Minerals and Their Uses

Every segment of society uses minerals and mineral resources everyday. The roads we ride or drive on and the buildings we live learn and work in all contain minerals. Below is a selected list of commonly used metallic and nonmetallic minerals, ore minerals, mineral byproducts, aggregates, and rock types that are used to make products we use in our daily life. Aggregates Natural aggregates include sand, gravel, and crushed stone. Aggregates are composed of rock fragments that may be used in their natural state or after mechanical processing, such as crushing, washing, or sizing. Recycled aggregates consist mainly of crushed concrete and crushed asphalt pavement. Aluminum Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust. Bauxite ore is the main source of aluminum. Aluminum is used in automobiles and airplanes (36%), bottling and canning industries (25%), building and electrical (14%) and in other applications (25%).

Antimony Antimony is a silvery-gray, brittle semi-metal. It rarely occurs in nature as a native element, but is found in a number of different minerals. Antimony is used principally for flame retardants as well as in ammunition and automotive batteries and as a decolorizing agent in glassmaking.

Asbestos Asbestos is a class of minerals that can be readily separated into thin, strong fibers that are flexible, heat resistant, and chemically inert. Asbestos minerals are used in fireproof fabrics, yarn, cloth, and paper and paint filler. Asbestos is used to make friction products, asbestos cement pipes and sheets, coatings and compounds, packing and gaskets, roofing and flooring products, paints and caulking, and chemical filters. Fibers are dangerous when breathed, so users must protect against fibers becoming airborne.

Basalt Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock. Crushed basalt is used for railroad ballast, aggregate in highway construction, and is a major component of asphalt.

Barium Barium is an element, derived primarily from the mineral barite, and used as a heavy additive in oil-well-drilling mud, paints, rubber, plastic and paper; production of barium chemicals; and glass manufacturing.

Beryllium Beryllium, an element commonly associated with igneous rocks, has industrial and nuclear defense applications and is used in light, very strong alloys for the aircraft industry. Beryllium salts are used in x-ray tubes and as a deoxidizer in bronze metallurgy. The gemstones of beryl, a beryllium mineral, are emerald and aquamarine.

Bismuth Bismuth is used in a number of very different applications. The majority is consumed in bismuth alloys, and in pharmaceuticals and chemicals. The remainder is used in ceramics, paints, catalysts, and a variety of minor applications. Bismuth metal is relatively inert and non-toxic. It has replaced toxic lead in many applications such as plumbing, bullets, birdshot, metal alloys, and soldering. Bismuth compounds are used in stomach-upset medicines (hence the trademarked name Pepto-Bismol), treatment of stomach ulcers, soothing creams, and cosmetics.

Boron

Boron compounds are used for many different purposes in industry and the home. Boron is used to make glass, ceramics, enamels, fiberglass, make water softeners, soaps and detergents. Other uses are in agricultural chemicals, pest controls, fire retardants, fireworks, medicine, and various minor applications. Boron nitride is one of the hardest known substances and is used for abrasives and cutting tools. Bromine Bromine, recovered commercially through the treatment of seawater brines, is used in leaded gasoline, fire extinguishers and retardants, well-completion fluids, and sanitary preparations. Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element. Cadmium Cadmium is used in plating and alloying, pigments, plastics, and batteries. Cadmium is obtained from the ore minerals Sphalerite (Zn,Cd)S and Greenockite (CdS)

Calcium The primary use of calcium is not in its silvery-white metal form, but as calcium carbonate. It used in adhesives and sealants, cosmetics, foods, paint, paper, pharmaceuticals, plastics, rubber, for the production of lime, and as crhused stone in construction. Immense quantities of calcium are found in sedimentary rock deposits of gypsum, limestone, and shale. Some common calcium-bearing minerals include apatite (calcium phosphate), calcite (calcium carbonate), dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate), fluorite (calcium fluoride), and gypsum (calcium sulfate). Calcium metal is produced in Canada, China, France, Russia, and the United States. Total world output is thought to be less than 6,000 metric tons per year. United States consumption of calcium metal is small. On a worldwide basis, more than 100 million metric tons per year of apatite and gypsum are mined, and calcite and dolomite are produced in billions of metric tons per year. Cement Cement is used for building materials, stucco, and mortar. Cement is :a mixture of powdered lime, clay, and other minerals that crystallize to form a hard solid when water is added (hydraulic cement) or as a binding material in concrete" (Kesler, 1994). An excellent overview of cement, its chemistry, and properties can be found in MacLaren and White (2003).

Chromium

Chromium is used in the production of stainless and heat-resistant steel, full-alloy steel, super alloys and other alloys. Chromium is obtained from the ore mineral Chromite (Mg,Fe)(Cr,Al,Fe)2O4 Clays There are many different clay minerals that are used for industrial applications. Clays are used in the manufacturing of paper, refractories, rubber, ball clay, dinnerware and pottery, floor and wall tile, sanitary wear, fire clay, firebricks, foundry sands, drilling mud, iron-ore pelletizing, absorbent and filtering materials, construction materials, and cosmetics.

Cobalt Half of the consumption of cobalt is used in corrosion- and abrasion-resistant alloys with steel, nickel, and other metals for the production of industrial engines. Other uses of cobalt metal include magnets and cutting tools. Cobalt salts are used to produce a blue color in paint pigments, porcelain, glass, and pottery. Cobalt is obtained from the ore minerals Linneaite (Co3S4), Cobaltite CoAsS, and (Fe,Ni,Co)1-xSx.

Copper Copper is used in electric cables and wires, switches, plumbing; heating, electrical, and roofing materials; electronic components; industrial machinery and equipment; transportation; consumer and general products; coins; and jewelry.

Diamond Industrial diamonds are those that can not be used as gems. Large diamonds are used in tools and drilling bits to cut rock and small stone. Small diamonds, also known as dust or grit, are used for cutting and polishing stone and ceramic products.

Diatomite Diatomite is a rock composed of the skeletons of diatoms, single-celled organisms with skeletons made of silica, which are found in fresh and salt water. Diatomite is primarily used for filtration of drinks, such as juices and wines, but it is also being used as filler in paints and pharmaceuticals and environmental cleanup technologies.

Dolomite Dolomite is the near twin-sister rock to limestone. Like limestone, it typically forms in a marine environment but also as has a primary magnesium component. Dolomite is used in agriculture, chemical and industrial applications, cement construction, refractories, and environmental industries.

Feldspar Feldspar is a rock-forming mineral. It is used in glass and ceramic industries; pottery, porcelain and enamelware; soaps; bond for abrasive wheels; cement; glues; fertilizer; and tarred roofing materials and as a sizing, or filler, in textiles and paper applications.

Fluorite Fluorite is used in production of hydrofluoric acid, which is used in the pottery, ceramics, optical, electroplating, and plastics industries. It is also used in the metallurgical treatment of bauxite, as a flux in open-hearth steel furnaces, and in metal smelting, as well as in carbon electrodes, emery wheels, electric arc welders, and toothpaste as a source of fluorine.

