AUSTRALIA BACKGROUND: Aboriginal settlers arrived on the continent from Southeast Asia about 40,000 years before the

first Europeans began exploration in the 17th century. No formal territorial claims were made until 1770, when Capt. James COOK took possession of the east coast in the name of Great Britain (all of Australia was claimed as British territory in 1829 with the creation of the colony of Western Australia). Six colonies were created in the late 18th and 19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The new country took advantage of its natural resources to rapidly develop agricultural and manufacturing industries and to make a major contribution to the British effort in World Wars I and II. In recent decades, Australia has transformed itself into an internationally competitive, advanced market economy. It boasted one of the OECD's fastest growing economies during the 1990s, a performance due in large part to economic reforms adopted in the 1980s. Long-term concerns include ageing of the population, pressure on infrastructure, and environmental issues such as frequent droughts. GEOGRAPHY: Location:

Oceania, continent between the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean Geographic coordinates : 27 00 S, 133 00 E

Coastline :

25,760 km Maritime claims : territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin Climate : generally arid to semiarid; temperate in south and east; tropical in north Terrain : mostly low plateau with deserts; fertile plain in southeast Elevation extremes : lowest point: Lake Eyre -15 m highest point: Mount Kosciuszko 2,229 m Natural resources : bauxite, coal, iron ore, copper, tin, gold, silver, uranium, nickel, tungsten, rare earth elements, mineral sands, lead, zinc, diamonds, natural gas, petroleum note: Australia is the world's largest net exporter of coal accounting for 29% of global coal exports Land use : arable land: 6.15% (includes about 27 million hectares of cultivated grassland) permanent crops: 0.04% other: 93.81% (2005) Irrigated land : 25,500 sq km (2008) Total renewable water resources : 398 cu km (1995) Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) : total: 24.06 cu km/yr (15%/10%/75%) per capita: 1,193 cu m/yr (2000) Natural hazards :

cyclones along the coast; severe droughts; forest fires volcanism: volcanic activity occurs on the Heard and McDonald Islands Environment - current issues : soil erosion from overgrazing, industrial development, urbanization, and poor farming practices; soil salinity rising due to the use of poor quality water; desertification; clearing for agricultural purposes threatens the natural habitat of many unique animal and plant species; the Great Barrier Reef off the northeast coast, the largest coral reef in the world, is threatened by increased shipping and its popularity as a tourist site; limited natural freshwater resources Environment - international agreements : party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements Geography - note : world's smallest continent but sixth-largest country; population concentrated along the eastern and southeastern coasts; the invigorating sea breeze known as the "Fremantle Doctor" affects the city of Perth on the west coast and is one of the most consistent winds in the world

People and society:

Nationality : noun: Australian(s) adjective: Australian Ethnic groups : white 92%, Asian 7%, aboriginal and other 1% Languages : English 78.5%, Chinese 2.5%, Italian 1.6%, Greek 1.3%, Arabic 1.2%, Vietnamese 1%, other 8.2%, unspecified 5.7% (2006 Census) Religions : Protestant 27.4% (Anglican 18.7%, Uniting Church 5.7%, Presbyterian and Reformed 3%), Catholic 25.8%, Eastern Orthodox 2.7%, other Christian 7.9%, Buddhist 2.1%, Muslim 1.7%, other 2.4%, unspecified 11.3%, none 18.7% (2006 Census) Population : 21,766,711 (July 2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 55 Age structure : 0-14 years: 18.3% (male 2,040,848/female 1,937,544) 15-64 years: 67.7% (male 7,469,092/female 7,266,143) 65 years and over: 14% (male 1,398,576/female 1,654,508) (2011 est.)

Population growth rate : 1.148% (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 101 Birth rate : 12.33 births/1,000 population (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 158 Death rate : 6.88 deaths/1,000 population (July 2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 139 Net migration rate :

