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cn
e x e x cos ey ey e z e z cos e x sin e z sin (27)

Numerical Modeling of a Newtonian and a Bingham Fluid in a Rayleigh Step Bearing

Yiping Hong
e-mail: Hongyp@post.pim.tsinghua.edu.cn

Transformed Reynolds Equation General Form in Spherical Coordinates. Substituting cos sin x and z, into Eq. 25 above, rearranging and combining the derivatives, the transformed Reynolds equation in the general, two dimensional form, for an incompressible uid, with upper and lower sliding surfaces, in spherical coordinates becomes: 1 sin 6R 2 cos h 3 sin cos p 1 sin2 h h h3 sin 2 h t (28) p

Darong Chen Jiadao Wang Xiaodi Li

State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Precision Instruments and Mechanology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China

sin

cos cos sin

where, the pressure terms on the left hand side are equal to the sum of the wedge and squeeze lm terms on the right. Transformed Film Thickness Equation In Spherical Coordinates. Goenka and Booker 3 provide a lm thickness expression for spherical bearings as, h c e x cos sin e y sin sin e z cos (29)

1 Introduction
The Reynolds lubrication equation is derived from fundamental equations governing uid ows 1 . There are several assumptions in Reynolds lubrication theory, one of which is on characteristic length ratio. Let the length scale in the plane of the lm be denoted by L xz and let L y be the length scale across the lm Fig. 1 a . We have L y /L xz O(10 2 ) for common bearing geometries. The characteristic length relationship in the inlet and outlet regions of a Rayleigh step bearing Fig. 1 b is L y L xz . However, this relationship changes in the vicinity of the step as L y H 1 H 2 and L xz 0. As a result, when h/2 x , the behavior of Eq. 1 becomes paradoxical. h3 p x 12 x h3 p z 12 z u h 2 x (1)

Substituting Eqs. 27 into Eq. 29 produces the spherical, dimensional form of the lm thickness h which includes the inclination angle of the shell, as h c e x cos e z cos sin cos sin sin cos sin cos cos e y sin sin (30)

where, c, is the clearance between the shell and the bearing, and e x , e y , and e z are the eccentricities of the center of the bearing relative to the center of the shell with respect to the primed or ground-based coordinate system. Equation 30 differs from a shell-oriented representation of lm thickness by Goenka and Booker 3 , by the cos and sin terms. When 0, which is the representation of the shell in a horizontal position or no inclination, the shell-oriented equation is produced.

Conclusions
Transformed general forms of the Reynolds and lm thickness equations are derived from continuity and the Navier-Stokes equations, for spherical bearing applications. The new versions of the equations take into account the rotation angle of the hemispherical shell. The transformed Reynolds equation can be solved for the pressure distribution of the uid in a spherical bearing in which the shell may be rotated at any angle . The lm thickness equation provides the lm thickness as a function of the eccentricities and the inclination angle .

This paper presents an investigation of the ow of a Newtonian uid in a Rayleigh step bearing using the Navier-Stokes equations. Calculation results show some important phenomena neglected by the Reynolds equation. These phenomena are important in designing a bearing, especially in the study of wear characteristics. The transport properties of a Bingham uid in a Rayleigh step bearing are also investigated in this paper. As many papers suggest that electro-rheological uids, which are helpful for bearings controls in mechanical engineering 2,3 , can be considered as a continuum with Bingham plastic constitutive properties 4,5 . Over the last 1520 years, a great multitude of studies have been dedicated to Bingham uids 4 6 . However, for this purpose the thin layer lubrication theory with two-viscosity model is used in the general case 7 . This paper presents results on a Bingham uid with more fundamental equations, in which the effects of boundary curvature a 90 deg step in the context on the pressure change are described. The performance of viscoelastic model with regard to different characteristic length aspect ratios and different yield stresses are investigated. Detailed information near the step can be obtained for better control of these bearings.

