Cell Theory

y y y All living things are made up of one or more cells. Cells are the smallest units of living things. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

Cell Division
In multicellular organisms, cells divide to produce new cells. Cell division is necessary for: y y y Growth of the organism Repair of tissues and organs Reproduction by the formation of sex cells

In normal cell division the genetic information that is coded in the chromosomes inside the nucleus must be copied before the cell divides. In this way each new cell (daughter cell) has an exact copy of the genetic information.

Reproduction
In simple unicellular organisms, reproduction is achieved by simple cell division. This method of reproduction is called asexual reproduction. This type of cell division (called mitosis) is the same as the method used to produce new body cells in multicellular organisms. All cells produced by mitosis are genetically identical to the original cell from which they are formed. They have the same number and types of chromosomes present as were present in the original cell. In sexually reproducing organisms, specialised sex cells (gametes eggs and

sperm) are produced by a special type of cell division called meiosis. Meiosis occurs in the testes or ovaries. In meiosis there are two stages of cell division. At the end of these two stages, four new sex cells with half the normal chromosomes number are formed. Asexual Reproduction:

y y y y

Only 1 parent required Genes of offspring are identical to parent Advantage: fast and large numbers of offspring often produced Disadvantage: no variation if conditions change; whole population can perish

Examples: bacteria, tubers, bulbs, runners

Sexual Reproduction: y y y y y Male and female required Genes of offspring Advantage: variation in population increases chances of survival Disadvantage: access to a partner is required and production is longer Examples: flowering plants, humans, vertebrates

The Female Reproductive System The female sexual cycle is controlled by a hormone produced in the pituitary gland of the brain. At puberty, the pituitary produces hormones to start the first eggs maturing and begin production of the female hormones estrogen and progesterone. These two hormones are produced in the ovaries and they determine the female secondary sex characteristics. y y Ovary: Produce an ovum about every 28 days Fallopian Tube (Oviduct): Connects the ovaries to the uterus, fertilisation takes place here y y Uterus (Womb): Where the baby is protected and grows Cervix: A muscular opening at the end of the uterus leading into the vagina y y y Vagina: A muscular tube that connects the uterus to the outside Hymen: Thin layer of skin at the outside end of the vagina Vulva: The external part of the female reproductive system. It is made of folds called labia

Clitoris: Touch-sensitive organ which causes a lubricating fluid produced in the vagina

The Male Reproductive System Male characteristics are controlled by a hormone called testosterone; produced in the testes. y y y y y y y Testis: Organs which produce sperm Scrotum: Sac which holds the testis Vas deferens/sperm duct: Carries sperm from each testis to the urethra Urethra: Carries both urine from the bladder and semen containing sperm Epididymis: Stores sperm Penis: Excretes urine and places sperm into the female vagina Seminal vesicles and prostate gland: Adds liquid to the sperm in the

urethra, forming semen. This fluid provides a number of functions: 1) to provide food for the sperm, 2) to provide an alkaline fluid that helps to neutralise the acid of the female vagina, 3) cleans urine from the urethra during an erection, and 4) helps lubricate the end of the penis

Genetics
Genetics is the study of heredity next generation. Inside every human being, there are cells. Inside each nucleus of cells, there is a unique set of 46 chromosomes. Chromosomes are a compact coil; a single, incredibly long molecule of DNA. That s deoxyribonucleic acid. It stores all the coded information that basically determines what we look like and how our body functions. Sections of the DNA which contain complete messages are known as genes. They can be thought of as words along the DNA sentences , with about 100,000 of these words in each cell. The message in a gene is a coded formula which is needed by the cell to produce one protein. Our bodies are mostly made up of proteins. Structural proteins form hair, skin and muscle, while most of the the passing of one set of characteristics to the

life processes inside the body are carried out by a family of proteins called enzymes. Therefore, proteins, along with the DNA which controls their

production, are the most important group of molecules in a living thing.

