AIR POWER

Chapter 3

AIR POWER
Air power has become predominant, both as a deterrent to war, and in the eventuality of war as the devastating force to destroy an enemys potential and totally undermine his will to wage war. Gen Omar Bradley

GENERAL 1. Air power, land power and sea power constitute the three components of combat power. Air power is distinguished by its flexibility, speed, ubiquity, range and shock effect. These characteristics give it a unique ability to concentrate force and manoeuvre rapidly over long distances. Thus it is the only power that can rapidly bring offensive and defensive action in the shortest time. DEFINING AIR POWER 2. It has always been difficult to define the concept of air power. In the early years of military aviation, air arms tended to be seen not as agencies for a distinctive type of military force, but as auxiliaries to the ground and naval forces. Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir John Slessor, argued that, "air power is a compound of air forces and all those things on which air forces directly or indirectly depend. Such as a flourishing aircraft industry and civilian aviation, a good meteorological service, secure fuel supplies and so on. Today most air power thinkers take a middle course and tend to treat air power as a purely military concept. 3. Air power is thus defined as the ability to project military force in the air by or from a platform or missile operating above the surface of the earth. The means of exercising air power are many and include any system which can be used to wage war in the air: for example, manned and unmanned aircraft (fixed and rotary wing), guided missiles, balloons and space vehicles.

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Air Power in World War II COMPONENTS OF AIR POWER 4. The military capability can be described in terms of a conceptual, a moral and a physical component. The concept of air power can be expressed as the aggregate of these three components both in qualitative and quantitative terms, and is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 3.1 below.
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( T h e t h o u g h t p r o c e s ( Ts )h e w ill t o f ig h t ) r in c ip le s o f W a r , A L i re aP d o e w r es rh iD p o, cM t r o i n r a e l , e , A ir S t r a t e g y

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ilit a r y L o g is t ic s , iv il A ir R e s o u r c e s

Figure 3.1: The Concept of Air Power 18

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5. The Conceptual Component. The conceptual component is the thought process and teaching that underpin air power. The conceptual sources of air power are the history of air campaigns and the lessons learned from them, the principles of war, air power doctrine and air strategy. This knowledge acts as a guide in the process of training and educating airmen, officers and current and future commanders at all levels. This doctrine manual is part of that process. 6. The Moral Component. The moral component refer to the ability to get its people to fight. The three elements that merit consideration within the moral component are Leadership, Morale and Core values. a. Leadership. There has never been any doubt about leadership being a war-winning factor. Inspirational leadership is one of the foremost elements in raising and sustaining morale which has often proved to be a decisive element in determining the outcome of military operations even against the most overwhelming odds. Born leaders tend to be few, but a good proportion of the art of leadership can be learned particularly from the example of others. Successful leadership can take many forms and styles both in the air and on the ground but invariably includes professional mastery and moral courage. b. Morale. Morale is a mental state but is very sensitive to material conditions. It is based on a clear understanding of the aim, on training and on discipline and is immediately responsive to effective leadership. c. Core Values. Core values are the permanent foundations on which the identity and purpose of an Armed Force are built, and can be reflected as ethically based principles. They include recognisably military virtues such as physical courage, total commitment, integrity and service before self. Core values capture the very essence of what is important to the service and those who serve within it, thereby engendering justifiable pride. Although important at all times, they are most valuable at times of extreme personal commitment when together with leadership and training, they sustain and inspire personnel in circumstances that might otherwise overwhelm them. 7. The Physical Component. The physical component represents the means to fight and is bounded by the resources available to defence. The successful exploitation of air power depends upon superior and timely intelligence exploitation, a quicker decision/action cycle than that of the opponent and flexible and capable forces that can offer the rapid and precise application of air power across the spectrum of conflict. Combat air power must be supported by robust and sustainable logistics. Holistically, it is the combination of civil, military and industrial resources to acquire combat effective platforms and weapons systems in sufficient numbers which underpins the national means to exploit air power. If the potential of air power is not to be wasted, command and control considerations are extremely important. 19

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8.