Garnet Garnet is used in water filtration, electronic components, ceramics, glass, jewelry, and abrasives used in wood furniture and transport manufacturing. "Garnet is a common metamorphic mineral that becomes abundant enough to mine in a few rocks" (Kesler, 1994). Germanium "Most germanium is recovered as a byproduct of zinc smelting. It is also found in some copper ores" (Kesler, 1994). Applications include use in fiber-optic components, which are replacing copper in long-distance telecommunication lines, as well as in camera lenses and other glasses and infrared lenses.

Gold Gold is used in dentistry and medicine, jewelry and arts, medallions and coins, and in ingots. It is also used for scientific and electronic instruments, computer circuitry, as an electrolyte in the electroplating industry, and in many applications for the aerospace industry.

Granite Granite can be cut into large blocks and used as a building stone. When polished, it is used for monuments, headstones, countertops, statues, and facing on buildings. It is also suitable for railroad ballast and for road aggregate in highway construction.

Graphite Graphite is the crystal form of carbon. Graphite is used as a dry lubricant and steel hardener and for brake linings and the production of "lead" in pencils. Most graphite production comes from Korea, India, and Mexico.

Gypsum Processed gypsum is used in industrial or building plaster, prefabricated wallboard, cement manufacture, and for agriculture.

Halite Halite (salt) is used in the human and animal diet, primarily as food seasoning and as a food preservation. It is also used to prepare sodium hydroxide, soda ash, caustic soda, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, and metallic sodium, and it is used in ceramic glazes, metallurgy, curing of hides, mineral waters, soap manufacture, home water softeners, highway deicing, photography, and scientific equipment for optical parts. Iodine Iodine is used as an antibacterial agent in soaps and cleaning products in restrooms, in iodized salt to prevent goiter, and in first aid boxes as an antiseptic.

Iron Ore Iron ore is used to manufacture steels of various types and other metallurgical products, such as magnets, auto parts, and catalysts. Most U.S. production is from Minnesota and Michigan. The Earth's crust contains about 5% iron, the fourth most abundant element in the crust.

Lead Lead is used in batteries, construction, ammunition, television tubes, nuclear shielding, ceramics, weights, and tubes or containers. The United States is largest producer (mainly from Missouri), consumer, and recycler of lead metal.

Minerals and Their Uses

Every segment of society uses minerals and mineral resources everyday. The roads we ride or drive on and the buildings we live learn and work in all contain minerals. Below is a selected list of commonly used metallic and nonmetallic minerals, ore minerals, mineral byproducts, aggregates, and rock types that are used to make products we use in our daily life. Aggregates Natural aggregates include sand, gravel, and crushed stone. Aggregates are composed of rock fragments that may be used in their natural state or after mechanical processing, such as crushing, washing, or sizing. Recycled aggregates consist mainly of crushed concrete and crushed asphalt pavement. Aluminum Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust. Bauxite ore is the main source of aluminum. Aluminum is used in automobiles and airplanes (36%), bottling and canning industries (25%), building and electrical (14%) and in other applications (25%).

Antimony Antimony is a silvery-gray, brittle semi-metal. It rarely occurs in nature as a native element, but is found in a number of different minerals. Antimony is used principally for flame retardants as well as in ammunition and automotive batteries and as a decolorizing agent in glassmaking.

Asbestos Asbestos is a class of minerals that can be readily separated into thin, strong fibers that are flexible, heat resistant, and chemically inert. Asbestos minerals are used in fireproof fabrics, yarn, cloth, and paper and paint filler. Asbestos is used to make friction products, asbestos cement pipes and sheets, coatings and compounds, packing and gaskets, roofing and flooring products, paints and caulking, and chemical filters. Fibers are dangerous when breathed, so users must protect against fibers becoming airborne.

Basalt Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock. Crushed basalt is used for railroad ballast, aggregate in highway construction, and is a major component of asphalt.

Barium Barium is an element, derived primarily from the mineral barite, and used as a heavy additive in oil-well-drilling mud, paints, rubber, plastic and paper; production of barium chemicals; and glass manufacturing.

Beryllium Beryllium, an element commonly associated with igneous rocks, has industrial and nuclear defense applications and is used in light, very strong alloys for the aircraft industry. Beryllium salts are used in x-ray tubes and as a deoxidizer in bronze metallurgy. The gemstones of beryl, a beryllium mineral, are emerald and aquamarine.

Bismuth Bismuth is used in a number of very different applications. The majority is consumed in bismuth alloys, and in pharmaceuticals and chemicals. The remainder is used in ceramics, paints, catalysts, and a variety of minor applications. Bismuth metal is relatively inert and non-toxic. It has replaced toxic lead in many applications such as plumbing, bullets, birdshot, metal alloys, and soldering. Bismuth compounds are used in stomach-upset medicines (hence the trademarked name Pepto-Bismol), treatment of stomach ulcers, soothing creams, and cosmetics.

Boron Boron compounds are used for many different purposes in industry and the home. Boron is used to make glass, ceramics, enamels, fiberglass, make water softeners, soaps and detergents. Other uses are in agricultural chemicals, pest controls, fire retardants, fireworks, medicine, and various minor applications. Boron nitride is one of the hardest known substances and is used for abrasives and cutting tools. Bromine Bromine, recovered commercially through the treatment of seawater brines, is used in leaded gasoline, fire extinguishers and retardants, well-completion fluids, and sanitary preparations. Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element. Cadmium Cadmium is used in plating and alloying, pigments, plastics, and batteries. Cadmium is obtained from the ore minerals Sphalerite (Zn,Cd)S and Greenockite (CdS)

Calcium The primary use of calcium is not in its silvery-white metal form, but as calcium carbonate. It used in adhesives and sealants, cosmetics, foods, paint, paper, pharmaceuticals, plastics, rubber, for the production of lime, and as crhused stone in construction. Immense quantities of calcium are found in sedimentary rock deposits of gypsum, limestone, and shale. Some common calcium-bearing minerals include apatite (calcium phosphate), calcite (calcium carbonate), dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate), fluorite (calcium fluoride), and gypsum (calcium sulfate). Calcium metal is produced in Canada, China, France, Russia, and the United States. Total world output is thought to be less than 6,000 metric tons per year. United States consumption of calcium metal is small. On a worldwide basis, more than 100 million metric tons per year of apatite and gypsum are mined, and calcite and dolomite are produced in billions of metric tons per year. Cement Cement is used for building materials, stucco, and mortar. Cement is :a mixture of powdered lime, clay, and other minerals that crystallize to form a hard solid when water is added (hydraulic cement) or as a binding material in concrete" (Kesler, 1994). An excellent overview of cement, its chemistry, and properties can be found in MacLaren and White (2003).

Chromium Chromium is used in the production of stainless and heat-resistant steel, full-alloy steel, super alloys and other alloys. Chromium is obtained from the ore mineral Chromite (Mg,Fe)(Cr,Al,Fe)2O4 Clays There are many different clay minerals that are used for industrial applications. Clays are used in the manufacturing of paper, refractories, rubber, ball clay, dinnerware and pottery, floor and wall tile, sanitary wear, fire clay, firebricks, foundry sands, drilling mud, iron-ore pelletizing, absorbent and filtering materials, construction materials, and cosmetics.

