) showsto havebeen at workfrom especially critical investigation Biblical of history; widening thehorizon, of of by thenew interest China; and theresulting concepts timeand in new of newattitude, space, linewith newscientific in the outlook. a result this As was Italianhistory from fourteenth thesixteenth the to century no longer but interpreted merely theperiod therevival learning as an opening as of of upofan ageofsocial progress.5 A parallel thinking development be traced geographical-political can in had not,untilthe later wherea realistic analysis theinterests states of of seventeenth within which century, disrupted concept Christendom the of increasingly use theywere supposed operate. to Only then did writers concepts time of "Europe" instead "Christendom."6 twointerrelated of The and space-thesuccession empires theframework Christendomof of and from seventeenth the were replaced newonesat thesametime, theturn by at totheeighteenth century. whichreplaced and modern times The populardivision intomedieval ofthecritical outshows little thetraditional Christian chronology, however, and outward-centered, look of its progenitor, Enlightenment. the Negative for it had in common withtheEnlightenment a scorn the"medieval" only of investigation the pastand a faith thefuture. ever-more-thorough in The into pastand thenew historical sensewhich tried penetrate thespecific to hollowof the character pastageswouldhavelongsincerevealed complete of nessofsuchterms medieval modern for deadweight instibut the and as tutional literary which and tradition preserved them. its with In fact, historical the has guildeverywhere shown dissatisfaction histo bothterms. thiscountry haveadded"recent In we history" "modern "current The and that history." tory," we haveevenintroduced misnomer moderne" "histoire and "histoire French established ago thedistinction long
4 "Voltaire und der Zerfalldes christlichen Geschichtsbildes," Historische I Meditationen, (Zurich,1942). 5 H. Weininger, "The EnglishOriginsof the Sociological Interpretation the Renaissance," of of of Journal theHistory Ideas, XI (I950). 6 Apart fromthe studyof WernerFritzemeyer, Christenheit Europa (Munich, 193I) und the questionhas been investigated Eugen Rosenstock by Huessy,Die europdischen Revolutionen und der Charakzer Nationen(Stuttgart, der and, largelyfollowing him, by Heinz Goll195I) witzer,Europabildund Europagedanke(Munich, I951) and in his "Zur Wortgeschichte und von II Sinndeutung Europa," Saeculum, (1951). There is, however, beyondRosenstock Huessy's who concentrates and beyondGollwitzer, and remarks penetrating suggestive mainlyon a later of of period,stillroom forspecific research aboutthegradualprogress the concept Europein the seem to antedateits full adoption,which can hardly To seventeenth century. me both authors the be placedbefore late seventeenth century.

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contemporaine," latter the fittingly starting theFrench with Revolution. The Germans followed with suit their "neuere" "neueste and Geschichte." Simultaneously historians beganto dividethe unfortunate "MiddleAges,"and special national these newterms: traditions madefordiscrepancies between theFrench across division "haut"and "bas moyen into age" cutsright the center theGerman of and "Spaitthreefold division "Friuh-," into "Hoch-," mittelalter." None of these terms anymoremeaningful thewider is abstractions than they to split;they notpretend giveexpression thestrivings try to do to of thetimes in them divisions linenotonly themselves. should We replace by withthefindings historical of the scholarship through lasttwogenerations butalso-forthehistorian notoperate a vacuum-with perspecthe in does tive gained of through experiences ourownage. the This is theperiodization which suggest, which, I seems and incidentally, to me alsothebestpattern ourintroductory for in courses European civilization: First:ModernEurope-the "histoire contemporaine"-should prebe sented beginning as withtheEnlightenment, theIndustrial with with and theFrench Revolution. thisperiodtheforces political In of centralization (national supranational, or democratic totalitarian), socialequality, or of of intellectual economic and changeare moredominant thanat anyprevious period.Even the changes sincethe late nineteenth century-imperialism as wellas, eventually, Europe's completely changed position theworldin shouldbe considered theoutgrowth forces as of initiated increasingly and setfree Europe in since lateseventeenth the century. Second: The long stretch timefrom eleventh the eighteenth of the to in century, spiteof numerous changes, shouldbe regarded one unit, as as theperiod the"Oild of Europe." The "OildEurope"should interpreted be as a civilization which, though from far static, balances forces the tending the in direction change, centralization,equality, thepower tradition, of of of by of by strong regional localattachment, thecorporate and by setupof society. All these interrelated wereentrenched institutionswellas in the forces in as mores society. period theeleventh twelfth of The of and centuries should be defined the formative as fortheold Europe-justas formative period as Hazard'speriod the"Crisede la conscience of europeenne," turn the from theseventeenth theeighteenth to has century, beenformative thenew for to Previous theeleventh Europe. one century cannot hisspeakofEuropean tory.

