Postharvest Newsletter

A Publication of the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Postharvest Technology Program NUMBER 55 NEWS FROM PROJECT PHT/1994/016 DECEMBER 2000
cabbage leaves of differing physiological ages. On the more applied front, they continued studies of the storage benefits of heat shock treatments of broccoli. They confirmed their earlier finding that heat-treated broccoli will store for significantly longer than untreated broccoli. Both ethylene and carbon dioxide production were lower in the treated commodity than in the controls.
Continued on page 2.

Work to extend the shelf life of leafy vegetables progresses

ollaborative research visits and presentations of research results at several regional and international conferences were important components of what has been a busy year for PHT/1994/ 016, reports Dr Tim OHare, leader of project activities in Australia.
Tim is a member of the Queensland Horticultural Institute (QHI), part of the Queensland Department of Primary Industries (QDPI), and is based at the Gatton Research Station. The project is a collaboration between researchers in Australia and China. In Australia the project involves researchers at the University of Adelaide (UA) and Agriculture Victoria (AV) as well as the QDPI team, while the research teams in China are in the Hangzhou University of Commerce (HUC) and the Beijing Vegetable Research Centre (BVRC).

on shelf life in broccoli, the QDPI team conducted experiments in which commodity was stored at 10C in a 2% oxygen: 5% carbon dioxide atmosphere. It found that the shelf life of broccoli florets held under these conditions was increased by about 200% compared with an increase in shelf life of only 26% when fumigated with the ethylene inhibitor 1-MCP. In Adelaide, research continued on, among other things, the impact of preharvest water stress and harvest time on storage characteristics of Chinese cabbage, through a series of experiments begun in 1999. Results from energy substrate analysis and chlorophyll fluorescence measurements support results obtained for other parameters, e.g. relative water content and weight loss, in indicating that the time of day of harvest and water stress applied during growth have no significant effect on the postharvest life of Chinese cabbage. BVRC researchers continued their detailed studies to elucidate biochemical differences between Chinese

IN THIS ISSUE
Work to extend the shelf life of leafy vegetables progresses ... page 1 Keeping phosphine in the pest control armoury ... page 3 ACIAR meeting helps spread the news on rice cracking ... page 4 Free agricultural engineering textbook offer ... page 4 Food and water: essential for life...and peace ... page 5 Proficiency testing for mycotoxin analysis ... page 6 Managing maize stocks in developing countries ... page 7 Action against mycotoxins in West Africa ... page 12 Training courses at NRI ... page 12 Forthcoming meeting: IHC2002 ... page 12 ELISA technology transfer workshops in Vietnam Aflatoxin in chilli products a hot topic in Australia ... page 14 Moroccos horticultural export challenge ... page 15 Current Awareness ... page 16
Contributors to this issue: Greg Banova, Bruce Champ, Ed Highley, Greg Johnson, Tim OHare, Mary Webb, Kate Wilkinson

Research highlights
In order to elucidate any effects of modified atmosphere (MA) packaging

Amikha Prasad (QDPI), Wang Xiangyang (HUC), Tim OHare (QDPI), and Zheng Shufang (BVRC) assessing a mizuna MAP trial at the Gatton (Queensland) Postharvest laboratories.

Tim OHare, Lung Wong (QDPI), and Hang Guangrong (HIAE) translating Chinese research results into English at the Gatton laboratories.

Extending the shelf life of leafy vegetables...from page 1

A study by researchers at HUC found that the shelf life of pak choy could, by the use of modified atmosphere film packaging, be extended to 1418 days at 10C, as compared with 10 days in control samples. Like the Adelaide team, one of the topics of research at AV was the possible effects of water stress during growth on storage characterististics. The AV team studied the effect of intermittent water stress on shelf life and physiology of pak choy. The researchers found no linkage between stress and shelf life, but made some interesting observations with a bearing on product quality. For example, it was found that stressed plants were much greener than controls in the first few days after stress was relieved. In contrast, plants subjected to superoptimal water conditions in an earlier experiment grew very large but their leaves were pale and very easily damaged. The researchers speculate that, if stressed plants were harvested after they had recovered from the stress but before the enhanced colour had disappeared, shelf life might be enhanced because of the higher chlorophyll content. A general conclusion drawn is that too much water can be as bad as too little and that field water monitoring may be one way in which plant quality could be optimised.