Cobalt Half of the consumption of cobalt is used in corrosion- and abrasion-resistant alloys with steel, nickel, and other metals for the production of industrial engines. Other uses of cobalt metal include magnets and cutting tools. Cobalt salts are used to produce a blue color in paint pigments, porcelain, glass, and pottery. Cobalt is obtained from the ore minerals Linneaite (Co3S4), Cobaltite CoAsS, and (Fe,Ni,Co)1-xSx.

Copper Copper is used in electric cables and wires, switches, plumbing; heating, electrical, and roofing materials; electronic components; industrial machinery and equipment; transportation; consumer and general products; coins; and jewelry.

Diamond Industrial diamonds are those that can not be used as gems. Large diamonds are used in tools and drilling bits to cut rock and small stone. Small diamonds, also

known as dust or grit, are used for cutting and polishing stone and ceramic products.

Diatomite Diatomite is a rock composed of the skeletons of diatoms, single-celled organisms with skeletons made of silica, which are found in fresh and salt water. Diatomite is primarily used for filtration of drinks, such as juices and wines, but it is also being used as filler in paints and pharmaceuticals and environmental cleanup technologies.

Dolomite Dolomite is the near twin-sister rock to limestone. Like limestone, it typically forms in a marine environment but also as has a primary magnesium component. Dolomite is used in agriculture, chemical and industrial applications, cement construction, refractories, and environmental industries.

Feldspar Feldspar is a rock-forming mineral. It is used in glass and ceramic industries; pottery, porcelain and enamelware; soaps; bond for abrasive wheels; cement; glues; fertilizer; and tarred roofing materials and as a sizing, or filler, in textiles and paper applications.

Fluorite Fluorite is used in production of hydrofluoric acid, which is used in the pottery, ceramics, optical, electroplating, and plastics industries. It is also used in the metallurgical treatment of bauxite, as a flux in open-hearth steel furnaces, and in metal smelting, as well as in carbon electrodes, emery wheels, electric arc welders, and toothpaste as a source of fluorine.

Garnet Garnet is used in water filtration, electronic components, ceramics, glass, jewelry, and abrasives used in wood furniture and transport manufacturing. "Garnet is a common metamorphic mineral that becomes abundant enough to mine in a few rocks" (Kesler, 1994). Germanium "Most germanium is recovered as a byproduct of zinc smelting. It is also found in some copper ores" (Kesler, 1994). Applications include use in fiber-optic components, which are replacing copper in long-distance telecommunication lines, as well as in camera lenses and other glasses and infrared lenses.

Gold Gold is used in dentistry and medicine, jewelry and arts, medallions and coins, and in ingots. It is also used for scientific and electronic instruments, computer circuitry, as an electrolyte in the electroplating industry, and in many applications for the aerospace industry.

Granite Granite can be cut into large blocks and used as a building stone. When polished, it is used for monuments, headstones, countertops, statues, and facing on buildings. It is also suitable for railroad ballast and for road aggregate in highway construction.

Graphite Graphite is the crystal form of carbon. Graphite is used as a dry lubricant and steel hardener and for brakomes from Korea, India, and Mexico. e linings and the production of "lead" in pencils. Most graphite production c

Gypsum Processed gypsum is used in industrial or building plaster, prefabricated wallboard, cement manufacture, and for agriculture.

Halite Halite (salt) is used in the human and animal diet, primarily as food seasoning and as a food preservation. It is also used to prepare sodium hydroxide, soda ash, caustic soda, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, and metallic sodium, and it is used in ceramic glazes, metallurgy, curing of hides, mineral waters, soap manufacture, home water softeners, highway deicing, photography, and scientific equipment for optical parts. Iodine Iodine is used as an antibacterial agent in soaps and cleaning products in restrooms, in iodized salt to prevent goiter, and in first aid boxes as an antiseptic.

Iron Ore Iron ore is used to manufacture steels of various types and other metallurgical products, such as magnets, auto parts, and catalysts. Most U.S. production is from Minnesota and Michigan. The Earth's crust contains about 5% iron, the fourth most abundant element in the crust.

Lead Lead is used in batteries, construction, ammunition, television tubes, nuclear shielding, ceramics, weights, and tubes or containers. The United States is largest producer (mainly from Missouri), consumer, and recycler of lead metal.

Limestone "A sedimentary rock consisting largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which have the same composition CaCO3". Limestone, along with dolomite, is one of the basic building blocks of the construction industry. Limestone is used as aggregate, building stone, cement, and lime and in fluxes, glass, refractories, fillers, abrasives, soil conditioners, and a host of chemical processes.

Lithium Batteries made from lithium metal or lithium carbonate are used in smoke alarms, pacemakers, defibrillator machines, many other types of portable medical equipment, and in emergency communications equipment, including computers and cell phones.

Magnesium Magnesium (see dolomite) is used in cement, rubber, paper, insulation, chemicals and fertilizers, animal feed, and pharmaceuticals. Magnesium is obtained from the ore minerals Olivine (Fe,Mg)2SiO4, Magnesite MgCO3, and Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2.

Manganese Manganese is essential to iron and steel production. Manganese is obtained from the ore minerals Braunite (Mn,Si)2O3, Pyrolusite MnO2, and Psilomelane BaMn9O18*2H2O.

Mercury Mercury is extracted from the mineral cinnabar and is used in electrical products, electrolytic production of chlorine and caustic soda, paint, and industrial and control instruments (thermometers and thermostats).

Mica Mica minerals commonly occur as flakes, scales, or shreds. Sheet muscovite (white) mica is used in electronic insulators, paints, as joint cement, as a dusting agent, in welldrilling mud and lubricants, and in plastics, roofing, rubber, and welding rods.

Molybdenum Molybdenum is used in stainless steels (21%), tool steels (9%), cast irons (7%), and chemical lubricants (8%), and in other applications (55%). It is commonly used to make automotive parts, construction equipment, gas transmission pipes, and as a pure metal molybdenum is used as filament supports in light bulbs, metalworking dies, and furnace parts because of its high melting temperature (2,623C).

Nickel Nickel is vital as an alloy to stainless steel, and it plays a key roll in the chemical and aerospace industries. Leading producers are Canada, Norway, and Russia.

Phosphate rock Primarily a sedimentary rock used to produce phosphoric acid and ammoniated phosphate fertilizers, feed additives for livestock, elemental phosphorus, and a variety of phosphate chemicals for industrial and home consumers. The majority of U.S. production comes from Florida, North Carolina, Idaho, and Utah.

Platinum Group Metals (PGMs) PGM's include platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, and ruthenium. These elements commonly occur together in nature and are among the scarcest of the metallic elements. Platinum is used principally in catalytic converters for the control of automobile and industrial plant emissions; in jewelry; in catalysts to produce acids, organic chemicals, and pharmaceuticals; and in dental alloys used for making crowns and bridges.