References
1 Reynolds, O., 1886, On the Theory of Lubrication and Its Application to Mr. Beauchamp Towers Experiments, Including an Experimental Determination of the Viscosity of Olive Oil, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, 177, pp. 157 234. 2 Bird, R. B., Stewart, W. E., and Lightfoot, E. N., 2002, Transport Phenomena, 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York. 3 Goenka, P. K., and Booker, J. F., 1980, Spherical Bearings: Static and Dynamic Analysis Via the Finite Element Method, ASME J. Lubr. Technol., 102, pp. 308 319.

Model

2.1 Governing Equations. The steady ow of an incompressible uid is governed by the conservation equations of mass and momentum or Navier-Stokes equations 8 .
Contributed by the Tribology Division for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF TRIBOLOGY. Manuscript received by the Tribology Division January 3, 2002 revised manuscript received June 14, 2002. Associate Editor: M. M. Khonsari.

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Fig. 1

a System of co-ordinates; and b Computational grid.

v 0 vv p

(2) (3)

when 1, we obtain a Newtonian model and as 0 we recover the Bingham model. Some papers adopt the following expression instead of Eq. 4 :
1

Here is the uid density, v is the velocity vector, p is pressure and is the deviatoric stress tensor. The constitutive relation of two-viscosity model 7 is
1d 2d

:
0

2
1/2

2 1

:
0

2 1

(4a) : 2
2 1

1/2d:d

2 1

1/2d:d

1/2 d

(4b)

Here d is the rate of stain tensor. The unyielded material, described by Eq. 4a , is treated as a Newtonian liquid of viscosity 1 . Eq. 4b is the expression for a Bingham-type uid above the yield point. There are two distinguished stresses, 1 and 0 , and a dimensionless parameter ); 2 / 1 . We have 0 1 (1

2.2 Numerical Methods. A nite volume method developed for environmental hydraulics calculations 9 was modied to solve lubrication problems. Variables were set on staggered grids. SIMPLEC 10 procedure an improved semi-implicit method for pressure linked equations was adopted. The governing Eq. 2 and Eq. 3 were written in terms of the following general transport equation of primitive variable shown in Eq. 5a . Convective terms were discretized by the power-law scheme 11 . Algebraic expression after discretization on each control volume is given by Eq. 5b . AP
P

Table 1

and S in Cartesian coordinates

v A nb
nb

S S x y

(5a) (5b)

nb

The denitions of , , and S for all the governing equations are given in Table 1. A P A nb D nb max(0,(1 nb A nb , 0.1 F nb /D nb ) 0.5) max( Fnb,0). Here D nb and F nb are diffusion and ux parameter respectively on grid faces; x and y are distance between central nodes and neighbor nodes.

Fig. 2

a Pressure distribution on IJK kPa; and b pressure distribution on QR S T kPa.

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Fig. 3

a Shear stress

u y distribution Pa; and b shear stress

v x distribution Pa.

Algebraic equations are solved by ADI algorithm alternatingdirection implicit iteration 12 . The program checks for degree of freedom velocities and pressure convergence after every global iteration. Convergence criterion for cases in this context is: N k k 1 / iN 1 k 10 7 , where k is the variable value i 1 i i i i at node i of the current k th iteration. The summation is performed over all nodes N , using the absolute values of the differences.

Calculation and Discussion on a Newtonian Fluid

A Rayleigh bearing of innite width in the direction Oz is shown in Fig. 1 b . The geometry and operation conditions are characterized by H 1 , B 0 , s B 1 /B 0 , a H 1 /H 2 and the translation velocity (u 0 ) of the lower plate. From the analytic solution of Reynolds lubrication theory, the optimum values of s and a corresponding to maximum load for a Newtonian uid are: s 0.718 and a 1.866. The load on unit width is: 0.5B 0 p m , where p m is the maximum pressure. The pressure difference along direction Oy is omitted. The relationship between p m and bearing parameters is 13 : pm 6 u 0B 0s 1 s a 1 a 2 H2 s 1 1 s a3 (6)