Training. Training, being an effective medium in inculcating thought and knowledge is central to all activities. Through this method men are better educated and informed on the way air power can best be exploited. Training as shown in figure 3.1 is a process. THE AIR ENVIRONMENT

9. Air consists of the entire expanse above the earth' s surface. Its lower limit is the earth's surface (land or water), and its upper limit reaches towards infinity. Air provides access to the earths entire surface. Unlike surface environments, air has no natural boundaries. Nations do recognise political boundaries in the atmosphere, but by convention, there are no such boundaries in space. The air is a very different environment in which to fight than either the land or the sea. Hence, air forces have quite different characteristics, strengths and limitations from land and sea forces. Air power differs, as it possesses the ability to exploit this third dimension, above the surface of the earth. 10. Even though this third dimension can be best exploited when considered as an individual whole, it is felt that the nature of air and space still have their differences and must be discussed separately. Although there is no absolute boundary between them, there exist physical differences between the atmosphere and space. While air power is primarily affected by aerodynamics, space power is guided by the principles of orbital mechanics and is not limited by the vertical extent of the atmosphere. Therefore, to conduct military activities in the fourth dimension of space, different platforms and methods have to be employed. Space platforms are not base dependent and do not incorporate the limitation of impermanence, as do air platforms. Furthermore, air power is basically offensive in nature, whereas activities in space have been confined to defensive functions like intelligence gathering, surveillance, reconnaissance, early warning, navigation, communication and meteorological functions. Although some may argue that some of these functions augment offensive actions, none of them bring weapons to bear on the enemy. 11. Furthermore, the military use of space is constrained by international treaties like the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. This treaty has four major provisions: all countries have free access to space with liability for damaged caused; space will be used for peaceful purposes; no weapons of mass destruction will be placed in orbit around the Earth or on the Moon; all space objects must be registered with the United Nations. Notwithstanding this, it is acknowledged that space systems do offer an alternative and important source of enhancing the effectiveness of air power when employed together with air platforms.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR POWER STRENGTHS 12. The distinguishing characteristic of air power is the exploitation of controlled flight by air vehicles above the surface of the Earth. Air power offers a unique ability to exploit the third dimension. As a result, air vehicles are faster and generally have a greater reach than naval ships or land vehicles. Thus, height, speed and reach remain the primary strengths of air power. The military advantages of elevation include enhanced observation and perspective of the battlespace. a. Height. This implies that the aircraft have the ability to operate over a spectrum of height. The ability of aircraft to operate over a spectrum of heights gives them the ability to observe and dominate activities on the surface and below the sea. It allows direct fire to be used against all of the enemy's forces, whether or not they are in the front line, and it permits manoeuvre in three - rather than just two - dimensions, an important factor in survivability. b. Speed. The speed of aircraft allows rapid projection of military power; greater speed allows missions to be accomplished quickly and a larger number of tasks be completed within a given period. Implicit in the characteristics is the notion of going anywhere and covering long distances. c. Reach. Air power possesses unrivalled reach or range, which means that the air power has the ability to project military power over great distances in any direction. Reach is important not only for striking at distant targets and reaching isolated locations, but also for circumventing potential restrictions (example by routing flights around a country which has refused over-flight clearance). d. Flexibility. Flexibility is the most quoted attribute of air power. It is flexible in that the assets can be diverted quickly and effectively from one task to another and from one target to another. It can perform wide variety of actions, produce wide range of effects and be adapted with comparative ease to meet changing circumstances or situations. e. Ubiquity. The term ubiquity refers to the ability to counter or pose simultaneous threats almost anywhere within the air and over the surface. This attribute is also described as mobility and pervasiveness, and implies the same sense of movement, unconstrained by physical barriers. Ubiquity, or pervasiveness allows air power to be employed in almost every facet of warfare, either to enhance land power and/or sea power.

