Resistive Sensors

EE241: Electronics 1 Laboratory Report MIDN 3/C Sami Zahzouhi 10 February 2012

Abstract

Thermistors and photoresistors were tested using a voltmeter to measure their resistance when exposed to varying temperatures and illumination, respectively. A photoresistor was used along with a regular resistor to generate the largest possible voltage signal in a voltage divider circuit; a low output voltage was required in dark conditions and a high voltage was needed in ambient light. The opposite conditions were also tested. Then, two photoresistors and two regular resistors were combined to produce an output voltage as close to zero volts as possible in ambient light and a large output voltage in dark conditions. This circuit configuration is commonly known as a Wheatstone bridge. Introduction Thermistors and photoresistors were used in this lab as resistive sensors. Thermistors are used commonly in thermometers, thermostats, and incubators [1]. Photoresistors are also used in everyday items such as in camera light meters, flame detectors, and alarm clocks [2]. These devices are applied in circuits to generate a voltage signal that controls certain functions based on temperature and lighting [1, 2]. The voltage signal in each case depends on a change in the resistances of each device [1, 2]. Theory The resistance of a thermistor and a photoresistor changes inversely due to temperature and illumination, respectively. At room temperature, the Panasonic ERT-D2FGL102S thermistor is expected to measure 1 k. At 50 C, approximately the temperature of human skin, the thermistor is expected to measure 383 [3]. In normal lab room lighting, the Advance Photonics CdS photocell is expected to measure 1 k. In complete darkness, the photoresistor is expected to measure more than 1 M [4].

The voltage divider circuit, as shown in Figure 1, and the Wheatstone bridge circuit, as shown in Figure 2, can be used to generate a voltage signal that depends on the sensor resistance.

The output voltage for the voltage divider circuit is given by:
VOUT=VCCR2R1+R2 (1)

To provide a high voltage in dark conditions and a low voltage in ambient light, the output voltage must be generated across the photoresistor, since its resistance is large in the dark. Hence, R2must be replaced with photoresistor while resistor R1 must be a normal resistor. If the phototresistor has a low resistance, Rlow, in light and a high resistance, Rhigh, in the dark, then the voltage across the photoresistor in each case would be given by:
VOUT, light=VCCRlowR1+Rlow VOUT, dark=VCCRhighR1+Rhigh (2) (3)

The difference between the output voltage supplied in dark and light conditions would then be given by:
(4) 3

VOUT=VOUT, dark- VOUT, light= VCCRhighR1+Rhigh-RlowR1+Rlow

In order to find the maximum change in the output voltage, the derivative of the previous equation is taken and set equal zero, such that:
0=VCCRlowR1+Rlow2-RhighR1+Rhigh2 (5)

Rhigh and Rlow are both constant values; hence, the value of R1 needs to be determined in order to optimize the voltage difference.

For the opposite requirement, generating large voltage in light and a small voltage in the dark, a normal resistor must be placed in R2 while the photoresistor is used in place of R1. As before, the phototresistor would need to have a low resistance, Rlow, in light and a high resistance, Rhigh, in the dark for the circuit to function properly.

As a second circuit, a Wheatstone bridge (Figure 2) was analyzed. The output voltage for the Wheatstone bridge circuit is given by:
VOUT=VCCR2R1+R2-R4R3+R4 (6)

To produce an output voltage as close to zero as possible in light conditions and a large output voltage in dark conditions, R2 and R3 may be replaced with photoresistors. R1and R4 are normal
resistors, both having resistance values equal to that of the photoresistors under ambient light conditions. As a result, in ambient lighting, the two fractions would cancel each other out, resulting in no output voltage. In dark conditions, R2 and R3 would be very large, so that nearly all of the input voltage is supplied to the output.

Procedure The first portion of the lab tested to see if the resistive sensors matched their expected resistances in accordance with the data sheets. Thermistors were tested in step 1, but were not used for any further experiment. The resistance of a Panasonic ERT-D2FGL102S thermistor was measured at room temperature using a multimeter. Then, the thermistor was pinched with fingers and raised to approximately 34 C and measured using a multimeter. The measurements for the thermistor in each temperature as well as its expected values are shown in Table I. Photocells were used for the remainder of the lab. An Advance Photonics CdS photocell was also evaluated using a multimeter. Its resistance was measured in ambient room light and also when darkened by a midshipman black tie. The measurements for the photoresistor in each light condition as well as its expected values are also shown in Table I.