5.4 percent from point R to S along the y direction. This difference disappears in the inlet and outlet regions. It should be mentioned that, when the ow is still in a laminar condition, the pressure change from point R to S is approximately 5.7 percent for u 0 10 m/s. The results of shear stresses from Eq. 2 and 3 are shown in Fig. 3 a and Fig. 3 b . In Fig. 3 a , yx u/ y on RR is almost zero while that on SS is very high. The shear stress yx from Navier-Stokes equation is approximately 29 percent greater than that from Reynolds theory at step tip S . In Fig. 3 b , xy / x on RS is too strong to be omitted. There is a stress peak on RS, followed by a rapid and sharp drop, which is helpful to supply more accurate boundary condition for a better solid analysis of the step tip. These jumping phenomena are not predicted if the Reynolds lubrication equation is used.

Calculation and Discussion on a Bingham Fluid

The values of the bearing parameters for the case of the Newtonian lubricant are: H 1 2.5 10 4 m, B 0 50 H 1 , u 0 1 m/s, s 0.718, 1 2 0.188P a s, 0 0, and a 1.866. The maximum pressure p m 54.0 KPa can be obtained with the analytic expression of Eq. 6 . With Eqs. 2 and 3 used to model this Rayleigh bearing, pressure curves on up and lower plates are plotted in Fig. 2 a and Fig. 2 b respectively. Fig. 2b shows that pressure changes about

Results from the above calculation case show that with more fundamental equations, more exact phenomena can be obtained. But it is just a case of a Newtonian uid. Calculations on a Bingham lubricant are as follows. The Rayleigh step parameters are: H 1 2.5 10 4 m, B 0 50 H 1 , u 0 1 m/s, s 0.718. As pressure control of Electro-rheological lubricants is quite important, emphases are put on pressure results. 4.1 Different Aspect Ratios. The parameters for a Bingham 5 lubricant are: and 2 0.188P a s, 1 10 2 2, 0 148.7 Pa. Pressure contours around the steps with different aspect ratios (a 1.866 and a 1.866 5) are plotted in Fig. 4. The maximum pressures for a Newtonian uid, p m 54.0 KPa and p m 144.2 KPa, can be obtained for these aspect ratios with Eq.

Fig. 4

a Pressure contours Pa of a 1.866; and b pressure contours Pa of a 1.8665.

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Fig. 5 Pressure contours Pa at the step of a Rayleigh bearing with H 2 \0

6 . As the yield stress is not great here, maximum pressures for this Bingham lubricant are M X 57.06 KPa and M X 165.08 KPa in Fig. 4 a and Fig. 4 b . The lm pressure near the step increases evidently as the value of a H 1 /H 2 increases. To further test the validity of the computation program, the case of a 1.866 5 was also calculated with commercial ANSYS software installed at Virtual Manufacturing Workstation of Tsinghua University. The maximum pressure from ANSYS software is 165824 Pa. The difference between our model and the nite element software is less than 0.46 percent for this case. ANSYS FEM software is powerful in solving different engineering problems, while our computer program can conveniently run on a personal computer as less memory is required. Electro-rheological uids are often used under strong electric eld and thus take on high yield stress. Pressure properties on yield stresses are to be discussed below. 4.2 Different Yield Stresses. When H 2 in Fig. 1 b tends to zero, the hydrodynamic pressures generated using an electrorheological uid in a Rayleigh step bearing at the limiting condition of zero ow rate were studied by Leek 5 . To analyze pressure characteristics, the dimensionless pressure gradient P g is dened by P g dp/dxH 2 / 2 u 0 . For a Bingham plastic uid it is 1 convenient to employ the Bingham number, B n , dened by B n 0 H 1 / 2 u 0 . At the limiting condition of zero net ow rate, the approximate expression between P g and B n from Leek is P g 6 2.69B n 0.0253B 2 n (7) This relation for an incompressible Bingham uid is used under the following assumptions: i the ow is fully developed, one-