DNA

Structure and replication

DNA is an acronym for deoxyribose nucleic acid. The shape of the DNA molecule is a double helix. DNA is found in the chromosome inside the nucleus of cells. A gene is a short DNA sequence. Chimpanzees are the closest living species to humans as 98% of their DNA matches human DNA. You have 2 copies of each chromosome and therefore 2 copies of gene as you inherited 1 of each chromosome from each parent.

Structure
The two strands of the double helix resemble a spiral staircase. The separate strands are composed composed of three parts: 1. A phosphate group 2. A deoxyribose sugar molecule 3. A nitrogen base The spiral steps are composed of the nitrogen bases. The sides of the spiral staircase are composed of the phosphate groups and deoxyribose sugar of molecules called nucleotides. Nucleotides are

molecules. There are four types of nitrogen bases. These are: y y y y Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Adenine (A)

The spiral steps are constructed by two nitrogen bases linked together. y Cytosine (C) always bonds with guanine (G)

Thymine (T) always bonds with adenine (A)

DNA is made up of building blocks called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a base, a sugar and a phosphate group. DNA consists of 2 strands. The base A (adenine) on one strand, always pairs with T (Thymine) on the other strand. Cystosine (C) on one strand, always pairs with G (Guanine) on the other strand. This is called complementary base pairing. The sequence of bases on one strand determines the sequence of bases on the other strand.

Replication and Reproduction

Prior to normal cell division, each DNA molecule must make a copy of itself. In this way each new cell will have an exact copy of each DNA molecule. This process is called replication. The steps in replication are: 1. The nitrogen bases that form the spiral steps start to split apart at one end of the ladder. 2. New nucleotides are transported into place and linked together to produce a complementary strand according to the rule for base pairing (i.e. C&G and T&A) 3. Two new double helices form when the process is completed. When cells reproduce themselves during mitosis (for growth and repair) or during meiosis (for the production of sex cells) it is important that the DNA (which makes up chromosomes) is replicated (copied) exactly. Faults in the DNA can result in abnormal cell function and disease, or the transfer of genetic disorders to the offspring.

Cell Division
1. Mitosis: is the process that most cells use to divide. It is a process whereby a single cell divides to form 2 identical daughter cells. Each daughter cell has the organism s full complement of chromosomes (e.g. 46 in humans)

exactly the same as the parent cell. This number of chromosomes is known as the diploid number. 2. Meiosis: is a special type of cell division used only for the production of gametes (sperm and egg cells). Each cell has half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This is known as the haploid number when gametes unite at fertilisation; their nuclei combine so that the new zygote (fertilised cell) has the total complement of chromosomes for that species i.e. the diploid number. Feature Function Mitosis Growth Repair Asexual reproduction Location Any body cell where In and the sex organs of Meisois Production of gametes for sexual reproduction

growth and repair occurs (ovary/testis in human) (in all living things) (ovary/anthers flowering plants) Chromosome number Diploid; daughter cells Haploid; parent Genetic composition Identical to parent Not identical to parent cell Number of resulting cells 2 4 daughter cells same as parent have half the number of

DNA Mutations
The process of DNA replication may go wrong. This results in a change in the sequence of nitrogen bases in the DNA molecule. The sequence of the nitrogen bases is a code. The cell uses this code to carry out its normal functions. This change in the code is called a DNA mutation. There are a number of ways in which DNA mutations can occur e.g. deletion (nitrogen base is omitted) or substitution (nitrogen base is substituted by a different one).

When the DNA code is changed in these ways, the information transmitted to the cell is also altered. Changing one letter in a gene changes the whole meaning. A mutation is a spontaneous gene change. Most mutations are harmful. Examples of inherited diseases due to defective genes hermac hromotosis and sickle cell anaemia.