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Of these interrelated I begto omit first two theses the from further elaboration since assume I that basiccontentions be lesscontroversial its will than those thesecond. neednotbe as deeply of One influencedI ambyAlexis as de and American to Tocqueville's interpretation of European history agreeon world:emphasis thefollowing as traits cardinal features themodern of on not economic socialchange, on tradition; socialequality, on a on and not centralization stratified on society; uniformity way of governmental by or by thepressure socialand economic of forces, on localism regionalnot and ism.As forthese twopoints, last no probably historian modern of Europe woulddeny that decisive the change from old to themodern the world took placein thenight August 1789.Whether, of 4, however, modern is this world to be interpreteddifferent in degree as differentkindfrom the as only or in old, prerevolutionary Europewill depend theevaluation therelative on of importance static of and dynamic forces workin theprevious at centuries. In anyconcern continuity with itseems wisetoapproach subject the from bothends:in thiscase,to ask first whataretheforces, theinstitutions and in and commensurate them, to whichattained consolidation the eleventh these sameforces twelfth centuries; thento investigate whatextent and to still form essential ofwhatsince Tocqueville Taineis known an part and De as theancien re'gime. SinceCharles Haskins 1927 first H. in coined phrase, Renaissance the "the of thetwelfth century," historians beenattracted puzzledby the have and term. Without anyway detracting thegreat in from whichcame impulse from studies Haskins hisgeneration, canfully the of and Eva one agree with Sanford's statement theterm "both that is misleading inadequate" and and that twelfth the century stand itsownmerits."7 research the "can on The of last thirty years shownwithever-growing has strength uniquesignifithe canceof thisperiod. Manyeconomic the historians expressed opinion have thatin thehistory theMiddleAges"theturning of are point-ifthere any turning points thehistory civilization-lies. . right themiddle."8 in of . in Lopez and Lestocquoy themainemphasis early thetenth put as as century,9 whereas Cipollaseesthechange toward bigger a output an increase and in thecirculation money, of related a greater to division labor, of coming with the twelfth century."0 Marc Bloch,speaking withthe insight whichthe
7"The TwelfthCentury-Renaissance Proto-Renaissance" paper first or (a read at a session on the twelfth-century Renaissance the I950 meeting the American at of Historical Association), Speculum, XXVI (I95I). 8 Robert S. Lopez, "Still Another Renaissance?" American Historical Review,LVII (October,
195I),

Civilisations, IV (I949),

9 J.Lestocquoy, "The TenthCentury," EconomicHistory Review,XVII (I947). 10Carlo M. Cipolla, "Encore Mahomet et Charlemagne," Annales: Economies,Societes,
5-9.

2.