Disputes - : Nationality international : In 2007, Australia and Timor-Leste signed agreed to a 50-year development zone noun: Australian(s) and revenue sharing adjective: Australian arrangement and deferred a maritime boundary; Australia asserts land and maritime claims to Antarctica; Australia's 2004 submission to Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) extends its continental Ethnic groups : 3.37 million square kilometers, expanding its seabed roughly 30 margins over percent beyond 7%, aboriginal and other 1% white 92%, Asianits claimed exclusive economic zone; a 1997 treaty between Indonesia and Australia settled some parts of their maritime boundary but some outstanding issues, especially around Timor Leste, remain; Indonesian groups Languages : Australia's claim to Ashmore Reef; Australia has closed parts of the challenge Ashmore and Cartier reserve to Indonesian 1.6%, Greek 1.3%, Arabic 1.2%, English 78.5%, Chinese 2.5%, Italian traditional fishing Vietnamese 1%, other 8.2%, unspecified 5.7% (2006 Census) Illicit drugs : Religions : is one of the world's major suppliers of licit opiate products; government Tasmania maintains strict controls over areas of opium poppy cultivation and output of poppy Protestant 27.4% (Anglican 18.7%, Uniting Church 5.7%, Presbyterian and straw concentrate; major consumer of cocaine and amphetamine Reformed 3%), Catholic 25.8%, Eastern Orthodox 2.7%, other Christian 7.9%, Buddhist 2.1%, Muslim 1.7%, other 2.4%, unspecified 11.3%, none 18.7% (2006 Census) Population : 21,766,711 (July 2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 55 Age structure : 0-14 years: 18.3% (male 2,040,848/female 1,937,544) 15-64 years: 67.7% (male 7,469,092/female 7,266,143) 65 years and over: 14% (male 1,398,576/female 1,654,508) (2011 est.) Median age : total: 37.7 years male: 37 years female: 38.4 years (2011 est.) Population growth rate : 1.148% (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 101 Birth rate : 12.33 births/1,000 population (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 158

RUSSIA Geography: Founded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, was able to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15th centuries) and to gradually conquer and absorb surrounding principalities. In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynasty continued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific. Under PETER I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the Baltic Sea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19th century, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia. Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 contributed to the Revolution of 1905, which resulted in the formation of a parliament and other reforms. Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World War I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian Empire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the imperial household. The Communists under Vladimir LENIN seized power soon after and formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Iosif STALIN (1928-53) strengthened Communist rule and Russian dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens of millions of lives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated in the following decades until General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism, but his initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December 1991 splintered the USSR into Russia and 14 other independent republics. Since then, Russia has shifted its post-Soviet democratic ambitions in favor of a centralized semi-authoritarian state in which the leadership seeks to legitimize its rule through managed national elections, populist appeals by former President PUTIN, and continued economic growth. Russia has severely disabled a Chechen rebel movement, although violence still occurs throughout the North Caucasus. Geography: Location : Northern Asia (the area west of the Urals is considered part of Europe), bordering the Arctic Ocean, between Europe and the North Pacific Ocean Geographic coordinates : 60 00 N, 100 00 E

Area : total: 17,098,242 sq km country comparison to the world: 1 land: 16,377,742 sq km water: 720,500 sq km Area - comparative : approximately 1.8 times the size of the US Land boundaries : total: 20,241.5 km border countries: Azerbaijan 284 km, Belarus 959 km, China (southeast) 3,605 km, China (south) 40 km, Estonia 290 km, Finland 1,313 km, Georgia 723 km, Kazakhstan 6,846 km, North Korea 17.5 km, Latvia 292 km, Lithuania (Kaliningrad Oblast) 227 km, Mongolia 3,441 km, Norway 196 km, Poland (Kaliningrad Oblast) 432 km, Ukraine 1,576 km Coastline : 37,653 km Maritime claims : territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation Climate : ranges from steppes in the south through humid continental in much of European Russia; subarctic in Siberia to tundra climate in the polar north; winters vary from cool along Black Sea coast to frigid in Siberia; summers vary from warm in the steppes to cool along Arctic coast Terrain : broad plain with low hills west of Urals; vast coniferous forest and tundra in Siberia; uplands and mountains along southern border regions Elevation extremes : lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m highest point: Gora El'brus 5,633 m

Natural resources : wide natural resource base including major deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, and many strategic minerals, reserves of rare earth elements, timber note: formidable obstacles of climate, terrain, and distance hinder exploitation of natural resources Land use : arable land: 7.17% permanent crops: 0.11% other: 92.72% (2005) Irrigated land : 43,460 sq km (2008) Total renewable water resources : 4,498 cu km (1997) Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) : total: 76.68 cu km/yr (19%/63%/18%) per capita: 535 cu m/yr (2000) Natural hazards : permafrost over much of Siberia is a major impediment to development; volcanic activity in the Kuril Islands; volcanoes and earthquakes on the Kamchatka Peninsula; spring floods and summer/autumn forest fires throughout Siberia and parts of European Russia volcanism: Russia experiences significant volcanic activity on the Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril Islands; the peninsula alone is home to some 29 historically active volcanoes, with dozens more in the Kuril Islands; Kliuchevskoi (elev. 4,835 m), which erupted in 2007 and 2010, is Kamchatka's most active volcano; Avachinsky and Koryaksky volcanoes, which pose a threat to the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy, have been deemed "Decade Volcanoes" by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to their explosive history and close proximity to human populations; other notable historically active volcanoes include Bezymianny, Chikurachki, Ebeko, Gorely, Grozny, Karymsky, Ketoi, Kronotsky, Ksudach, Medvezhia, Mutnovsky, Sarychev Peak, Shiveluch, Tiatia, Tolbachik, and Zheltovsky Environment - current issues : air pollution from heavy industry, emissions of coal-fired electric plants, and