Genes control health and our ability to function. y A mutation is a sudden change in a gene or chromosome that results in a change in phenotype y y Mutation is rare occurs approximately 1 in 106 times

Mutation is usually detrimental; not surprising since it results from damage or miscopying

Some mutations help

to increase the survival chances of an individual

e.g. antibiotic restraint bacteria and black moths in individual areas Mutagens: A factor which increases the chance of a mutagen occurring is called a mutagen. e.g. high doses of x-rays, UV radiation, radioactivity (from nuclear reactors and atomic weapons), some chemicals (medicines, dyes, artificial sweeteners, preservatives or pesticides), high temperatures

Chromosomes and Genes

The DNA molecule is one of a number of molecules located in the chromosomes of the nucleus. The sequence of nitrogen bases in the DNA is a code that the cell uses to construct protein molecules required for life functions. Protein molecules are very large molecules (polymers) that are constructed from smaller molecules called amino acids. The amino acids link to form long chains of protein. Chromosomes are threads of thread-like structures found in a number of cells. They are made of a chemical code called DNA. The individual parts of the code are called genes. Genes, often in combination with environmental influences,

determine your characteristics; your hair colour, height, eye colour and many other features.

Genes
Genes are codes that contain information about inheritance. y y y Genes are segments of the DNA molecule containing many triplet codes. Each gene is responsible for the production of a certain protein. Gene segments of the DNA strands are separated from one another by other non-coding segments. y y Genes do not function at all times. They can be turned on or off . Each gene may have two alternative forms. These alternative forms are called alleles. These alleles can be represented by code letters. y Some alleles are dominant. They are shown by a capital letter. Only one copy of a dominant gene is needed for an organism to show this characteristic or trait. y Some alleles are recessive. They are shown by lower-case letters. Two copies of a recessive gene are needed for an organism to show this trait.

Features of an organism
The features or characteristics of an organism are determined by the: y y Genes they inherit; Interaction between the environment and the genes

Definitions: y y Genotype: the total set of genes of an organism Phenotype: the character or observable trait of an organism. The overall appearance of an organism y Karyotype: the number, size and shape of the chromosomes in an individual cell. It is possible to isolate some cells from a foetus and

photograph the chromosomes in the cell. This can give information about the developing foetus.

Inherited Genes
As a result of sexual reproduction, each child inherits 23 chromosomes from their father and 23 chromosomes from their mother. These 23 pairs of chromosomes contain many pairs of genes for each characteristic. The features of the child will dependent on the time of alleles inherited.

Environmental Effects
The inheritance of particular gene combinations can lead to features that are more suitable in certain environments. The following environmental factors influence the characteristics of a population. y Availability of food and water poor diet and nutritional disease will

affected the survival of weaker members of a population y Infectious disease individuals with high natural immunity have a greater

chance of survival when infectious diseases appear y Latitude and sunlight individuals with darker skins can survive in

equatorial latitudes where there is strong solar radiation. e.g. 1) Light brown and dark coloured moths: Light brown moths have a mottled body that helps to camouflage them in their natural woodland environment. Dark coloured moths have a gene mutation that leads to dark coloured bodies. They are easily seen by birds in the woodlands and are therefore more likely to be eaten. Consequently, a woodland population of moths usually has more mottled light brown moths than dark moths. The features of the population of moths have been affected by the environment. e.g. 2) Salt tolerant plants: Some plant species are able to colonise coastal dunes because they have inherited genes to deal with high salinity environments. Seeds from non-salt-tolerant plants will quickly die after germination in such environments. In some parts of Australia increases in soil salinity (due to poor

farming practices) have led to a change in the characteristics of native vegetation. The proportion of salt-tolerant plants increases at the expense of non-salt-tolerant plants.

The Theory of Evolution and Natural Selection

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was the scientist who explained how living things had evolved (changed) over the millions of years of Earth s history. He developed a theory known as the theory of natural selection that provided an explanation for the evolution of species. Darwin s theory of Evolution is based on natural selection, a process in which the environment selects favourable variations and eliminates harmful ones. After many generations of selection, the characteristics of a population change and the population becomes adapted to the environment. Darwin accepted that all living things were descended from common ancestors but adaptations had occurred over millions of years. Evolution means change. The characteristics of living things may change over time. Such changes result from the environmental choice (a natural selection) of certain characteristics. The selection can occur because there is variation between members of the same species. Those most suited to the environment have the best chance of surviving and passing these favourable characteristics to their offspring. Individuals do not evolve; species (or populations) may evolve. Characteristics acquired during an organism s lifetime cannot be inherited. Different species have evolved over time in different environments. The theory of evolution states that all living things as we know them today are modified descendants of one or a few simple living things. Life began in the oceans 3000 million years ago. Organisms evolved from original life through progressive changes.