Potash Potash is an industry term that refers to a group of water-soluble salts containing the element potassium, as well as to ores containing these salts (Kesler, 1994). Potash is used in fertilizer, medicine, the chemical industry, and to produce decorative color effects on brass, bronze, and nickel.

Pyrite Pyrite (fools gold) is used in the manufacture of sulfur, sulfuric acid, and sulfur dioxide; pellets of pressed pyrite dust are used to recover iron, gold, copper, cobalt, and nickel.

Quartz Quartz crystals are popular as a semiprecious gemstone; crystalline varieties include amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, and smoky quartz. Because of its piezoelectric properties (the ability to generate electricity under mechanical stress), quartz is used for pressure gauges, oscillators, resonators, and wave stabilizers. Quartz is also used in the manufacture of glass, paints, abrasives, refractories, and precision instruments.

Sandstone Sandstone is used as a building stone, road bases and coverings, construction fill, concrete, railroad ballast, and snow and ice control.

Silica / Silicon Silica is used in the manufacture of computer chips, glass and refractory materials, ceramics, abrasives, and water filtration; and is a component of hydraulic cements, a filler in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, paper, and insecticides; as an anti-caking agent in foods; a flatting agent in paint, and as a thermal insulator.

Limestone "A sedimentary rock consisting largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which have the same composition CaCO3". Limestone, along with dolomite, is one of the basic building blocks of the construction industry. Limestone is used as aggregate, building stone, cement, and lime and in fluxes, glass, refractories, fillers, abrasives, soil conditioners, and a host of chemical processes.

Lithium Batteries made from lithium metal or lithium carbonate are used in smoke alarms, pacemakers, defibrillator machines, many other types of portable medical equipment, and in emergency communications equipment, including computers and cell phones.

Magnesium

Magnesium (see dolomite) is used in cement, rubber, paper, insulation, chemicals and fertilizers, animal feed, and pharmaceuticals. Magnesium is obtained from the ore minerals Olivine (Fe,Mg)2SiO4, Magnesite MgCO3, and Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2.

Manganese Manganese is essential to iron and steel production. Manganese is obtained from the ore minerals Braunite (Mn,Si)2O3, Pyrolusite MnO2, and Psilomelane BaMn9O18*2H2O.

Mercury Mercury is extracted from the mineral cinnabar and is used in electrical products, electrolytic production of chlorine and caustic soda, paint, and industrial and control instruments (thermometers and thermostats).

Mica Mica minerals commonly occur as flakes, scales, or shreds. Sheet muscovite (white) mica is used in electronic insulators, paints, as joint cement, as a dusting agent, in welldrilling mud and lubricants, and in plastics, roofing, rubber, and welding rods.

Molybdenum Molybdenum is used in stainless steels (21%), tool steels (9%), cast irons (7%), and chemical lubricants (8%), and in other applications (55%). It is commonly used to make automotive parts, construction equipment, gas transmission pipes, and as a pure metal molybdenum is used as filament supports in light bulbs, metalworking dies, and furnace parts because of its high melting temperature (2,623C).

Nickel Nickel is vital as an alloy to stainless steel, and it plays a key roll in the chemical and aerospace industries. Leading producers are Canada, Norway, and Russia.

Phosphate rock Primarily a sedimentary rock used to produce phosphoric acid and ammoniated phosphate fertilizers, feed additives for livestock, elemental phosphorus, and a variety of phosphate chemicals for industrial and home consumers. The majority of U.S. production comes from Florida, North Carolina, Idaho, and Utah.

Platinum Group Metals (PGMs) PGM's include platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, and ruthenium. These elements commonly occur together in nature and are among the scarcest of the metallic elements. Platinum is used principally in catalytic converters for the control of automobile and industrial plant emissions; in jewelry; in catalysts to produce acids, organic chemicals, and pharmaceuticals; and in dental alloys used for making crowns and bridges.

Potash Potash is an industry term that refers to a group of water-soluble salts containing the element potassium, as well as to ores containing these salts (Kesler, 1994). Potash is used in fertilizer, medicine, the chemical industry, and to produce decorative color effects on brass, bronze, and nickel.

Pyrite Pyrite (fools gold) is used in the manufacture of sulfur, sulfuric acid, and sulfur dioxide; pellets of pressed pyrite dust are used to recover iron, gold, copper, cobalt, and nickel.

Quartz Quartz crystals are popular as a semiprecious gemstone; crystalline varieties include amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, and smoky quartz. Because of its piezoelectric properties (the ability to generate electricity under mechanical stress), quartz is used for pressure gauges, oscillators, resonators, and wave stabilizers. Quartz is also used in the manufacture of glass, paints, abrasives, refractories, and precision instruments.

Sandstone Sandstone is used as a building stone, road bases and coverings, construction fill, concrete, railroad ballast, and snow and ice control.

Silica / Silicon Silica is used in the manufacture of computer chips, glass and refractory materials, ceramics, abrasives, and water filtration; and is a component of hydraulic cements, a filler in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, paper, and insecticides; as an anti-caking agent in foods; a flatting agent in paint, and as a thermal insulator.

Minerals and Their Uses

Every segment of society uses minerals and mineral resources everyday. The roads we ride or drive on and the buildings we live learn and work in all contain minerals. Below is a selected list of commonly used metallic and nonmetallic minerals, ore minerals, mineral byproducts, aggregates, and rock types that are used to make products we use in our daily life. Aggregates

Natural aggregates include sand, gravel, and crushed stone. Aggregates are composed of rock fragments that may be used in their natural state or after mechanical processing, such as crushing, washing, or sizing. Recycled aggregates consist mainly of crushed concrete and crushed asphalt pavement. Aluminum Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust. Bauxite ore is the main source of aluminum. Aluminum is used in automobiles and airplanes (36%), bottling and canning industries (25%), building and electrical (14%) and in other applications (25%).

Antimony Antimony is a silvery-gray, brittle semi-metal. It rarely occurs in nature as a native element, but is found in a number of different minerals. Antimony is used principally for flame retardants as well as in ammunition and automotive batteries and as a decolorizing agent in glassmaking.

Asbestos Asbestos is a class of minerals that can be readily separated into thin, strong fibers that are flexible, heat resistant, and chemically inert. Asbestos minerals are used in fireproof fabrics, yarn, cloth, and paper and paint filler. Asbestos is used to make friction products, asbestos cement pipes and sheets, coatings and compounds, packing and gaskets, roofing and flooring products, paints and caulking, and chemical filters. Fibers are dangerous when breathed, so users must protect against fibers becoming airborne.

Basalt Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock. Crushed basalt is used for railroad ballast, aggregate in highway construction, and is a major component of asphalt.

Barium

Barium is an element, derived primarily from the mineral barite, and used as a heavy additive in oil-well-drilling mud, paints, rubber, plastic and paper; production of barium chemicals; and glass manufacturing.

Beryllium Beryllium, an element commonly associated with igneous rocks, has industrial and nuclear defense applications and is used in light, very strong alloys for the aircraft industry. Beryllium salts are used in x-ray tubes and as a deoxidizer in bronze metallurgy. The gemstones of beryl, a beryllium mineral, are emerald and aquamarine.