dimensional, laminar and isothermal; ii curvature effects are negligible. Equation 7 was obtained from the developed thin layer lubrication theory of two-viscosity model. With Eq. 7 , it is easy to get the expression for a Newtonian uid in the zero ow rate case, P g dp/dxH 2 / 2 u 0 6. 1 Equations 2 and 3 are used to take curvature effects into account. For Bingham lubricants in a Rayleigh bearing of zero net ow rate ( 1 2 , 2 0.188P a s and a ), three yield stresses 148.7 Pa, 0 446.1 Pa, and 0 1487 Pa are considered. 0 Pressure distributions of numerical results near the step are shown in Fig. 5. For these three yield stresses, pressure values at corner R Fig. 1 b calculated by approximate expression 7 are 176.3, 204.8, and 302.9 KPa respectively. While pressure values of contour B at the same corner are 166.0, 226.1, and 482.7 KPa respectively in Fig. 5. The larger Bingham number the higher yield stress here leads to greater difference between numerical results and Eq. 7 . For the case of 0 1487 Pa, the difference is 179.8 KPa, which is about 50 percent of the result obtained from the developed thin layer lubrication theory. In the inlet region, at least 1.5H 1 distant from the step, the velocity prole of a Newtonian uid is in a parabolic form along the lubrication lm. For a Bingham plastic ow, a plug of unyielded uid occurs where : 2 2 . Velocity proles for zero 0 ow rate of different 0 are shown in Fig. 6 a . The larger Bingham number the higher yield stress here leads to greater velocity gradient or shear stress along the translating plate. For both Newtonian and Bingham lubricants, velocity vector near the step is apparently two-dimensional, shown in Fig. 6 b . Velocity along

Fig. 6

a Velocity prole ms; and b velocity vector near the step.

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lm thickness direction Oy is quite large in this recirculation zone. Jumping phenomena in Fig. 3 is apprehensible by analyzing velocity vectors in Fig. 6 b .

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tion to Water Pollution Control in Three Gorges Reservior, Ph.D. thesis, Tsinghua University, Beijing. Doormaal, J. P., Raithby, G. D., 1984, Enhancements of the Simple Method for Predicting Incompressible Fluid Flows, Numer. Heat Transfer, 7, pp. 147163. Braun, M. J., Shou, Y. M., and Choy, F. K., 1994, Transient Flow Patterns and Pressures Characteristics in a Hydrostatic Pocket, ASME J. Tribol., 116 1 , pp. 139146. Tao, W. O., Numerical Heat Transfer, Xi An Jiao Tong University Press, China, p. 145. Cameron, A., 1981, Basic Lubrication Theory, 3rd ed., Ellis Horwood Ltd., England, p. 77.

10

Conclusion

11

The numerical solutions of the conservation equations of mass and momentum show some special jumping phenomena around a Rayleigh step. Compared with the results of commonly used Reynolds lubrication equation, the increment of shear stress is up to 29 percent for a Newtonian uid, which may aggravate the wear process of the step tip. Much attention should be paid to this increment when designing a Rayleigh bearing. Pressure differences between the results of Navier-stokes equations of two-viscosity model and those of developed thin layer lubrication theory are investigated. These differences are great for Bingham ows with large aspect ratios and high yield stresses. For the case of 0 1487 Pa in a Rayleigh bearing of zero ow rate, 50 percent of the pressure value might be omitted if boundary curvature is not taken into account. Compared with the thin layer lubrication theory, nite volume model in this paper can present more accurate data for electro-rheological uids in a bearing controlling system.

12 13

Quantitative Comparisons Between Measured and Solved EHL Dimples in Point Contacts
P. Yang
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Qingdao Institute of Architecture and Engineering, Qingdao 266033, China

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the help of Prof. Yang Peiran, Prof. Hu Yuanzhong and Prof. Kong Xianmei. This research is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under the grant number 59875046.