Development of Darwin s Theory of Evolution By the beginning of the 19th Century, a great deal of evidence was available to the scientific community that supported evolution what was rising was a

plausible mechanism to explain how evolution was occurring. Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently arrived at a mechanism of natural selection to explain evolution. Darwin gathered evidence after sailing on the Beagle to South America and the Galapagos Islands. By the 1840s he had arrived and documented the main points of his theory. Wallace was a naturalist working in Indonesia in the 1850s; the work of many earlier scientists contributed to Darwin s understanding. These included: y Thomas Malthus who observed that in nature, plants and animals

produce far more offspring than can possibly survive y Linnaeus who developed a system of naming based on similarities

between organisms y Jean Baptiste Lannarick who proposed a theory of evolution based on use

and disuse of a body part.

Evidence for Evolution

If scientists are going to accept any theory they must have evidence to support it. There is considerable evidence that present-day organisms have developed from different organisms in the distant past. The evidence supports the idea that: a) Life has changed over thousands of millions of years b) Living things ha a common ancestry 1. Earth is extremely old The primitive Earth formed about 4600 million years ago as matter condensed from the spinning disk of a newly formed planetary nebula. The hot Earth then cooled and the landmasses, oceans and atmosphere formed.

Using the technique of radiometric dating, scientists have determined the absolute age of various rocks and minerals. This technique is based on measuring the relative quantities of radioactive elements and their decay products. With this information and knowledge of the half-lives of radioisotopes such as uranium-238, rubidium-87 and potassium-40, scientists can measure the age of the rock sample. The Geological Time Scale is a calendar which shows the major events in the history of plants and animals on Earth. The time scale is divided into 4 eras. Each era is divided into a number of periods. The Earth is thought to be more than 4500 million years old. 2. Sedimentary strata and the law of superposition Comparison of rock sequences and sedimentary strata around the world led to the idea that the surface rock layers were younger than the deeper layers. William Smith expressed this observation in the Law of Superposition: In a sequence of sedimentary strata, the layers are increasingly older with increasing depth from the surface. This states that in a layered section of strata, such as a series of sedimentary beds or lava flows, the oldest rocks are on the bottom and the youngest on the top. 3. The fossil record over geological time Fossils are the remains or record of ancient life. The geologist Adam Sedgwick was one of the first scientists to establish the great age of Cambrian fossils in Wales and Scotland. Sedgwick s work led to the idea that many fossils represented species that had become extinct in an ancient period of Earth s history. As more fossils were collected and analysed from various strata, it soon became apparent that the fossils in deeper sedimentary strata were less complex in body structure than fossils in higher strata. Radiometric measurements showed that these lower layers and fossils were much older than fossils in strata closer to the surface. Thus the fossils of the most primitive fish are found in much deeper (and

older) layers than the earliest mammal fossils. The oldest fossil layers contain impressions or traces of simple single-called organisms. Some fossils have been dated at 3,500 million years old. Palaeontologists are scientists who collect fossils and study them. The fossil record provides incomplete information about the history of life. Over 99% of all species that lived on Earth have become extinct, which means that the species has died out. A fossil is the remains or traces of an organism preserved in rock. When rocks are dated, the age of the organisms in them can be worked out. The fossil record provides direct evidence for life in the past. Comparison of living forms with the fossil record shows a history of life on Earth. In this history, some organisms have remained virtually the same, some have changed greatly, and some organisms have become extinct. Earliest fossil evidence comes from Precambrian times approximately 3000 million years ago. Earliest fossils are a type of blue-green algae, moulds and bacteria. The order of appearance of invertebrate organisms as suggested by the fossil record is sponges, coelenterates, molluscs, arthropods and echinoderms. Fossil evidence also shows that the first vertebrates to evolve were jawless fishes (approximately 450-500 million years ago). Then came the cartilaginous fishes (sharks), bony fishes, amphibians and reptiles. Birds and mammals are thought to have evolved from reptiles at the same time. Fossil evidence suggests that living things have not always been the same in the past. The fossil record provides evidence for the theory that species of organisms have changed progressively over time. Transitional fossil forms are those that have features that make them an intermediate form between major groups of organisms. Transitional fossils provide further support for progressive evolutionary change. Amphibian-like fish such as the Queensland lungfish are possible descendents of a link between fish and amphibians. Archaeopteryx is a bird-like reptile.