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F/A-18F: Multi Role Combat Aircraft f. Responsiveness. The characteristics of air power make it very responsive to, and capable of, demonstrating a nations political intent. With its versatility, reach, speed and pervasiveness, air power is highly responsive. As air power can be used quickly and at arms length from population centres, it has an impersonal and remote quality that is attractive to political use. Thus, air power can be used for an immediate response or display of force. The mere presence of aircraft in a limited capacity, such as regular surveillance patrols, may be sufficient. Conversely, shock and concentration of firepower delivered by air power convey a very definite message. g. Concentration. Air power derives unique strengths and the main one is the great ability to concentrate rapidly in time and space, which derives from combination of flexibility, reach, responsiveness and swiftness of application. Rapid concentration of different air assets may be possible, but they will not be effective in combat unless they are instantly interoperable. h. Shock. The sudden, destructive effect of the presence of air power has always had a physical and psychological effect. The combination gives rise to the shock effect of air power. The physical effect is the noise of the aircraft, the apparently coming out of nowhere and the concentration of firepower delivered. The psychological effect is the fear of disproportionate vulnerability perceived by surface forces that have been subjected to aerial warfare. Shock therefore, is most effective when combined with the element of surprise. i. Lethality. Any, target that can be located can be struck with a precision guided munitions. The destructive power applied through air dropped or air launched stand off munitions is effective against all but 22

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specially hardened targets constructed deep underground. And even these may be susceptible to sensibly planned strikes against their support systems, such as communications, power, or by using specifically designed penetrating weapons. Currently, there is little on the earths surface, which is not vulnerable in almost any conditions of visibility to air powers lethality. Air power is also lethal in many other respects, namely: the engagement of air targets beyond visual range; the pinpoint location of targets through surveillance/reconnaissance; and, the destruction of subsurface targets. LIMITATIONS 13. Air power has inherent limitations. These are relative rather than absolute and need to be understood in that context. a. Impermanence. In general, only sustained operations supported by a large logistics effort are likely to achieve a substantial degree of permanence. The enemy may bypass the damage altogether, adapt to the change circumstances, or reconstruct, thus making the effects of any damage transitory. Therefore, careful targeting to achieve the effect desired for the length of time required is an important element of air power. Impermanence can also be a consequence of the adverse influence of weather and the constraints of aircraft endurance. b. Limited Payloads. The payloads that can be carried by aircraft are far more limited than those that can be carried by ships or land vehicles. Thus, aircraft are most cost-effective when they are used for tasks that give high-value pay-offs. This applies equally to combat and combat support tasks, such as transportation. While relatively small payloads carried are a disadvantage, they can be compensated for by the high sortie rate conferred by an aircraft's speed and by the lethality and precision of modern air-to-surface munitions. Moreover, a small payload deployed quickly may be of far more value in stabilizing a critical situation than one many times its size that is deployed later. c. Vulnerability. Air power is relatively vulnerable in the air and on the ground. In the air, risks from enemy air weapons and surface based defensive systems are apparent, since they carry little or no armour protection. On the ground, the general concentration of aircraft and associated support facilities at focal points makes air power a high value target for an adversarys air and ground forces. Attrition of air assets, consisting of losses from battle and accidents in operations are inevitable but should be minimized. d. Cost. Air power can deliver enormous firepower and combat support, but it does so at a cost. It is expensive to acquire, operate and maintain. Successful surge capability and replacement of assets require considerable resources and skills as well as increases in absolute cost. 23

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Modern technology is expensive, not only in terms of acquisition cost, but also in terms of costs associated with through-life logistics support and long training times. The costs of air power are not absolute but need to be assessed in terms of relative benefit-cost. e. Base Dependence. The biggest limitation of air power is its dependence on air bases, be they fixed, or mobile as in the case of aircraft carriers. Air power generally operates most effectively from permanent bases. The essence of the air base is that it is an operational entity consisting of supporting systems and personnel. Thus, the prepared base is likely to be the centre of gravity of all air power. Attacking this centre of gravity can be the immediate means of rendering air power ineffective. Without a secure base from which to operate, air power assets may be unable to influence a battle. Making bases secure is difficult, timeconsuming and expensive undertaking. In every case, there is a dependence on the air bases as an integral support system and springboard for the generation of air power. f. Political Restraint. The application of air power tends to attract a high level of political interest because it provides a readily available and responsive instrument of political will. The result has been the occasional direct control of this `convenient display of military power by political leaders. In such circumstances, the military effectiveness of an operation can be diminished by political interference. It is the commanders job to advise accordingly, and then proceed as directed by the government.