Project PHT/1994/016 synopsis

Extending the shelf life of leafy vegetables is an ACIAR-funded project which commenced in July 1998. The objective of the project is to adapt or remove rate-limiting procedures contributing to postharvest wastage, optimise agronomic and postharvest handling procedures to increase shelf life, and to identify the inherent physiological factors limiting shelf life that should be targeted for future biotechnological control and breeding strategies. The commodities being studied are pak choy, Chinese cabbage, broccoli and Oriental bunching onions. The project involves 17 research scientists from QDPI, UA, AV, BVRC (China) and HUC (China) working on handling systems assessment, agronomy, plant biochemistry, and postharvest physiology. s

John Bagshaw and Lung Wong, experimental design with Amanda Able, modified atmosphere packaging of mizuna with Tim OHare, and sugar analysis and heat-shock trials using pak choy with Lung Wong, Amikha Prasad, Amanda Able. During their time in Australia, our Chinese colleagues stayed at University of Queensland accommodation in Gatton. This gave them a taste of living in the country, but they also had opportunities to visit Brisbane and the surrounding area and thus also experience something of life in urban Australia.

Planning for a workshop in China

A workshop on Vegetable postharvest/supply chain management is being planned for early May 2001 in Beijing. This workshop will be held in conjunction with other projects with an interest in the postharvest management of perishable commodities and with the proponents of potential new activities currently making their way through the ACIAR project development cycle. The workshop will probably follow the end-of-project review (Chinese activities) for PHT/1994/016 which is tentatively scheduled to take place at BVRC on 30 April 2001, possibly extending to 1 May, depending on the availability of the reviewers. The review of Australian activities will likely be made during the second week of May 2001 at Gatton, again dependent on the reviewers schedules.

Inter-laboratory activities
Mr Li Wu (BVRC) and Prof. Shen Lianqing (HUC) advanced project activities with researchers in Adelaide, Melbourne, and Brisbane in October 1999. This followed their participation in the Australasian Postharvest Conference in New Zealand. It was a good opportunity for them to discuss project issues with Trish Grant (AV) and Kerry Porter (UA) whom they had not previously had the opportunity to meet. John Bagshaw, Lung Wong, and Amanda Able (QDPI) visited Hangzhou staff (Prof. Shen and Wang Guanglin) and students (Huang Guangrong, Yu Ping, and Sun Liang) following the 19th ASEAN/1st APEC Seminar on Postharvest Technology, held in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam in November 1999. They discussed data on handling systems for leafy vegetables and made plans for future handling trials. Then, in company with Zheng Shufang (BVRC), a field
2 Zheng Shufang (BVRC), Li Wu (BVRC), and John Bagshaw (QDPI) gathering postharvest loss data with a local farmer in the Beijing area.

Paper presentations
Project members from both Australia and China presented their results at several major conferences during the year. Twelve papers in all were presented at four conferences in four countries. Four papers were presented at the Australasian Postharvest Conference, in New Zealand in October 1999, six at the 19th ASEAN/1st APEC Seminar on Postharvest Technology, in Vietnam in November 1999 (see page 16 of this issue), and one each at the International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS) Postharvest 2000 Symposium, in Israel in March 2000, and the 3rd International Brassica Symposium in the UK in September 2000. A list of the presentations can be found at <www.aciar.gov.au/projects/ postharvest/index.htm>.

study was made to collect data on Chinese cabbage handling systems in the Beijing area. Tim OHare (QDPI), Andreas Kljeber (UA), and Michelle Robbins (QDPI ACIAR officer) visited BVRC in April 2000 to discuss research that had occurred since the meetings in Australia (October 1999) and that planned for the six months to follow. This was the first time Michelle had travelled to China and the visit provided her with a range of insights. Zheng Shufang (BVRC), Wang Xiangyang (HUC), and Huang Guangrong (HIAE) made an extended visit to the Gatton laboratory during 2000. From April to August, the Chinese scientists worked on analyses of handling systems with QDPIs

Concluded at foot of page 3.

NEWS FROM PROJECT PHT/1998/137

Keeping phosphine in the grain pest control armoury

mentioned above, this fumigant will remain the central component of insect pest management for the foreseeable future in Australia and throughout Asia.