The fossil evidence therefore supports the view that the earliest life forms were very simple and that they changed into more complex organisms over geological time.

Fossils reveal that the appearance of new life forms did not occur at an even rate over geological time.

The fossil record has shown that more than one new species sometimes developed from a pre-existing species.

The fossil record is incomplete since not all organisms become fossilised after death

Features of a Fossil y y y Mould: the outline or shape of an organism Cast: the replica of an organism made of a different substance Hard structural parts: many organisms with soft body parts do not form fossils, so the fossil record is incomplete y Most fossils form in aquatic environments, as organisms after death has to be quickly covered by sediments (sedimentary rock) y No oxygen needs to be present as the body needs to be present for a long period of time How Fossils are Formed 1. Water carries small rock particles to lakes and seas 2. Dead organisms are buried by layers of sediment which forms new rock (sediments need to fall quickly to prevent decomposition due to exposure to oxygen) 3. The preserved remains may be later discovered and studied 4. The fossil record provides evidence about the history of life on Earth. Most fossils are formed in sedimentary rock. Dating Fossils 1. Relative dating: In relative dating, the age of a fossil is determined by its placement with that of fossils in other layers of rock. Rock layers form in

order of age; the oldest on the bottom, with more recent layers on top. Relative dating allows palaeontologists to estimate a fossil s age compared with that of other fossils. 2. Radioactive dating: Some elements are radioactive and steadily break down into non-radioactive elements. Radioactive dating is the use of halflife to determine the age of a sample. A half-life is the length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay. Direct Evidence: Visible evidence that organisms have changed over time (e.g. fossils). 4. Evidence from horse fossils Most fossils are similar to present day organisms e.g. a number of fossils similar to the modern horse have been found. The similarity in skeletons of both modern and extinct horses can be best explained in terms of common ancestry and evolutionary change. The evolution of the modern horse has been firmly established from fossils dating back to 60 million years ago. The ancient ancestor of the horse had four toes and was as small as a dog. The sequence of fossil forms thus shows that the modern horse developed from a different organism in the distant past. Fossil evidence describing the development of the horse supports evolution because it shows that organisms change over a long time. E.g. The horse was a short necked creature, not much larger than a domestic cat. It was a forest dweller, many toes, adapted to travelling on the soft, moist earth of tropical North America. As the climate grew colder and the forest thinned, into open grassy plains, the horse slowly developed hard single toes for travelling on dry land, and complicated grinding teeth for feeding on the scanty herbage. 5. Evidence from comparative anatomy

Georges Cuvier compared the anatomy of fossils and related living organisms. He showed that these fossils were different from those of living species. Since then, comparative anatomy has shown that the bones at the ends of the forelimbs of many different vertebrates (including humans) are based on a common pattern or structure. The comparative anatomy data was used as evidence of evolution from a common ancestor in the distant past. Similarities suggest that the vertebrates are related in some way have a

common ancestor. Each original structure has been modified during evolution to perform its present function. 6. Evidence from comparative embryology Vertebrate embryos in their early developmental stages form the fertilised egg show great similarity in structure. This suggests that the genes controlling this early development have been inherited from a common ancestor in the distant past. All the young vertebrate embryos show gill slits, even though fish are the only vertebrates to use gills in adult life. The comparative embryology data are used as evidence of evolution because they show that ancient characteristics have been passed on as organisms evolved. Embryos of different vertebrates are very similar in the early stages of development. This suggests that these organisms may have had a common ancestor in the distant past. 7. Evidence from geographic distribution of living things (Biogeography) The theory of plate tectonics explains that the continents of Earth are in constant motion. In the distant past the continents were joined and animals and plants were not geographically isolated as they are today. They were able to disperse across vast areas of land. As the giant continent split up and the smaller landmasses moved to different latitudes, animals and plants became