APPLICATION OF AIR POWER 14. The distinct and specific characteristics of air power lead in turn to distinct and specific applications. Growing effectiveness has tended progressively to widen air power applications, and air power today can offer decision makers a wide range of options to prosecute defence and security policies (figure 3.2). Such options begin long before the shooting starts and make air power an important instrument for preserving peace and managing crises, as it is for waging war. 15. Preserving Peace. Air power can be used to help preserve and strengthen international security, by promoting good international relations and providing reassurance to nations that they are not under threat of attack: a. Promoting International Relations. When disaster strikes in whatever form, speed of response is vital, and the speed of air power helps it to play a key part in alleviating suffering. Military transport aircraft are uniquely capable of delivering rapid relief during the critical early stages of natural disasters. The potential security benefits of such 24

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high-visibility operations are obvious: they generate a spirit of goodwill, help to remove suspicion, alleviate grievances and thus promote stability and security. b. Providing Reassurance. Air power can also be used to help avert threats to peace, both real and imagined. By exploiting the third dimension for surveillance purposes, it can provide assurance that a potential antagonist is not about to attack. It can, in addition, be used to verify arms control agreements and play an important part in furthering confidence and security building measures. While satellite surveillance systems offer expanding contributions, the capabilities, flexibility and unpredictability of airborne systems continue to make a unique contribution in this field. 16. Managing International Crises. Air power can play a major part in managing crises. In times of increasing international tension, air power is an ideal instrument for international crisis management, most of which involve no recourse to violence. a. Warning. Air power can be used to give prior and timely warning of an intended aggression and thus allow appropriate preventive actions to be taken. The detection of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba in 1962 by American U-2 aircraft allowed the United States to impose a naval 'quarantine' of the island, a measure that led to the removal of this potential threat. Since then capabilities have grown markedly and despite the advent of reconnaissance satellites, airborne systems continue to provide unique surveillance capabilities. Advanced airborne surveillance systems can provide enormous quantities of detailed data on the actions of potential aggressors. b. Signalling. Air power can also be used to send clear political signals. These can help to remove uncertainty over intentions and thus reduce what is arguably the greatest danger in any crisis: miscalculation. Air power can do this by an overt increase in readiness states, intensified peacetime training exercises or presence flights. c. Supporting Friends. Air power can provide timely moral and physical support for allies and friends, thus strengthening their resolve in times of tension. The Berlin Airlift of 1948 demonstrated the capability and will of the Western powers to provide support for a threatened friend and as such had lasting and worldwide ramifications. d. International Rescue. The use of air power to mount rescue operations in crisis situations has a long history; an example is the rescue of passengers and crew of the hijacked aircraft by the Israelis in Entebbe, Uganda. However, such operations -- because they require large and vulnerable aircraft to fly over potentially hostile territory -- tend to involve high risks and demand the most careful preparations. 25

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e. Inject Stability. Air power can also be used to inject air or land forces to improve stability in a region threatened with civil strife or in areas where regional conflict threatens to spill over into neighbouring states. For example, the rapid airlift of French and Belgian troops into Zaire in September 1991 helped to bring stability into a situation of increasing communal violence. f. Implicit Deterrence. Perhaps the best-known application of air power in crisis management is to deter aggression, and this can be achieved in a number of ways. At the lowest end of the deterrent scale, the deployment of reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft can in addition to providing information, have a salutary deterrent effect on a potential aggressor. They can be used to warn him that his actions are being watched and could provoke a response. Because such specialist surveillance aircraft have wartime as well as peacetime functions, they can be invaluable in enhancing the fighting power of regional forces and/or preparing the ground for out-of-region reinforcements. In this context they play a key role in ensuring the continuity of crisis management options between 'implicit' and 'explicit' deterrence. g. Explicit Deterrence. The proven ability to exact rapid retribution, strike deep into unfriendly territory and deny the potential aggressor the assurance that his homeland can be kept safe from attack is by any measure a strong and explicit deterrent. It is one, which can be effective right across the spectrum of potential aggression. At the higher end of the scale, air power can deter invasion forces. Operation Desert Shield the deployment of coalition air power to Saudi Arabia after Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 is an example. In many such situations air power will often be the only instrument, which has the requisite speed, reach, and striking power to deter aggression. h. Non-Lethal Coercion. Air power can be used not merely to deter aggression, but also to 'face down' a potential or actual aggressor without resort to physical violence. The rapid deployment of US air power to Korea in 1976 as response to the killing of two US soldiers in the Korean Demilitarised Zone is an example. The implicit threat was clear and the North Korean quickly offered a formal apology. i. Punishment. If necessary, non-lethal coercion can be taken one step further and air power used for precise punishment operations, short of full-blown war. Moreover, punishment operations are reactive rather than proactive and depend for their success on surprise. Hence, they are usually planned at short notice on a 'one-off' basis; there is little opportunity for practice and much scope for error.