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history gave him, and of mastery economic,social,institutional, intellectual qui wroteof "la grandecoupuredu i2e siecle,une des plus profondes aient and jamais marque l'evolutiondes societeseuropeennes."" Constitutional centhat have demonstrated the "Renaissanceof the twelfth legal historians change than the later period conventury"produceda more fundamental on of tionally called theRenaissanceand was "moresignificant a perspective of Tellenbachsees the assimilation thetrathe whole of history.""Similarly Westernstructure a as ditionsof antiquity and the growthof a peculiarly did this processreach that century veryslow process.Only in the twelfth a which justifies termlike "the makingof Europe."'3 stageof maturity of From about iooo a markedchangein the relations Europe to the outside world takes place: in the West the period of conquest by invading to comesto an end, in contrast the Near and groupsfromothercivilizations are Middle East and to Russia,wheresuch catastrophes stillto come.Instead, in European expansion-in thecrusades, thereconcenturies in thefollowing and quista,in easterncolonization-carriesinstitutions modes of life into new regions,many of which from now on become an integralpart of enter from the Arab or the Byzanthe West. And whateverinfluences of tine world can be absorbedinto a system ideas w'hichhas found and and ina result"of that magnificent For, as formedits own institutions. commonto the the century,""4 institutions of conflux the twelfth extricable shape.Though are European countries moldedintoa moredefinite different the they exposedto modifications, remainin theirbasic structure constantly of the same,at least untilthe end of the Old Regime.Everywhere influence of of the Great ReformMovement, the liberation the churchfromsecular against of centralization, the great common efforts of control, ecclesiastical thenon-Christian worldare to be felt. of of and functions thecleric-thesacramental From now on specialtypes set the priestand that of the monk-are more distinctly apart than ever churchand itsgovernof and fromthe organization theemancipated before, conThe corporation mentnumerous influences radiateinto secularsociety. of its law cept of Romano-canonical and more recently concepts full power in as and representation been recognized decisivefactors the formation have
"Annales d'hzistoire e?conomique sociale,VIII (1936), 582. et 12 Charles H. Mcllwain, "Medieval Institutions in the Modern World," Speculum,XVI 13GerhardTellenbach,"Die Bedeutung des Reformpapsttums die Einigungdes Abendfur II landes,"Studi Gregoriani, (1947), and his remarks the twelfth on century a period of as in maturing ofnewbeginning Saeculum,III (1952), 628. and 14 GabrielLe Bras, "Les problemes du tempsdans l'histoire droit canon," Revue hisdu p. 490. torique droitfrancais e'tranger de (1952), et
(194I), 279.

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century.'5 as as at on government all levels least early thethirteenth ofsecular spirit the phrase,'6 rational age,"to use MarcBloch's feudal In this"second the through universities penetrates continually and distinction of analysis to itself and philosophy, law.It lends of disciplines theology, theinterrelated for characteristic Europe becomes which of an organization thesocialorder to Scandinavia the from Isles to Poland and Hungary, fromthe British to related thenew ideal courts, of The Mediterranean. emergence princely of the ofthe the ofchivalry, establishment universities, beginnings theprofesan between distinction the official, definite and sionallawyer of thetrained and of the peasantry, coexistence knight and armednobility a non-armed organization the of society thecities, intricate stratified the burgher, highly cenbackto thetwelfth can and ofmunicipalities guilds-allthese be traced local Everywhere pride its attains maturity. Europe in tury, period which the society. of with are and regionalism interrelated theprivileges thecorporate parliamenup bynational bolstered state, centralized whether The emerging officials by directed royal or or as in institutions, England Hungary, only tary right centuries, downto theend of theOld Regime, through as in France, counterforces. entrenched these fighting strongly willhavea hardtime I which and of survey institutions socialgroups sketchy Fromthisvery be it of ofthe as regard characteristic structure theold Europe s'hould evident to I am on that, withall due emphasis continuity, notwilling see in the as of Europe of formation twelfth-century thebeginnings ourowntimes, a more thananyother century the Certainly, twelfth do.17 number scholars of of character Europe,of the ever-new of periodis indicative the dynamic element a critical which becomes constituent spirit of emanations itsrational, if Aristotelian Renaissance, not West as integrated as early t'he ofthenewly with that analysis important thisconcern But equally before. to me it seems to in theory the lends and distinction itself law and in socialand political It and ofthestatus in institutions society. is mycontention quo organization becameconsolidated and regionally groupslocally thatthusthe corporate to was enlisted centuries through spirit and thatin thisway the rational and beliefin change-through social equality, centralization, counteract and Reformation. even centuries, pasttheage of theRenaissance t'he I believe, does not the of For our question periodization Reformation, and It socially intelthat, agreed generally a present problem. is nowadays
I Traditio, (I943). and Consentin MedievalAssemblies," Gaines Post, "Plena Potestas I, 95 f., I84 ff.;II, 35 ff. Friedrich Renaissance(Paris, 1933) and more recently but very one-sided and provocative a penetrating Heer, AufgangEuropas (Vienna, I949), century. in and social movements the twelfth betweenspiritual studyof the interrelations
15