transportation in major cities; industrial, municipal, and agricultural pollution of inland waterways and seacoasts; deforestation; soil erosion; soil contamination from improper application of agricultural chemicals; scattered areas of sometimes intense radioactive contamination; groundwater contamination from toxic waste; urban solid waste management; abandoned stocks of obsolete pesticides Environment - international agreements :

party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulfur 85, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Sulfur 94 PEOPLE AND SOCIETY: Nationality : noun: Brazilian(s) adjective: Brazilian Ethnic groups : white 53.7%, mulatto (mixed white and black) 38.5%, black 6.2%, other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 0.9%, unspecified 0.7% (2000 census) Languages : Portuguese (official and most widely spoken language) note: less common languages include Spanish (border areas and schools), German, Italian, Japanese, English, and a large number of minor Amerindian languages Religions : Roman Catholic (nominal) 73.6%, Protestant 15.4%, Spiritualist 1.3%, Bantu/voodoo 0.3%, other 1.8%, unspecified 0.2%, none 7.4% (2000 census) Population : 203,429,773 (July 2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 5 note: Brazil conducted a census in August 2000, which reported a population of 169,872,855; that figure was about 3.8% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, and is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census Age structure : 0-14 years: 26.2% (male 27,219,651/female 26,180,040) 15-64 years: 67% (male 67,524,642/female 68,809,357) 65 years and over: 6.7% (male 5,796,433/female 7,899,650) (2011 est.) Median age : total: 29.3 years male: 28.5 years female: 30.1 years (2011 est.)

Russia has undergone significant changes since the collapse of the Soviet Union, moving from a globally-isolated, centrally-planned economy to a more market-based and globally-integrated economy. Economic reforms in the 1990s privatized most industry, with notable exceptions in the energy and defense-related sectors. The protection of property rights is still weak and the private sector remains subject to heavy state interference. Russian industry is primarily split between globally-competitive commodity producers - in 2009 Russia was the world's largest exporter of natural gas, the second largest exporter of oil, and the third largest exporter of steel and primary aluminum and other less competitive heavy industries that remain dependent on the Russian domestic market. This reliance on commodity exports makes Russia vulnerable to boom and bust cycles that follow the highly volatile swings in global commodity prices. The government since 2007 has embarked on an ambitious program to reduce this dependency and build up the country's high technology sectors, but with few results so far. The economy had averaged 7% growth since the 1998 Russian financial crisis, resulting in a doubling of real disposable incomes and the emergence of a middle class. The Russian economy, however, was one of the hardest hit by the 2008-09 global economic crisis as oil prices plummeted and the foreign credits that Russian banks and firms relied on dried up. The Central Bank of Russia spent one-third of its $600 billion international reserves, the world's third largest, in late 2008 to slow the devaluation of the ruble. The government also devoted $200 billion in a rescue plan to increase liquidity in the banking sector and aid Russian firms unable to roll over large foreign debts coming due. The economic decline bottomed out in mid-2009 and the economy began to grow in the first quarter of 2010. However, a severe drought and fires in central Russia reduced agricultural output, prompting a ban on grain exports for part of the year, and slowed growth in other sectors such as manufacturing and retail trade. High oil prices buoyed Russian growth in the first quarter of 2011 and could help Russia reduce the budget deficit inherited from the lean years of 2008-09, but inflation and increased government expenditures may limit the positive impact of these revenues. Russia's long-term challenges include a shrinking workforce, a high level of corruption, difficulty in accessing capital for smaller, non-energy companies, and poor infrastructure in need of large investments. GDP (purchasing power parity) : $2.223 trillion (2010 est.) country comparison to the world: 7 $2.138 trillion (2009 est.) $2.319 trillion (2008 est.) note: data are in 2010 US dollars GDP (official exchange rate) : $1.465 trillion (2010 est.)