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Applications of Air Power Situation Peace Application Promoting International Relations Providing Reassurance Warning Signalling Providing support Rescue Injecting Stability Implicit Deterrence Explicit Deterrence Non-Lethal Coercion Punishment Observation Destruction Lethal Coercion Denial or Containment Dislocation Delay Diversion Demoralisation Examples Disaster Relief Observation Observation and Reporting Demonstration Flight Re-supply and Redeployment Evacuation Force Insertion Redeployment, Surveillance Increased Readiness, Overt Demonstration Flights Implicit and Explicit Threat Selective attacks Reconnaissance Attacks to destroy Attacks to coerce Holding actions Consequential effect Consequential effect Consequential effect Consequential effect

Crisis

War

Figure 3.2: The Applications of Air Power 17. Wartime Applications. Should crisis management measures fail, and crisis degenerate into armed conflict, then air power can make a decisive contribution to prosecuting operations with relatively minimum loss of life. The unique ability of air power to concentrate military power in time and space when and where it is needed has in recent years become perhaps the dominant feature of contemporary high-intensity conflict. Here again, air power offers decisionmakers a wide range of options. These include: a. Observation. In war, observation of the enemy provides the basis for intelligence planning and successful execution of military operations. Air power's unique ability to exploit the third dimension allows it to make a major contribution to monitoring enemy activities and deployments and thus discovering his intentions. Aerial reconnaissance was the first use of military aviation.

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b. Destruction. Air power's most obvious wartime application is its ability to destroy. The ability to concentrate firepower, when combined with the direct fire inherent in the nature of aerial attacks, confers on air power enormous potential destructive power. It is not only destruction but also the consequential effects of air power's destructive capacity that gives air power a true war-winning potential. c. Lethal Coercion. The ability of air power to reach deep into enemy territory at any time and attack the full spectrum of target sets allows air power to be used to coerce an enemy during a conflict. Any state which faces an opponent with strong air power has to accept the possibility that opponent can escalate the scale or scope of the conflict rapidly and at will by extending the intensity and scope of his attacks. d. Denial. Air power can also be use to deny an enemy the ability to employ his air, surface and sub-surface forces effectively. The most prominent example of an air-to-air denial battle is the Battle of Britain, where air forces were the only practicable means open to Britain of denying the enemy the opportunity to launch a potentially war-winning invasion against the United Kingdom. e. Dislocation. The capacity of air power to inflict dislocation is a key quality. Even if an aircraft fails to destroy its target, the impact on morale of a near miss or of collateral damage may still cause the enemy major mental, moral and physical dislocation. Dislocation causes delay and confusion, and it breaks up unit cohesion. It also makes the enemy far more vulnerable to follow-up attacks by all types of forces. f. Diversion. Air power can be used to divert enemy forces in order either to delay or destroy them. At the military-strategic and operational levels of war, diversion can be achieved by concentrating attacks against sensitive target sets, compelling an enemy to divert forces and resources from offensive into defensive duties. At the tactical level, air power can achieve diversion by selectively attacking choke points such as bridges etc. This can either delay the arrival of enemy surface forces or channel their movement into areas where they can more easily be contained or destroyed. g. Delay. The effects of dislocation, destruction or diversion can in turn create delay, another important wartime effect of air power. In defensive situations, imposing delays on the enemy allows friendly forces to deal more effectively with an attack, either by strengthening defences or by launching spoiling attacks. In offensive situations it allows friendly forces to prevent the enemy's escape. h. Demoralisation. One of the important effects that air power can create is demoralisation, because demoralisation is a factor, which 28