geographically isolated. Under these new environmental conditions, the animals and plants evolved to produce new species which were quite different to the common ancestral species, since the environments were so different. The east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa were formerly joined in a large continental mass called Gondwanaland. Australia, India and Antarctica were also part of this landmass. It began to break apart 100 million years ago. Comparisons of various ferns and reptile fossils from along the margins of these separated continents show that many modern species shared a common ancestor. Biogeography refers to the distribution of present day organisms. (i) Darwin s Features: Different types of finch from different islands of the Galapagos Islands were closely related species. Although they lived in close but isolated regions, they show variations (subtle) in anatomy and behaviour. (ii) Living things on isolated islands are often unique to those islands, even though climate may be similar to other parts of the world. E.g. Marsupials (mammals e.g. kangaroo, koalas and opossums) are found only in Australia and South America, although the earliest ancestors of modern marsupials are actually found in North America. Placental mammals (other than those introduced by humans occur everywhere but in Australia). 8. Catastrophes and extinction events The fossil record shows many examples of sudden mass extinctions. These mass extinctions seem to be related to worldwide catastrophes. The extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Mesozoic Era is a well-known example of a catastrophic event. Over 99.9% of all species that have existed on Earth are now extinct. Scientists have collected evidence of catastrophic events that may be

related to extreme climate change, sea level changes and collisions of comets/meteorites with Earth. The fossil record shows that following each mass extinction many new species appear. 9. Evidence from biochemistry and DNA analysis Chimpanzees and humans share identical amino acid sequences in several enzymes (proteins) found in their respiratory systems. This shows that the DNA base sequence code for these proteins is the same in both species. Overall, humans and chimpanzees have 98.4% of DNA in common. This and other DNA evidence suggest that humans and chimpanzees shared a common ancestor about 4-5 million years ago. This common ancestor was quite different from both modern humans and chimpanzees. Biologists have established evolutionary trees of organisms based on DNA sequences. These evolutionary sequences show the importance of DNA

mutations in the process of evolutionary change. The great similarities of some enzymes and DNA of chimpanzees and humans support evolution, as they point to a recent common ancestor that gave rise to humans and chimpanzees. (i) Body Chemistry: Certain proteins are commonly found in a large number of organisms, however, the proteins differ in minor respects. Large differences in the amino acids (building blocks of proteins) correspond to large differences in appearance, while small differences are found in animals which are and look similar. Hence, studies of these proteins can be used to predict evolutionary relationship. (ii) DNA similarities: There is a similarity between strands of the DNA of closely related species e.g. humans and chimpanzees. These strands can match, bond and rewind to form a hybrid DNA molecule. DNA hybridisation will only occur between 2 genetically similar species. DNA

similarity reflects the genetic relatedness of species. As predicted by evolutionary theory, the more remote the last common ancestor of the two organisms, the more dissimilar their DNA (make-up genetically).

Natural Selection
In the 1830s Charles Darwin went on a 5 year voyage around the world on a naval ship. He visited South America, the Galapagos Islands, Australia and South Africa. During the voyage he collected specimens of animals and plants and studied the geology of the places he visited. He made numerous observations of animal anatomy and behaviour and he also collected many fossils. He became convinced that organisms had gradually changed over the long period of Earth s history. Over the next 20 years he used these studies and other collected information to develop a theory to explain the process of evolutionary change. This theory is called the theory of natural selection.

The Theory of Natural Selection

The main points of Darwin s theories are: 1. There is a natural variation in characteristics within the population of any species. For example, humans have different hair colour, eye colour, height and many other characteristics. In kookaburras there is a natural variation in beak length, flight muscle strength and claw length. 2. In nature, organisms struggle to survive. An herbivore such as an antelope must eat sufficient grass each day to remain healthy. It must be fast enough to escape from hunting lions. Slow runners may be more readily captured. In times of drought the weaker individuals may die from starvation. This struggle for survival also keeps the population numbers in check. A rapid population rise leads to less grass for each individual. The rise population also leads to more food for carnivores and they then begin to bring the population of antelopes under control. Disease also keeps a population in check.