Bismuth Bismuth is used in a number of very different applications. The majority is consumed in bismuth alloys, and in pharmaceuticals and chemicals. The remainder is used in ceramics, paints, catalysts, and a variety of minor applications. Bismuth metal is relatively inert and non-toxic. It has replaced toxic lead in many applications such as plumbing, bullets, birdshot, metal alloys, and soldering. Bismuth compounds are used in stomach-upset medicines (hence the trademarked name Pepto-Bismol), treatment of stomach ulcers, soothing creams, and cosmetics.

Boron Boron compounds are used for many different purposes in industry and the home. Boron is used to make glass, ceramics, enamels, fiberglass, make water softeners, soaps and detergents. Other uses are in agricultural chemicals, pest controls, fire retardants, fireworks, medicine, and various minor applications. Boron nitride is one of the hardest known substances and is used for abrasives and cutting tools. Bromine Bromine, recovered commercially through the treatment of seawater brines, is used in leaded gasoline, fire extinguishers and retardants, well-completion fluids, and sanitary preparations. Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element. Cadmium

Cadmium is used in plating and alloying, pigments, plastics, and batteries. Cadmium is obtained from the ore minerals Sphalerite (Zn,Cd)S and Greenockite (CdS)

Calcium The primary use of calcium is not in its silvery-white metal form, but as calcium carbonate. It used in adhesives and sealants, cosmetics, foods, paint, paper, pharmaceuticals, plastics, rubber, for the production of lime, and as crhused stone in construction. Immense quantities of calcium are found in sedimentary rock deposits of gypsum, limestone, and shale. Some common calcium-bearing minerals include apatite (calcium phosphate), calcite (calcium carbonate), dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate), fluorite (calcium fluoride), and gypsum (calcium sulfate). Calcium metal is produced in Canada, China, France, Russia, and the United States. Total world output is thought to be less than 6,000 metric tons per year. United States consumption of calcium metal is small. On a worldwide basis, more than 100 million metric tons per year of apatite and gypsum are mined, and calcite and dolomite are produced in billions of metric tons per year. Cement Cement is used for building materials, stucco, and mortar. Cement is :a mixture of powdered lime, clay, and other minerals that crystallize to form a hard solid when water is added (hydraulic cement) or as a binding material in concrete" (Kesler, 1994). An excellent overview of cement, its chemistry, and properties can be found in MacLaren and White (2003).

Chromium Chromium is used in the production of stainless and heat-resistant steel, full-alloy steel, super alloys and other alloys. Chromium is obtained from the ore mineral Chromite (Mg,Fe)(Cr,Al,Fe)2O4 Clays There are many different clay minerals that are used for industrial applications. Clays are used in the manufacturing of paper, refractories, rubber, ball clay, dinnerware and pottery, floor and wall tile, sanitary wear, fire clay, firebricks, foundry sands, drilling mud, iron-ore pelletizing, absorbent and filtering materials, construction materials, and cosmetics.

Cobalt Half of the consumption of cobalt is used in corrosion- and abrasion-resistant alloys with steel, nickel, and other metals for the production of industrial engines. Other uses of cobalt metal include magnets and cutting tools. Cobalt salts are used to produce a blue color in paint pigments, porcelain, glass, and pottery. Cobalt is obtained from the ore minerals Linneaite (Co3S4), Cobaltite CoAsS, and (Fe,Ni,Co)1-xSx.

Copper Copper is used in electric cables and wires, switches, plumbing; heating, electrical, and roofing materials; electronic components; industrial machinery and equipment; transportation; consumer and general products; coins; and jewelry.

Diamond Industrial diamonds are those that can not be used as gems. Large diamonds are used in tools and drilling bits to cut rock and small stone. Small diamonds, also known as dust or grit, are used for cutting and polishing stone and ceramic products.

Diatomite Diatomite is a rock composed of the skeletons of diatoms, single-celled organisms with skeletons made of silica, which are found in fresh and salt water. Diatomite is primarily used for filtration of drinks, such as juices and wines, but it is also being used as filler in paints and pharmaceuticals and environmental cleanup technologies.

Dolomite Dolomite is the near twin-sister rock to limestone. Like limestone, it typically forms in a marine environment but also as has a primary magnesium component. Dolomite is used in agriculture, chemical and industrial applications, cement construction, refractories, and environmental industries.

Feldspar Feldspar is a rock-forming mineral. It is used in glass and ceramic industries; pottery, porcelain and enamelware; soaps; bond for abrasive wheels; cement; glues; fertilizer; and tarred roofing materials and as a sizing, or filler, in textiles and paper applications.

Fluorite Fluorite is used in production of hydrofluoric acid, which is used in the pottery, ceramics, optical, electroplating, and plastics industries. It is also used in the metallurgical treatment of bauxite, as a flux in open-hearth steel furnaces, and in metal smelting, as well as in carbon electrodes, emery wheels, electric arc welders, and toothpaste as a source of fluorine.

Garnet Garnet is used in water filtration, electronic components, ceramics, glass, jewelry, and abrasives used in wood furniture and transport manufacturing. "Garnet is a common metamorphic mineral that becomes abundant enough to mine in a few rocks" (Kesler, 1994). Germanium "Most germanium is recovered as a byproduct of zinc smelting. It is also found in some copper ores" (Kesler, 1994). Applications include use in fiber-optic

components, which are replacing copper in long-distance telecommunication lines, as well as in camera lenses and other glasses and infrared lenses.

Gold Gold is used in dentistry and medicine, jewelry and arts, medallions and coins, and in ingots. It is also used for scientific and electronic instruments, computer circuitry, as an electrolyte in the electroplating industry, and in many applications for the aerospace industry.

Granite Granite can be cut into large blocks and used as a building stone. When polished, it is used for monuments, headstones, countertops, statues, and facing on buildings. It is also suitable for railroad ballast and for road aggregate in highway construction.

Graphite Graphite is the crystal form of carbon. Graphite is used as a dry lubricant and steel hardener and for brake linings and the production of "lead" in pencils. Most graphite production comes from Korea, India, and Mexico.

Gypsum Processed gypsum is used in industrial or building plaster, prefabricated wallboard, cement manufacture, and for agriculture.

Halite Halite (salt) is used in the human and animal diet, primarily as food seasoning and as a food preservation. It is also used to prepare sodium hydroxide, soda ash, caustic soda, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, and metallic sodium, and it is used in ceramic glazes, metallurgy, curing of hides, mineral waters, soap manufacture, home water softeners, highway deicing, photography, and scientific equipment for optical parts. Iodine Iodine is used as an antibacterial agent in soaps and cleaning products in restrooms, in iodized salt to prevent goiter, and in first aid boxes as an antiseptic.

Iron Ore Iron ore is used to manufacture steels of various types and other metallurgical products, such as magnets, auto parts, and catalysts. Most U.S. production is from Minnesota and Michigan. The Earth's crust contains about 5% iron, the fourth most abundant element in the crust.

Lead Lead is used in batteries, construction, ammunition, television tubes, nuclear shielding, ceramics, weights, and tubes or containers. The United States is largest producer (mainly from Missouri), consumer, and recycler of lead metal.