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pervades all aspects of combat capability. Air attack has always had a particularly sapping effect on morale, almost irrespective of the damage inflicted. LEVELS OF AIR OPERATIONS 18. Air power would rarely be used in isolation during a joint or a multinational campaign. The use of air assets would always be directed towards the political end-state, which the campaign was designed to achieve. However, in the course of that campaign, air power could be used in three different ways: a. Concurrent Operations. Parallel operations conducted by air power at different levels of war at the same time. b. Simultaneous Operations. Operations coordinated with the manoeuvre of surface forces involved with joint or multinational operations. c. Independent Operations. Operations are purely dependent on air assets. Air operations may be distinct from theatre level operations but in support of the strategic aim or end-state. CENTRES OF GRAVITY AND TARGETING 19. Definition of Centre of Gravity (COG). The term 'Centre of Gravity' describes a point of crucial vulnerability against which a successful attack is likely to be decisive. Clausewitz called the centre of gravity (the schwerpunkt) the 'hub of all power and movement'. COGs are therefore defined as those characteristics, capabilities, or localities from which a military force, nation, or alliance derives its freedom of action, physical strength, or will to fight at that level of conflict. A COG describes the central feature(s) of enemy systems or power that, if defeated, may have the most decisive result. 20. Identifying Centres of Gravity. A critical part of strategy development is the identification of COGs that can be attacked or disrupted to achieve theater strategic and operational objectives. The central focus of a force is its centre of gravity. The concept of centre of gravity applies at the national level and concerns the application of combat power against an adversary. Air power is best applied when matched offensively against an adversary's centres whilst defending its own centres of gravity. Thus, one of the most important responsibilities of a commander is to identify his own centres of gravity, so that they can be best protected, and those of the enemy, so that he can concentrate his forces against them. a. Enemy Centres of Gravity. The air force must be able to determine at any particular time an adversary's centres of gravity. Enemy 29

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centres of gravity fall into two categories: accessible and ultimate. A commander must first identify the ultimate centres of gravity and then, if he has neither the resources nor the authorisation to act against them, identify accessible centres of gravity. Two vital aspects must also be resolved. Firstly, is the use of air power appropriate against that particular centre in order to defeat it? Secondly, if air power is appropriate, what is the best method of applying air power against it? A commander must avoid distributing his forces equally (or, conceivably, at all) between all centres of gravity and should not assume that an enemy action demands a reaction in kind. Instead, he must focus on the nature and objective of the war, and the nature of the enemy; these will determine the enemy centre of gravity against which his attacks should be concentrated. When and if air power is considered appropriate, the air force must ensure that its offensive capability hits at vital centres. Most air forces have limited capacity to sustain operations and are vulnerable to attrition. Since the first offensive initiative may be the only opportunity for them, attacking the correct centre is critical.

Hawk 108 with 2 x Mk. 82 LDGP bombs b. Own Centres of Gravity. The same formula for identifying enemy centres of gravity must be applied equally to friendly centres of gravity (either national or Alliance). Once identified, friendly centres of gravity must be protected as far as possible and their vulnerability reduced. Plans to minimize the effect of successful attacks on such targets should also be formulated.