16 La socie'te (Paris, I939-40) fe'odale 17 JohanNordstrom, Moyen age et

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lectually, breakup medieval the of ecclesiastical unity had no far-reaching revolutionary implications. hisReligion theRiseof Capitalism In and (London,1926) R. H. TawneyshowsthatevenamongPuritans economic individualism gathered momentum in thecourse theseventeenth only of century. The problem theRenaissance of certainly muchmorecomplex. is This much, however, be said: thecontinuity theRenaissance can since of process the thirteenth to century been demonstrated recent has by scholarship an evergreater degree. Within thisprocess eventhefight between humanism and scholasticism should regarded "merely phasein thebattle the be as a of arts, a struggle existence."18I judgecorrectly, claims the not for If the for Renaissance t'he as beginning modern of times nowputforward are mainly under two different though related headings: thatItalyin theRenaisone sancedeveloped a kindof"prototype" themodern into of the world;19 other that Renaissance thewider the from in sense, Europein theperiod I300 i.e., to i6oo,shouldbe interpreted an age of transition a mainly from as agriurban and secular and to cultural, feudal, clerical a mainly society.20 The Italiansituation, is however, rather as unique.As early thetwelfth we century findin thewestern Mediterranean urbansociety an w'hich includesthenobility, different therest Europe. from something distinctly of In addition, sincethefourteenth the the century imperial power, traditional of source law and order, in complete is with abeyance, simultaneously the of and time when Italian the eclipse thepapacy, at thevery economy outstrips of that therest Europe. realistic to her of Italy's of approach politics, system interrelated on states, heremphasis theindependence thecity and of state mustbe considered against background. this Even if we accept, withthese reservations, concept Italyin the Renaissance the"prototype" the of of as themodern world, whatwouldthismeanforthecourse Italianhistory of andwhat within wider the frameworkEuropean of history? historians, whilemuchconcerned the with Duringthepastfewdecades origins themeaning theRenaissance, paidrelatively attenand of have little tionto thequestion itspersistence of itslasting of and effect. are we But
18 Paul 0. Kristeller, "Humanism and Scholasticism in the Italian Renaissance," Byzantion, XVII (1944-45), to be reprinted in his forthcomingStudiesin Renaissance Thoughtand 372,

Letters,

19 This is the formulation of Hans Baron, who somewhat varies an older phrase of Jacob Burckhardt. Among Baron's many writings on the Renaissance, his "Towards a More Positive Evaluation of the Fifteenth-Century Renaissance," louirnal of the History Ideas, IV (943), is of especially important for our question. The other contributions to a Renaissance symposium in the same volume, some of which were firstread at the Renaissance session of the American Historical Association meeting in 1941, are also pertinentto the subject. 20 Wallace K. Ferguson, "The Interpretationof the Renaissance," journal of the History of Ideas, XII (I95I).