Limestone "A sedimentary rock consisting largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which have the same composition CaCO3". Limestone, along with dolomite, is one of the basic building blocks of the construction industry. Limestone is used as

aggregate, building stone, cement, and lime and in fluxes, glass, refractories, fillers, abrasives, soil conditioners, and a host of chemical processes.

Lithium Batteries made from lithium metal or lithium carbonate are used in smoke alarms, pacemakers, defibrillator machines, many other types of portable medical equipment, and in emergency communications equipment, including computers and cell phones.

Magnesium Magnesium (see dolomite) is used in cement, rubber, paper, insulation, chemicals and fertilizers, animal feed, and pharmaceuticals. Magnesium is obtained from the ore minerals Olivine (Fe,Mg)2SiO4, Magnesite MgCO3, and Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2.

Manganese Manganese is essential to iron and steel production. Manganese is obtained from the ore minerals Braunite (Mn,Si)2O3, Pyrolusite MnO2, and Psilomelane BaMn9O18*2H2O.

Mercury Mercury is extracted from the mineral cinnabar and is used in electrical products, electrolytic production of chlorine and caustic soda, paint, and industrial and control instruments (thermometers and thermostats).

Mica Mica minerals commonly occur as flakes, scales, or shreds. Sheet muscovite (white) mica is used in electronic insulators, paints, as joint cement, as a dusting agent, in welldrilling mud and lubricants, and in plastics, roofing, rubber, and welding rods.

Molybdenum Molybdenum is used in stainless steels (21%), tool steels (9%), cast irons (7%), and chemical lubricants (8%), and in other applications (55%). It is commonly used to make automotive parts, construction equipment, gas transmission pipes, and as a pure metal molybdenum is used as filament supports in light bulbs, metalworking dies, and furnace parts because of its high melting temperature (2,623C).

Nickel Nickel is vital as an alloy to stainless steel, and it plays a key roll in the chemical and aerospace industries. Leading producers are Canada, Norway, and Russia.

Phosphate rock Primarily a sedimentary rock used to produce phosphoric acid and ammoniated phosphate fertilizers, feed additives for livestock, elemental phosphorus, and a variety of phosphate chemicals for industrial and home consumers. The majority of U.S. production comes from Florida, North Carolina, Idaho, and Utah.

Platinum Group Metals (PGMs) PGM's include platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, and ruthenium. These elements commonly occur together in nature and are among the scarcest of the metallic elements. Platinum is used principally in catalytic converters for the control of automobile and industrial plant emissions; in jewelry; in catalysts to

produce acids, organic chemicals, and pharmaceuticals; and in dental alloys used for making crowns and bridges.

Potash Potash is an industry term that refers to a group of water-soluble salts containing the element potassium, as well as to ores containing these salts (Kesler, 1994). Potash is used in fertilizer, medicine, the chemical industry, and to produce decorative color effects on brass, bronze, and nickel.

Pyrite Pyrite (fools gold) is used in the manufacture of sulfur, sulfuric acid, and sulfur dioxide; pellets of pressed pyrite dust are used to recover iron, gold, copper, cobalt, and nickel.

Quartz Quartz crystals are popular as a semiprecious gemstone; crystalline varieties include amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, and smoky quartz. Because of its piezoelectric properties (the ability to generate electricity under mechanical stress), quartz is used for pressure gauges, oscillators, resonators, and wave stabilizers. Quartz is also used in the manufacture of glass, paints, abrasives, refractories, and precision instruments.

Sandstone Sandstone is used as a building stone, road bases and coverings, construction fill, concrete, railroad ballast, and snow and ice control.

Silica / Silicon Silica is used in the manufacture of computer chips, glass and refractory materials, ceramics, abrasives, and water filtration; and is a component of hydraulic cements, a filler in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, paper, and insecticides; as an anti-caking agent in foods; a flatting agent in paint, and as a thermal insulator.

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT - CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES ECONOMIC IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Mineral Resources Exploitation

In 1998, 406 mines were in operation on the territory of the SR. Mineral resources exploitation took place at 621 exclusive mineral deposits of which 381 deposits were with exploitation site regarded as protected deposit area. The statistics shows that 182 exclusive mineral deposits were only with protected deposit sites being approved and 58 exclusive deposits were undergoing approval procedure in 1998. Besides exclusive deposit exploitation was in progress also at 242 non-limited mineral deposits. In 1998, stabilisation trend in mining prevailed (brown coal and ligite, magnesite and salt) when compared with the previous period. In some cases a slight increase was recorded (brick clay, high-content limestone, limestones and raw materials for cement production. From the total amount of coal mined approx. 85% was used for energy production (Power Plant Novky was the main user), 15% was distributed in a form of graded coal. In 1998, from the total amount of 46 312 tonnes of crude oil exploited 4 166 tonnes were of non-paraffin oil and 42 146 tonnes were of semiparaffin oil. Gajary and Dbrava crude oil deposits had the largest share in crude oil exploitation. Their contribution to crude oil exploitation was 77% of the total exploitation.

 In 1998, again a decline by 27 388 thousand m3 in natural gas exploitation was recorded (as compared to 1997). Ptruka - the most important natural gas deposit allowed even propane-butane extraction of 558 tonnes a year which covers demand of East Slovakia region and partly also that of Central Slovakia Environmental impacts of over extraction of mineral resources: Depending on the conditions of terrain and depth of ore deposits 2 types of mining operations are carried out. 1. open cast mining and 2. underground mining. In both types each steps in mining processing produce several environmental effects such as, Deforestation takes place due to removal of vegetal covers. Great volume of debris has been generated which disrupt the surface and ground water circulation. It also reduces the water carrying capacity of streams very close to mining area The stacking of over burden and building of spoil banks creates problems of landslides Under ground fire in coalmines is a hazard that is difficult to control Mining and ore processing normally causes air pollution and water pollution The acid water generated in coalmines can pose a serious problem of water pollution, which adversely affects the flora and fauna. Deeper excavation of ground causes lowering of water table, which leads to drying of wells or sea water intrusion In stone quarries, blasting of rocks not only annoying the people nearby, but also cause hazard from fly rocks and dusts and damage to buildings due to vibrations The disposal of waste material produced after concentrations of ore create increase concentration of heavy metals and toxic elements in the environment.

WATER RESOURCES Water is an indispensible resource. Around 97% of world surface is covered with water. Most of the animals and plants have 60-65% of water in their body.