M. Kaneta and S. Masuda

Department of Mechanical and Control Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu 804-8550, Japan

Nomenclature
a B0 B1 Bn d H1 H2 MX Pg pm s
0 1

1 2

u0

aspect ratio of step heights, a H 1 /H 2 total bearing width bearing width of inlet region Bingham number B n 0 H 1 / 2 u 0 rate of stain tensor bearing height of inlet region bearing height of outlet region maximum pressure in numerical results dimensionless pressure gradient dp/dxH 2 / 2 u 0 1 maximum pressure in Reynolds thin layer lubrication theory ratio of step width s B 1 /B 0 deviatoric stress tensor yield stress of a Bingham uid shear stress in 2-viscosity model dimensionless parameter 2/ 1 apparent viscosity newtonian uid viscosity in 2-viscosity model plastic viscosity of a Bingham uid translation velocity of the lower plate

Using a mineral bright stock oil as lubricant, the dimple phenomena in the circular EHL contacts composed of a glass disk and a steel ball were investigated experimentally with the optical interferometry technique. The traction coefcient was also measured. The experimental results were compared quantitatively with the numerical results of the corresponding thermal Newtonian EHL solutions. The comparisons show that the Newtonian thermal EHL theory can explain very well the relationship between the dimple phenomena and the slide-roll ratio, but cannot predict accurately the depth of the dimple and the magnitude of the traction coefcient. It has also been found that the Newtonian ow model overestimates the effect of the temperature-viscosity wedge and consequently, a non-Newtonian ow model may be necessary for a better understanding of the EHL dimple phenomena. DOI: 10.1115/1.1506320

Introduction References
1 Frene, J., 1997, Hydrodynamic Lubrication, Amsterdam: Elsevier, p. 75. 2 Nikolakopoulos, P. G., Papadopoulos, C. A., 1998, Controllable High Speed Journal Bearings, Lubricated With Electro-Rheological Fluids: An Analytical and Experimental Approach, Tribol. Int., 31 5 , pp. 225234. 3 Noresson, V., Ohlson, N. G., 2001, A Critical Study of the Bingham Model in Squeeze-Flow Mode, Mater. Des., 22, pp. 651 658. 4 Park, W. C., Choi, S. B., and Suh, M. S., 1999, Material Characteristics of an ER Fluid and Its Inuence on Damping Forces of an ER Damper, Mater. Des., 20, pp. 325330. 5 Leek, T. H., Lingard, S., Atkin, R. J., and Bullough, W. A., 1993, An Experimental Investigation of the Flow of an Electro-Rheological Fluid in a Rayleigh Step Bearing, J. Phys. D, 26, pp. 15921600. 6 Choi, S. B., Park, D. W., and Cho, M. S., 2001, Position Control of a Parallel Link Manipulator Using Electro-Rheological Valve Actuators, Mechatronics, 11, pp. 157181. 7 Wilson, S. D. R., 1999, A Note on Thin-Layer Theory for Bingham Plastics, J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 85, pp. 2933. 8 Streeter, V. L., Wylie, E. B., Bedford, K. W., 1998, Fluid Mechanics, McGrawHill, p. 238. 9 Hong, Y. P., 2000, Turbulence Model on River Conuence and Its Applica-

In the history of elastohydrodynamic lubrication EHL , it has been common knowledge that the lm shape in a point EHL contact was a at plateau with a horseshoe shaped constriction. However, earlier in the 1970s Chiu and Sibley 1 had discovered that under pure-sliding conditions a dimple occurred in the central part of the contact between a steel ball and a glass disk. Since Chiu and Sibleys dimples were too unbelievable and the later isothermal EHL analyses did not predict any such dimple, this phenomena did not attract much further research interest until it reappeared in the experiments carried out by Kaneta and his coworkers 2,3,4 . It should be noted that Chiu and Sibleys dimples occurred at very low velocities, whereas Kanetas dimples always occurred at high velocities. The dimple experiments have also
Contributed by the Tribology Division for publication in the ASME JOURNAL OF TRIBOLOGY. Manuscript received by the Tribology Division December 27, 2001; revised manuscript received July 10, 2002. Associate Editor: A. A. Lubrecht.

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