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really explain to whatmaybe calledtherefeudalizationItaly2" of sincethe And late sixteenth century merely a result Spanishinfluences? did as of Napoleon's administration lessof a taskin Italythananywhere in have else and Europewhere tried introduce principles socialequality of he to the of and political centralization? ifRenaissance And principles government of of foreign policylaterwereadaptedto the widerEuropeanscene,did this process stretch almost hundred not over two years? How slowand gradual of and wastheadvance theconcepts "reason state" of"interests state" of of of that of 22 Is it notsignificant "balance power" which and Meinecke traced! of frames reference at thetime of ''system states" became recognized only whentheterm MiddleAges was coinedand whentheseso-called Middle Ageswerefinally relegated thepast, in thelateseventeenth to i.e., century? The unity Christendom eventheideaofa crusade of and against Turks the weremeaningful realities early for seventeenth-century England,23 I am and convinced Richelieu's that powerpolitics shouldnot be severed from the background theCatholic of revival within France from acceptance and his of thehierarchical ofsociety which "Political order to his Testament" bears witness. The persistence grade of and stratification intotheeighteenth well century beenrevealed has increasingly recent by research. alliance The between the crownand the merchants financiers a merematter conand was of veniency. thetop of thesocialpyramid crown At the remained intimately connected a nobility with whosefeudal characteristics byno means had disI appeared. haveattended many sessions historical at conventions which in theold myth thealliance of between crown middle and classas a mainfeatureof a period beenexploded. nobody has to But was willing drawthe modern conclusion ourwholeinterpretation that of centuries earlier of these needsto be revised. I to Now that havea chance havemyown say, history I wouldlikemost to emphaticallymake sucha statement. of in sensewe speakof a period transiIf,therefore,WallaceFerguson's urban to and and clerical a mainly tionfrom mainly a agricultural, feudal, hundred this secular society, periodwill filla widerspan thanhis three

of notion the to this years, 1300-I600. I aminclined replace whole by concept

in socialand political constituted its fundamental the old Europewhich, totheeveoftheIndustrial and since and features thetwelfth century lasting has fromthe verybeginning roomforkings, of the FrenchRevolution,
21 Fernand Braudel,La Mediterrane'e le monde mediterraneen l'epoque de Philippe11 a' et (Paris, 1949), p. 6i6, speaks of "une enormerevanchede la terreet des campagnessur les villes." 22 Friedrich (Munich, I924). in Die Idee der Staatsriison der neuerenGeschichte Meinecke, 23 FranklinLe Van Baumer, "The Conception in of Christendom RenaissanceEngland," of journalof the History Ideas, VI ( I945).

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nobles, peasants wellas for life and as variaburghers city in itsnmianifold and all each tions-just church state as and interpenetrated other through these in centuries. at theendofthis Only period, thelateseventeenth the century, mounting movement secularism of intotheopen,metaphysicssupis comes with"Becoming," withthe"Why," planted science, newconcern by the reon "Being."24 places oldfixation the"What," the on It is under these conditions-in climate opinion which a of through the eighteenth withthe new beliefin century moreand morepermeated is progress-tlhat eventually the powerof the so-called also absolute kingis accepted a mainfactor as toward suchprogress. Onlyat a latestagedo we find program absolutism thepublic. havemerely trace hisa of for We to the tory thatdocument of whichis usually regarded historians represenby as tative thetheory absolutism, DanishLex Regiaof I665, tofind of of the that it was notpublished fullbefore in I709 and that onlywith centenary the of the"Enevaelde," 176o, in was it propagandized a theoretical as elaboration on thenature royal of power. It is well knownthatat theheight absolutism, themiddle the of in of eighteenth century, Montesquieu contrasted Europeanmonarchy, the the guardian law and privileges, despotism. is, however, of with It muchless wellknown attheendofthesixteenthi that century Bodinhadexpressed Jean himself a sinilarway:"Ifyoueliminate in corporate groups communes and you will ruinthecommonwealth you will changeit intoa barbarous and " tyranny." Through centuries,least at since fourteenth the century, find-and we not onlyin France-twotypes service of under ruler, office thecoma the and mission. theformer, office, On the individuals their and families a claim, have often sincethey havebought them; in someother or waythey reserved are forregional families, usually thenobility. whatever of In form these claims become fixed they always indication thestrength thecorporate are an of of regional turn contribute itsconsolidation-part to of group, in their and they which a process continues theFrench until Revolution which and might best be described thefeudalization offices. of as Institutionally much how weaker, as compared withthesestrongly entrenched was the position groups, of of the therevokable of representative prince, thecommissioner. in the Only did course theeighteenth of famous efficient the and century itsmost type, in succeed building a salaried and he French intendant, up staff, eventhen
CenturyBackground(London, These are the termsof Basil Willey, The Seventeenth p. 6. themeof Book III, chapter of the Six livresde la repiblique (Paris, 7 This is a recurrent 1580).
24