Unique features of water 1. High specific heat 2. High latent heat of vapourisation 3. Good solvent for oxygen, nutrients and pollutants 4. Anomalous expansion on freezing 5. High surface tension Global distribution of water is very much random depending on the geographical conditions. The availability of water decreases in the following order. 1. Tropical rain forest

2. Temperate regions 3. Deserts Water is used for domestic, irrigation and also industrial purposes Out of the total available water 75% is used for agriculture, 20% for industrial usage. In our country ~93% of water is used for agricultural purposes. Ground water: 9.86% of fresh water is ground water and it is 35-50% greater than surface water. Aquifer: The layer of soil which is permeable has the ability to store water is called an aquifer. It is generally made up of gravel, sand etc. Unconfined aquifer: it is covered by permeable layer. The recharge of this layer is by rainfall or snowmelt. Confined aquifer: sandwiched between impermeable layers. The recharge is through unconfined aquifer layers. Over utilization of ground water: Over utilization of water leads to rapid depletion of water resources, ground subsidence, lowering of water table and water logging. Effects of over utilization of ground water: Reasons: Economic development, rapid industrial growth and population explosion The use of ground water and surface water rates which are higher than that of recharge ultimately leads to Water scarcity Water logging Salination alkalization water pollution or contaminationhttp://www.google.co.in/imgres? q=utilization+of+ground+water&hl=en&rlz=1R2ADFA_enIN426&biw=1366&bi h=587&tbm=isch&tbnid=VqDJ0xGQqQsm6M:&imgrefurl=http://www.aboutrain waterharvesting.com/rwh.htm&docid=1opHJMRPHTBJ0M&w=150&h=99&ei=b qc3Tp6bEpCnrAf08aQH&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=0&page=1&tbnh=79&tbnw=12 0&start=0&ndsp=24&ved=1t:429,r:5,s:0&tx=97&ty=46 creates declining of water levels crops failure and reduction in agricultural production over pumping of ground water create drought, famine and food shortage over pumping of ground water sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers land subsidence may due to over pumping of ground water river pollution due to industrial activities and dumping of waste into rivers, which in turn force to utilize the ground water, ultimately leads to over pumping Clean water is universal right. It is the responsibility of everyone to ensure the purity of water. Water is a valuable commodity and it has to be conserved.

Surface water: When evaporation and transpiration rates are lower than the rainfall, surface water body like lake, river, pond, streams etc. are formed.

Flood: over flow of water, whenever the water in flow is greater than the carrying capacity of the channels flood occurs. Causes: 1. heavy rainfall, snow melt, sudden release of water from dams. 2. Prolonged down pour leading to overflowing of rivers and lakes 3. Reduction in carrying capacity due to obstructions or sediments etc. 4. Deforestation, overgrazing, mining increases water run off 5. Removal of dense forests from hilly regions Effects: 1. Submerges the flooded area 2. Loss of soil fertility due to soil erosion 3. Extinction of civilization at costal area Flood management: 1. Dams and reservoirs can be constructed 2. Embankments and proper channel management 3. Flood way should not be encroached 4. Forecasting or flood warning 5. Decrease of run off by infiltration through afforestation or rain water harvesting etc. Food resources: PROBLEMS FACED BY FOOD RESOURCES

Overgrazing Land degradation Soil erosion Loss of useful species

modern agriculture high yield variety crops micronutrients imbalance nitrate pollution Eutrophication Pesticide related problems Water logging Salinity

Overgrazing: Grass is a good binder of soil. Overgrazing leads to loss of vegetal cover. Soil gets compacted because of excess evaporation of water. Water cannot percolate into the soil. Roots cannot pass into the soil. Soil texture is lost, fertility is lost and at last leads to soil erosion. Soil erosion: when uncovered, waterless soil is acted upon by heavy wind and rainfall soil erosion results. This leads to loss of useful species and many nutrients. Overgrazing leads to replacement of thorny plants in the place of leafy, fruit bearing plants.

HYV: The usage of high yield crop variety leads to monoculture same type of crop is planted on large scale. In case of any pathogenic effects, due to exactly uniform condition in the crop field, total loss is encountered. Micronutrient imbalance: excessive use of macronutrients causes micronutrients imbalance. Ex. Zinc deficiency faced in Punjab and Haryana. LAND RESOURCE Land is critically important national resource which supports all living organisms including plants and animals. The soil profile of land determines its ability to serve socio-economic needs. It has been estimated that more than 5000 million tonnees of top soil is eroded annually along with 5 million tones of nutrients. About 1/3 of this is lost in sea while the rest in reservoirs and rivers leading to flood. About 38% of the area in India suffers from moderate to high degree of water based erosion. The per capita availability of land in the country has declined from 1.37 hectare in 1901 to 0.33 hectare in 2000. All these lands cannot be utilized for agricultural purpose. Some land would be required for other activities (to maintain urban area). Effective steps have to be taken for preventing diversion of land suitable for sustainable farming to non-farm uses. Simultaneously, degraded lands and waste lands have to be improved by ecological restoration. The Department of Land Resources was setup in April 1999 by ministry of Rural Development to act as nodal agency for land resource management. Land Degradation: Land degradation is defined as the reduction in soil capacity to produce in terms of quality, quantity goods and services. The definition is also based on 1. sustainability or ability to produce continuously and indefinitely. 2. quality of land resource that makes it sustainable or resistant to degradation 3. carrying capacity or the number of people and animals the land can normally support without significant stress. Landscapes generally undergo degradation but are usually compensated by natures inherent recovering ability. Whenever degradation occur exceeding natures restorative capacity, the result will be a disaster. Man induced landslides: The hill slopes are prone to land slides, landslips, rockslides etc. These hazardous features have reduced the overall progress of the region as they obstruct the roads, communication media and water flow. There are two types of slides 1. slides due to natural factors 2. slides induced by man and his activities Some of the human activities that cause land sliding are massive deforestation erratic agricultural practices road building unscientific quarrying etc. engg. Constructions

Soil Conservation: Ways to reduce soil erosion: 1. Terracing: Terracing reduces soil erosion on steep slopes by concerting the land into a series of broad, level terraces. This retains water for crops at each level and reduces soil erosion by water run off. 2. Contour Farming: This method is adopted for gently sloped land. This involves planting crops in rows across the contour of gently sloped land. 3. Alley Cropping or Agro forestry: In this method crops are planted together in strips or alleys between trees and shrubs that can provide fruits and fuel wood. The trees and shrubs provide shade which reduce water loss by evaporation and preserve soil moisture. Wind Breaks or Shelter Belts: Wind breaks and shelter belts or trees are established to reduce wind erosion and also for retaining soil moisture. region. Ore exploitation in 1998 took place at branch enterprise Rudany elba shared comp. with headquarters at Spisk Nov Ves (complex baryte-siderite-sulphide ores) and at Siderit-Nin Slan (monomineral siderite replacement ores). Au ores were mined by Slovak Mining Comp. s.r.o.. Hodrua-Hmre. In 1998, it produced 53.5 kilotons of gold ore (in 1997 66.3 kt) and 1.6 kilotons of concentrates (in 1997 1.75 kt). In 1998, programmes following the reduction of total ores output were under way in Rudn Bane, State Mining Comp. Bansk Bystrica. In accordance with the plans of liquidation, security works were carried out in Roava plants and ecological / technical works at the Sedem ien and Pezinok plants. Figure 32 Mineral resources exploitation in the SR basic development indicators

Source: HB SR

Source: HB SR

Source: HB SR

Source: HB SR

Environmental impacts of over extraction of mineral resources: Depending on the conditions of terrain and depth of ore deposits 2 types of mining operations are carried out. 1. open cast mining and 2. underground mining. In both types each steps in mining processing produce several environmental effects such as, Deforestation takes place due to removal of vegetal covers. Great volume of debris has been generated which disrupt the surface and ground water circulation. It also reduces the water carrying capacity of streams very close to mining area The stacking of over burden and building of spoil banks creates problems of landslides Under ground fire in coalmines is a hazard that is difficult to control Mining and ore processing normally causes air pollution and water pollution The acid water generated in coalmines can pose a serious problem of water pollution, which adversely affects the flora and fauna. Deeper excavation of ground causes lowering of water table, which leads to drying of wells or sea water intrusion In stone quarries, blasting of rocks not only annoying the people nearby, but also cause hazard from fly rocks and dusts and damage to buildings due to vibrations The disposal of waste material produced after concentrations of ore create increase concentration of heavy metals and toxic elements in the environment.