3. Organisms with favourable characteristics in a given environment will survive to reproduce. An organism that fails to reproduce is said to be reproductively unfit . The organisms with the favourable characteristics have a better chance in competing for available food and water. Reproductive fitness does not necessarily correlate with physical fitness. 4. The population of future generations of a species will therefore contain a greater proportion of individuals who have inherited the favourable

characteristics. 5. Gradually the preservation of favourable characteristics leads to a change in the characteristics of the natural population. As long as the environment does not change, the species becomes better adapted to its environment. The environment has effectively selected certain characteristics for survival. This is also called survival of the fittest. In summary, his theory of Natural Selection is based on the following 5 points: y y Within a species there is great variation. Sexually reproducing organisms have the potential to produce an enormous number of offspring. y There is a struggle for existence: disease, predators, amount of food and shelter, wars; which limited the number of survivors. y Survival of the fittest: those which have characteristics which have the ability to make them survive in the environment. y Inheritance of favourable characteristics: the fit individuals reproduce, producing and passing on their genetic make-up to the next generation.

Lamarck s Theory of Evolution

Lamarck believed that living things evolved in a continuously upward direction, from dead matter, through simple to more complex forms, towards human perfection . Species didn t die out in extinction, they changed into other species. Law of Use and Disuse

Organisms altered their behaviour in response to environmental change. Body parts developed or weakened and disappeared. Law of Inheritance and Acquired Characteristics Offspring inherited improved body structures from parents e.g. giraffes

developed long necks by generations of browsing on high trees. The exercise of stretching up altered the necks. According to Darwin, giraffes that happened to have longer necks would have a better chance of securing food and thus be able to have more offspring. Lamarck s death occurred in 1829 in poverty and obscurity shunned by the scientific community. Comparison of Lamarck and Darwin s Theories Lamarck Basis of changes Darwin

in Habit modifies from use Natural selection based and disuse of Acquired to on favourable variations within a population characteristics Parents characteristics and reproduce with which passed

organisms Transmission characteristics offspring

inherited by young

allowed them to survive these to offspring

Change in complexity

Increasing

complexity More complex organisms had evolved in response to changing conditions Species who did not have characteristics that didn t allow them to survive became extinct

with time on Earth No extinction

Extinction

Modern Views on Evolution

Scientific theories change as new evidence becomes available. This has happened to Darwin s theory of natural selection. Since Darwin s time,

considerable genetic evidence has been collected; this helps to explain how gene mutations can lead to evolutionary change. Gene mutations that occur to the DNA in sex cells can be passed on to the offspring. Some of these gene mutations result in favourable characteristics, while others are unfavourable. These changes lead to further variation within a species. In some environments these new variations are beneficial and are selected for survival. Over time the population changes so the favourable genes are more common.

Models, Laws and Theories

Models: Scientists use models to help understand things that are too big or small; too hard to access; or too complicated to be seen. A model helps to visualise something more easily e.g. model of the water cycle, particles in matter, and human body organs. However, models are often static and are not made of materials similar to the original object. Furthermore, in body systems, models do not interact with other body parts and do not show processes occurring within the system, such as digestion or excretion. Laws: A scientific law is a rule or set of rules which generalise the behaviour of some phenomenon in nature. A law once tested by experiments, can be used to predict outcomes. Laws show relationships e.g. Ohm s Law shows the

relationship between current, voltage and resistance. Theories: A theory is an explanation of a set of related observations or events that is substantiated by a considerable body of evidence. A theory explains how nature works. One scientist cannot create a theory; it must be verified multiple times by detached groups of researchers. The biggest difference between a law and a theory is that a theory is much more complex and dynamic sometimes

features of a theory are improved or changed as more evidence becomes available. A law governs a single action, whereas a theory explains a whole series of related phenomenon.