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21. Targeting. As air power assets become more versatile and multi-role, the same platforms could well be used for missions with strategic effects as in strategic attack or close air support (CAS). Weapon systems will vary according to target sets, but it is highly likely that delivery platforms will be in short supply. Therefore in a joint or combined environment, strategic missions may need to be justified alongside other priorities within a theatre of operations. The key for commanders and planners alike is the selection of the correct strategic centre of gravity via campaign planning tools and air appreciations. Another very important aspect to note is that targeting must be accompanied by timely and accurate intelligence. The air commander can plan to attack COGs directly, indirectly, or combinations of both. Political considerations, projected loss rates, laws of armed conflict considerations, available forces, etc., may make direct attacks on the COG unfeasible, thus forcing indirect methods. As the name implies, direct attack involves physically attacking a COG or engaging it in decisive combat. Indirect attack, on the other hand, results in the same or similar effects on a COG through attack of its supporting infrastructure and related elements. COG analysis ultimately leads to the identification of vital target sets within the individual COGs. Vital targets are those that, if successfully attacked, will have the greatest adverse effects on the enemy COGs at the operational and strategic levels of war. It is important to also note that analysis must always begin with national policy and military objectives, and include assessment of ongoing operations to determine if the COG(s) should be adjusted as the operation progresses. Targeting based on knowledge of the enemys war-fighting and value systems is critical. Air power should not be wasted on inappropriate targets rather to attack vital points of the enemy. AIR STRATEGY 22. Definition. Air strategy is defined as the overall employment plan for air forces in a war. 23. Structure. Air power, due to its unique characteristics, has very wide potential military strategic applications. This fall essentially into four broad roles of which are described below. Figure 3.3 describe the hierarchy of air power and Figure 3.4 provides some examples of the roles, operations, missions and tasks. a. Counter Air Role. Counter air action is defined as the use of air power to deter, contain or defeat the enemy air forces. The strategic aim of counter air action is to achieve the desired degree of control of the air. b. Force Application Role. Force Application Role brings air power to bear directly against surface targets. It involves the independent used of air power to achieve national policy objectives. It also involves the use of air power, in cooperation with friendly surface and sub-surface forces to deter, contain or defeat the enemys army and/or navy. The strategic aim of force application action is to deprive an enemy of the 31

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military power needed to occupy territory or exploit sea space and to undermine the enemys ability and will to continue with his aggression. c. Force Enhancement Role. Force Enhancement actions are to increase the ability of air and surface forces to perform their missions. d. Force Sustenance Role. Force Sustenance encompasses all actions taken to sustain our ability to conduct operations successfully. It is essential to sustain the force to the necessary level and duration for its operations to achieve its assigned objectives.

Hierarchy of Air Power

AIR STRATEGY

ROLES

OPERATIONS

MISSIONS

TASKS

SORTIES (One flight by one aircraft)

Figure 3.32: Hierarchy of Air Power

Examples of Air Power Roles, Operations, Missions and Tasks

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ROLES

OPERATIONS

MISSIONS Airfield Attack Fighter Sweep SEAD GAI

TASKS To attack Aircraft on ground, Ammo and Fuel dump, C4I, Airfield facilities. Seek and destroy airborne aircraft, Destroy, neutralise, and degrade Radars and early warning systems, SAMs, AAA. Intercept, Identify, Shadow, Intervene and/or Force down, or Engage enemy aircraft. Protect FGA aircraft or HVAA. Destroy, neutralise and degrade, HQ, key industries, and fielded forces and infrastructures. Destroy, degrade, delay supply depot, HQ.

OCA

COUNTER AIR

DCA

CAP Escorts To destroy, neutralise, degrade or disrupt; COG and Vital points. To destroy, neutralise, degrade, disrupt or delay: LOC, War sustaining and military potential beyond the battlefield. BAI CAS ASuW ASW Opportunity targets within the battlefield. Scheduled services. Airborne operations. Air logistic support. Special air operations. Aero-medical evacuation.

STRATEGIC ATTACK

FORCE APPLICATION

INTERDICTION

OFFENSIVE AIR SUPPORT (OAS) MARITIME AIR OPERATIONS (MAO) ARMED RECCE

FORCE ENHANCEMENT

AIRLIFT

Destroy, neutralise or delay land forces, LOC, war machines, bridges. Detect, identify, neutralise, destroy, ships, mine laying, Detect, locate, track, submarine, mine laying. Locating and attacking personnel, material and facilities. Movement of personnel and supplies. Airdrop of personnel or cargo. Distribute or recover personnel and materiel. Insertion and extraction of special forces, leaflet drop, voice broadcast. MEDEVAC, CASEVAC, BODEVAC. TASKS Provide air-to-air refuelling.