WATER RESOURCES Water is an indispensible resource. Around 97% of world surface is covered with water. Most of the animals and plants have 60-65% of water in their body. Unique features of water 6. High specific heat 7. High latent heat of vapourisation 8. Good solvent for oxygen, nutrients and pollutants 9. Anomalous expansion on freezing 10. High surface tension

Global distribution of water is very much random depending on the geographical conditions. The availability of water decreases in the following order. 4. Tropical rain forest 5. Temperate regions 6. Deserts Water is used for domestic, irrigation and also industrial purposes Out of the total available water 75% is used for agriculture, 20% for industrial usage. In our country ~93% of water is used for agricultural purposes. Ground water: 9.86% of fresh water is ground water and it is 35-50% greater than surface water. Aquifer: The layer of soil which is permeable has the ability to store water is called an aquifer. It is generally made up of gravel, sand etc. Unconfined aquifer: it is covered by permeable layer. The recharge of this layer is by rainfall or snowmelt. Confined aquifer: sandwiched between impermeable layers. The recharge is through unconfined aquifer layers. Over utilization of ground water: Over utilization of water leads to rapid depletion of water resources, ground subsidence, lowering of water table and water logging. Effects of over utilization of ground water: Reasons: Economic development, rapid industrial growth and population explosion The use of ground water and surface water rates which are higher than that of recharge ultimately leads to Water scarcity Water logging Salination alkalization water pollution or contamination creates declining of water levels crops failure and reduction in agricultural production over pumping of ground water create drought, famine and food shortage over pumping of ground water sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers land subsidence may due to over pumping of ground water river pollution due to industrial activities and dumping of waste into rivers, which in turn force to utilize the ground water, ultimately leads to over pumping Clean water is universal right. It is the responsibility of everyone to ensure the purity of water. Water is a valuable commodity and it has to be conserved.

Surface water: When evaporation and transpiration rates are lower than the rainfall, surface water body like lake, river, pond, streams etc. are formed.

Flood: over flow of water, whenever the water in flow is greater than the carrying capacity of the channels flood occurs. Causes: 6. heavy rainfall, snow melt, sudden release of water from dams. 7. Prolonged down pour leading to overflowing of rivers and lakes 8. Reduction in carrying capacity due to obstructions or sediments etc. 9. Deforestation, overgrazing, mining increases water run off 10. Removal of dense forests from hilly regions Effects: 4. Submerges the flooded area 5. Loss of soil fertility due to soil erosion 6. Extinction of civilization at costal area Flood management: 6. Dams and reservoirs can be constructed 7. Embankments and proper channel management 8. Flood way should not be encroached 9. Forecasting or flood warning 10. Decrease of run off by infiltration through afforestation or rain water harvesting etc. Food resources: PROBLEMS FACED BY FOOD RESOURCES

Overgrazing Land degradation Soil erosion Loss of useful species

modern agriculture high yield variety crops micronutrients imbalance nitrate pollution Eutrophication Pesticide related problems Water logging Salinity

Overgrazing: Grass is a good binder of soil. Overgrazing leads to loss of vegetal cover. Soil gets compacted because of excess evaporation of water. Water cannot percolate into the soil. Roots cannot pass into the soil. Soil texture is lost, fertility is lost and at last leads to soil erosion. Soil erosion: when uncovered, waterless soil is acted upon by heavy wind and rainfall soil erosion results. This leads to loss of useful species and many nutrients. Overgrazing leads to replacement of thorny plants in the place of leafy, fruit bearing plants. HYV: The usage of high yield crop variety leads to monoculture same type of crop is planted on large scale. In case of any pathogenic effects, due to exactly uniform condition in the crop field, total loss is encountered.

Micronutrient imbalance: excessive use of macronutrients causes micronutrients imbalance. Ex. Zinc deficiency faced in Punjab and Haryana. LAND RESOURCE Land is critically important national resource which supports all living organisms including plants and animals. The soil profile of land determines its ability to serve socio-economic needs. It has been estimated that more than 5000 million tonnees of top soil is eroded annually along with 5 million tones of nutrients. About 1/3 of this is lost in sea while the rest in reservoirs and rivers leading to flood. About 38% of the area in India suffers from moderate to high degree of water based erosion. The per capita availability of land in the country has declined from 1.37 hectare in 1901 to 0.33 hectare in 2000. All these lands cannot be utilized for agricultural purpose. Some land would be required for other activities (to maintain urban area). Effective steps have to be taken for preventing diversion of land suitable for sustainable farming to non-farm uses. Simultaneously, degraded lands and waste lands have to be improved by ecological restoration. The Department of Land Resources was setup in April 1999 by ministry of Rural Development to act as nodal agency for land resource management. Land Degradation: Land degradation is defined as the reduction in soil capacity to produce in terms of quality, quantity goods and services. The definition is also based on 4. sustainability or ability to produce continuously and indefinitely. 5. quality of land resource that makes it sustainable or resistant to degradation 6. carrying capacity or the number of people and animals the land can normally support without significant stress. Landscapes generally undergo degradation but are usually compensated by natures inherent recovering ability. Whenever degradation occur exceeding natures restorative capacity, the result will be a disaster. Man induced landslides: The hill slopes are prone to land slides, landslips, rockslides etc. These hazardous features have reduced the overall progress of the region as they obstruct the roads, communication media and water flow. There are two types of slides 3. slides due to natural factors 4. slides induced by man and his activities Some of the human activities that cause land sliding are massive deforestation erratic agricultural practices road building unscientific quarrying etc. engg. Constructions

Soil Conservation: Ways to reduce soil erosion: 4. Terracing: Terracing reduces soil erosion on steep slopes by concerting the land into a series of broad, level terraces. This retains water for crops at each level and reduces soil erosion by water run off. 5. Contour Farming: This method is adopted for gently sloped land. This involves planting crops in rows across the contour of gently sloped land. 6. Alley Cropping or Agro forestry: In this method crops are planted together in strips or alleys between trees and shrubs that can provide fruits and fuel wood. The trees and shrubs provide shade which reduce water loss by evaporation and preserve soil moisture. Wind Breaks or Shelter Belts: Wind breaks and shelter belts or trees are established to reduce wind erosion and also for retaining soil moisture.