1934),

25

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centralization agent as cannot regarded suchan uncompromising ofroyal be of in the About sametime, themiddle the him.26 describes as De Tocqueville in established Prussia was bureaucracy first an century, efficient eighteenth in andlater Austria. fields. in be can situation easily found other to Parallels theadministrative individbetween contact a century,direct even In taxation, in theeighteenth assessment individual since existed, very ual taxpayer government rarely and at Moreover, leastuntil left and levying taxeswas widely to localgroups. of that find we century frequently theold notion the wellintotheseventeenth cases and on shouldrely its own resources onlyin exceptional government the before neither equality In to shouldtakerecourse taxation. jurisdiction of a centralized system and of law noruniformitythelaw hadbeenattained in everywhereforce. wasbyno means appeal inand diplomacy-are forces Even wherethe arcanaimperii-armed has of in research the origins institutions shownthat volved, painstaking century. the do armies not antedate laterseventeenth standing centralized backto thelateRenaissance, can embassies be traced permanent And though the policy that on hand,notbe overlooked in foreign it should, theother off, etc.,are of of of arguments conveniency, balanceof power, rounding origin whose"medieval" of with intermingled legal justifications warfare the remember is rights apparent; of claims hereditary or in theform feudal century. whic'h lasteduntiltheeighteenth warsof succession and local attachment, organizacorporate regional Tradition, privilege, of features thestructure society. in and tionare theoutstanding permanent ofdress at regulations the or at The enforcement, least attempt enforcement, and theseventeenth intothe from late MiddleAges through the stretches motives of and social, economic and century, themixture moral, eighteenth Conflicts about all phases. through these whichcausedthemcan be traced in the festival every procession, highest at precedence the CorpusChristi of formalism but sustained occurred, the strictly Catholic city, frequently stratified outward society, signof thecity's the precedence, mostnoticeable or wasnever questioned abandoned. the remained fundamentally cities areaand thefortifications the In most whenthelarger walls or city the century, samefrom thirteenth fourteenth on scalewereintroduced whenthefortionly werebuilt. Changes a larger
26 The close social affiliation the intendants de of families the noblesse withthe established of des of in membership thecorporation the maitres risevia the expensive robeand theirindividual de Les by had not been recognized De Tocqueville.Pavel Ardashev, intendants province requetes immuneagainstabsorpwhether theywerecompletely sous Louis XVI (Paris, I909) questioned withspecialprovinces, of and gave examplesof connection families tion by the regionalsociety is pp. 131 ff.;this,however, controversial.

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before times:rarely at This happened various weredismantled. fications only not century, infrequently in the late nineteenth the late seventeenth three always day. to havesurvived thepresent Butalmost and century, sotne the became meaningless, to factors contributed sucha change:localdefense of and at gateslostitsimportance, a system state of levying excise thecity an opening up; meansof transportation-demanded of roads-orlater other the toward cenof wereindicative thedevelopment All of thecity. of these is A change tracesociety. similar a state and toward moreuniform tralized from or men of authority of renown after of able in the naming streets in started the of and the outside city in thenumbering houses-allofwhich century.27 eighteenth I quotedexpressionwouldlike to say: the Lopez' previously Adapting of in points thehistory civilithere anyturning are point-if turning second modern times, as thefirst just of at right themiddle theso-called zation-lies the MiddleAges.Onlyifwe survey of liesright themiddle theso-called at and century, notwithan exsincetheeleventh history wholeof European do in results thelasttwocenturies, we become on clusive emphasis thefinal of civilization-i.e., the may awareof whattentatively be calledEuropean of the of and a after longprocess gestation, under impact the form which, in was of the century, heritage antiquity of the eleventh reform movement society. European by assimilated an emerging finally this from time which noneof theelements Russiawe find In Muscovite in and centralized, distinct church, to on werepeculiar Europe:a universal feudalism; organized corporately and knighthood often organs; itsdifferent and proand patriciate guilds;universities learned organization, municipal of out beenpointed thatthedevelopment Muscovite It fessions. has often elements, very of enhanced theabsence these by has autocracy beengreatly in power theWest. on which numerous in waysactedas a check arbitrary century, between EastandtheWestcamein theeleventh the The final break East, the As centralization. a result Orthodox with in connection ecclesiastical and intellectual in Russia,did not participate thegreatspiritual especially Did nottheSlavophiles the indict West formed West. the movements which inteland and of theological legal distinction regard forits spirit rational sin? as lectualism itscardinal within Europeand thedifdifferences the Even forunderstanding later whilepondering relathe America Europeitis worth and ferences between Their representative traditions. transformation-in older of tive strength these
27 From a somewhat different angle I have dealt with theseand relatedproblems "Rein Wesen als ein Grundthema und stindisches gionalismus europiischer Geschichte," Historische