ROLES

OPERATIONS AIR-TO-AIR

MISSIONS Towline AAR missions.

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REFUELLING (AAR)

Trail AAR missions. Early warning and Surveillance. Provide information on enemy activity; provide air picture to AD forces C2, maritime surv. Control, monitor and direct OCA missions, manage AAR assets, coordinate rescue, assist in navigation. Control fighters, armed heli and GBAD. Search, intercept, identify and locate EM emissions. Electronic jamming, neutralisation or deception of en C2, EM capabilities, acquisition and targeting and combat capabilities, launching active decoys like chaff and flares. Spoofing, inserting erroneous information. Strategic warning, provide info for R&D and weapon systems acquisition. Weather and geographical recce, defining vulnerable and vital enemy elements. BDA, combat assessment, tactical threat warning, target imagery. Collect intelligence, sabotage, espionage, rescue, target laser designation, pathfinding.

AEW & C

Control of air operations Weapons control. ESM

ELECTRONIC WARFARE (EW) FORCE ENHANCEMENT

ECM

EPM Strategic recce. ISR OPERATIONS Operational recce. Tactical recce. Unconventional warfare, direct action, Combating terrorism, special recce, Civil affairs, PSYOPS, Information operations, Counter proliferation Base active air defence Base passive air defence Base security

SPECIAL FORCE OPERATIONS

FORCE SUSTENANCE

BASE DEFENCE OPS

Defend from air attack (SHORAD, AAA). CCD, dispersion, air raid warning, reconstitution, recuperation. Anti: sabotage, espionage, insertion, infiltration. TASKS Receive, Induct, Special skills. Provide ATC, airfield, rescue, fire fighting, wx and C4I services.

ROLES

OPERATIONS

MISSIONS Training Operations

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Material BASE SUPPORT OPS Maintenance

FORCE SUSTENANCE

Administration

Material LOGISTICS OPERATIONS Personnel Facilities Services Search, Locate and Rescue.

Supply, R&D, clothing, refuelling, ammunition transportation, rations. Servicing, repair, testing, salvage, refurbish, manufacture. Organising, Planning, Finance, Religious and Medical services, Welfare Discipline, Law and order and Accommodation. Acquisition, Movement, Distribution, Storage, Maintenance, Disposition. Movement, Evacuation, Medical care. Acquisition, Construction, Maintenance, Disposition, Operation. Acquisition or Furnishing. Downed Aircrew or Distressed personnel.

CSAR

Figure 3.4: Examples of Air Power Roles, Operations, Missions and Tasks

C-130H Work Horse of the RMAF DOCTRINAL GUIDANCE 24. Air power is a very complex business and all commanders should be certain that they have adequate levels of professional advice to guide its employment. Every commander in making decision must have an acute understanding of air power's strengths and limitations. This applies at all levels of war and to all commanders - joint, air, land and sea. For instance: 35

AIR POWER

a. Strategically, it uses air power's superior reach, responsiveness and lethality to exploit the uncertainty of asymmetric response, and to strike directly at vital points, achieve strategic surprise and/or shock, and confound the enemy's situational awareness. b. Operationally, it attains military objectives using air power's versatility, reach, concentration, penetration and lethality, rather than undertaking an attrition campaign. Air power may also permit the conduct of concurrent operations and campaigns. c. Tactically, it exploits the element of surprise by dynamic leadership, high quality crews, innovative tactics, deception and speed of manoeuvre. 25. The effectiveness of air power is directly proportional to situational awareness. Situational awareness is observation -- orientation that has strategic, operational and tactical dimensions, as such: a. Strategically, situational awareness is strategic warning; that is, effective situational awareness will provide timely warning of potential threats to national security. b. Operationally, situational awareness gives knowledge dominance in an area of operations. a commander

c. Tactically, situational awareness enables a person to dictate activities in the battle space.

Air power is like poker. A second best hand is like none at all it will cost you dough and win you nothing. General George Kenney, USAF

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