The voltage divider circuit shown in Fig. 1 was built using a 3.3 k resistor for R1, a
photoresistor for R2, and a 5 V source for VCC. Resistor values were then chosen based on the

measurement values of the photoresistor and use of equation 5. The circuits output voltage was
then measured across the photoresistor using a multimeter in ambient conditions and in the dark,

simulated again by a midshipman black tie and the results are shown in Table II. The two resistors were then switched in order to create a circuit that generates a high output voltage across the normal resistor in ambient light and the test was repeated. The results for the light sensor are shown in Table III. The Wheatstone Bridge, as depicted in Fig. 2, was built using 3.3k resistors in place of R1 and R4 and while using photoresistors in place of R2 and R3. The resistor values were chosen based on equation 6 and the measured resistance values of the photoresistors in ambient light. The output voltage was generated again from a 5 V source and was measured in ambient light conditions and darkened conditions, again simulated by a midshipman black tie. The multimeters positive lead was connected in series between R1and R2 while its negative lead was connected in series between R3 and R4 as shown in Fig 2 in order to measure the output voltage. The results for the Wheatstone bridge circuit are shown in Table II.

Results The results for the thermistor and photoresistor are shown in Table I. The expected values were taken directly from the respective datasheet for each type of resistor.

Table I: Basic Resistor Sensor Measurements Resistive Sensor

Rroom

Measured
Rtouch Rroom

Expected
Rtouch

Thermistor

0.92 k
Rlight

0.71 k
Rdark

1 k
Rlight

0.8 k
Rdark

Photoresistor

3.3 k

38 k

16 k

1 M

The results for each circuit configuration are shown in Tables II and III. The expected values for the voltage divider and the Wheatstone bridge circuit were calculated using the equations provided in the theory sections for the respective circuits, plugging in values of the photoresistor measurements shown in Table I and the normal resistor measurements described in the procedure section. Table II: Results for Dark Sensor Circuit Measured
VOUT,light VOUT,dark

Expected
VOUT,light VOUT,dark

Voltage Divider Wheatstone Bridge

2.55 V 35 mV

4.88 V 4.20 V

2.5 V 0V

4.49 V 4.0 V

Table III: Results for Light Sensor Circuit Measured

VOUT,light VOUT,dark

Expected
VOUT,light VOUT,dark

Voltage Divider

2.3 V

0.23 V

2.5 V

0.39 V

Discussion
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The measurement of the thermistors resistance was consistent with what was expected from its datasheet as shown in Table I. On the other hand, the measurement of the photoresistors resistance in ambient light and the dark was inconsistent with what was expected from its datasheet. Perhaps the laboratory did not provide sufficient illumination and the midshipman black tie did not block out enough light for the photoresistor to function properly. The first voltage divider circuit configuration functioned properly in that the output voltage was relatively low in ambient light and relatively high in the dark for the dark sensor. When the reisistors were swapped in the next step, the light sensor functioned properly as well in that the output voltage was relatively high in ambient light and relatively low in the dark. The measured values for both voltage divider circuits generally matched the expected values calculated based on the equations in the theory section. In hindsight, the technique used to solve for R1 was inappropriate and is expected that better results would be achieved if equation 5 was utilized
properly by directly solving for R1algebraiclly by hand instead of solving for it using a function on a calculator, which resulted in an erroneous value for R1. If equation 7, as shown below, were used, the difference in the voltage output between the light and dark conditions would truly be maximized. R1=Rlow*Rhigh (7)

Better performance might also have been possible by choosing photoresistors whose resistances who had a lower resistance under ambient light and a high resistance in the dark in order for the difference in the output voltage of the two lighting conditions to be greater. Since the measured values were relatively close to the expected values, the Wheatstone bridge circuit performed as expected. However, the Wheatstone bridge circuit did not function perfectly since it did not generate an output voltage of 0 V in the dark. Better performance might have been possible by adding more resistors in series with another in order to precisely match the
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resistance of the photoresistors in ambient light. It was good to use two photoresistors in the Wheatsone bridge circuit instead of one since it allowed the voltage difference between the two branches to maximize in the dark and minimize in ambient light. The Wheatstone bridge circuit proved to be advantageous in producing a wider range of voltage signals than the voltage divider circuit, however, it was more complex since its normal resistor values had to be fine-tuned and match perfectly in order to achieve that wider range. Conclusion Thermistors and photoresistors were investigated and evaluated in different temperature and light conditions. Photoreistors were applied to a voltage divider circuit and a Wheatstone Bridge circuit for translating resistance changes due to lighting changes into desired voltage signals. Both circuits performed as expected and could be practical for application in lightsensing systems. References [1] Temperature Sensor - The Thermistor http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonshtml/Sensors/TempR.html [2] Light dependent resistor, photo resistor, or photocell http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/data/resistor/ldr/light_dependent_resistor.php [3] Panasonic ERT-D2FGL102S Thermistors Datasheet, http://www.panasonic.com/industrial/components/pdf/arg0000ce2.pdf, Accessed 16 January 2012. [4] Advanced Photonix CdS Photoconductive Photocells Datasheet,

http://www.advancedphotonix.com/ap_products/pdfs/PDV-P9003.pdf, Accessed 16 January 2012.

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