Zeitschrift, CLXXIV(I952).

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for or organization in educational government, instance, in municipal or institutions-into forms moresuitable the modern to industrial technoand logicalsociety a maintheme thelater is in history theWest. of Why,on the whole,have historians been so little inclined analyze to systematicallyfeatures the whic'h modern Europe previous theFrench to and theIndustrial Revolutions in common had withtheso-called MiddleAges? To dealwith permanent features a longperiod time notthenatural over of is function thehistorian. nature his research of The of causeshimto observe and to stress changes thetransition a newphasemore and to strongly than, forinstance, cultural the anthropologist Furthermore, extreme does. the specialization which cannot we avoidmakes historian the concentrate usually on a very smallperiod. a result is likely regard As he to someofitsfeatures as neworas lasting changes which, reality, recurrent in are struggles between opposite tendencies without permanent any result. colleague mineused A of to say,"The trouble withthemiddle classis thatit is always rising." One concouldmakea similar statement regard manyother with to historical Eversince cepts, suchas capitalism, modern the state, system states. the of der Rankewrote PhiliptheFair,"DurchseinganzesDaseingehtschon of traits kings of these schneidende Luftzugr Neueren der Geschichte," modern and ministers beeninvestigated great have with thoroughness. rarely But has this research matched an appraisal theactual been by of effectiveness oftheir measures. Certainly interest, notin rise, leastin change the if at seems congenital wvith modern most historians.28 from the to extent also suffer we But it seems me thatto a considerable hisof of and consequences theattitude eighteenth- early nineteenth-century and a the torians. evenmorethanwe,regarded pastas first foremost They, own times. Even Augustin phasein the development leadingup to their to who the that Thierry, wasamong first stresis eachage hasfeatures peculiar to itself, inclined readtheconcepts hisowntime to of was intothepast.He and was driven hisresearch theidea that to camethrough by progress unity and through and The theThirdEstate co-operation crown ThirdEstate. of in has of which faithfully he myth an early democracy thecities, propagated, whether ourconventional in But division besince beendestroyed. I wonder the a of tween MiddleAgesand modern centimes, product theeighteenth follow leadofthese the we historians.seems It tury, do notunwittingly early of feudal clerical and character the to me that stilloverstress exclusively we the as of and thecenturies preceding Renaissance wellas thetendency crown
28 The title of our main series in modern history "The Rise of Modern is significant: Europe,"editedby WilliamL. Langer.

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and influences modern in from burghers toward emancipation clerical feudal an longues" Braudel remarked against "histoireondes Recently Fernand a realities of is to that -one oughtnever forget in lifeeverythingmingling, by of duration.29 our concepts periodization Yet long, medium, short of of a not we of Should then select spanover necessity with deal longspans time. If of is which certain a amount unity traceable? we aretohaveperiodization, of oughtwe notat withall its implications theorganization teaching, for least havemeaningful periods? to Washington University
29

Annales:Economies, Socie'te's, Civilisations, VIII, 70.