Preventing phosphine resistance

In an earlier ACIAR project (PHT/ 1994/015), QDPI entomologists, working with colleagues in China and India, found that resistance in target pests is indeed a severe threat to the continued efficacy of phosphine as a grain treatment. But resistance was not the only factor involved in the control failures with phosphine that were being recorded. In particular, it was found that authorities in all partner countries need to improve fumigation practices and formulate national fumigation standards. It was clear too that research was needed into technical innovations to enhance the efficacy of phosphine, that management strategies to control psocid pests must be developed, and that phosphine resistance levels in stored grain insects must be monitored while national standards are being developed and implemented. These research and operational needs will be addressed in the new project, the overall objective of which is to protect and enhance the utility of phosphine as a fumigant for grain and to more fully integrate it into pest management in grain storage systems. Specific aims are to: improve fumigation practice in China, Vietnam, and Australia by undertaking training programs; formulate national fumigation standards for China, Vietnam, and Australia; investigate potential innovations to enhance the efficacy of phosphine fumigation; and determine the key factors preventing effective control of psocids with phosphine. s
Dr Adel Kader, University of California, USA. He reminded the audience that introduction of quality assurance systems to all crops was essential for the successful development and retention of markets, and that benefits were to be gained by developing systems that were consistent and took into account a wider spread of attributes than those commonly used today. The ability to segregate product lines as a result of nondestructive techniques for measuring quality in line, has become possible through the development of a range of technologies, some of which are now being introduced into commercial packhouses. s

umigation remains the major method for disinfesting grain of insect pests right around the world. Until about 10 years ago the two main weapons in the grain fumigators armoury were methyl bromide and phosphine. Now use of methyl bromide is being phased out by international agreement because it was found to be contributing to depletion of the Earths ozone layer.
Methyl bromide was a particularly useful fumigant because of its effectiveness and rapid action, the latter characteristic giving it major roles in, for example, quarantine treatments and the disinfestation of export grain immediately before transport. Physical treatments such as high-temperature disinfestation are being researched as possible replacements for methyl bromide in these applications.

development of resistance to phosphine in the insect populations being treated. Since phosphine, as we have already noted, is the sole, remaining operational fumigant, the development and spread of high level resistance to it would be disastrous for the worlds grain industries.

New project in China, Vietnam, and Australia

A new ACIAR project (PHT/1998/ 137: Integrating effective phosphine fumigation practices into grain storage systems in China, Vietnam and Australia), scheduled to start in the new year, will research phosphine treatment protocols that will ensure the long-term availability of this invaluable fumigant. The commissioned organisation in Australia is the Queensland Department of Primary Industries (QDPI). In China, project research in three institutes the Zhengzhou Institute of Technology, the Chengdu Grain Storage Research Institute, and the Guangzhou Institute for Cereal Science Research will be coordinated by the State Administration of Grain, while the Plant Protection Department and the Postharvest Technology Institute, both in Hanoi, will lead the effort in Vietnam. Australia, China and Vietnam produce, respectively, about 2530, 495, and 30 million tonnes of rice, wheat, maize, and other grains per year. In each country, about 80% of production is fumigated with phosphine. Because of the combined advantages of low cost, relative ease of use, acceptance as a residue-free treatment, and for the other reasons An interesting and informative article on the symposium, written by E.W. Hewitt, Chair of the ISHS Postharvest Commission, appears in Chronica Horticulturae, the ISHS magazine, volume 40, number 2. Of particular interest perhaps, given the current focus on quality and related issues, is Dr Hewitts report of an address by Dr Adel Kader:
A timely reminder that quality in the eyes of the consumer constitutes many attributes and that flavour and aroma, as well as crispness and juiciness, will increasingly become key decision making features with buyers of fresh fruit and vegetables, was provided by

Retention of phosphine essential

For the present, however, we are left with phosphine as virtually the only grain fumigant available for routine operational use. Phosphine is a vastly different material to methyl bromide. Though, when properly applied, it is just as effective as methyl bromide, the exposure times required are much longer and, to ensure complete kill of all life stages of all insects present, the exposure time and the dosage must be carefully controlled. In short, the procedures for its efficacious use are more complex and the potential for failed fumigations is much greater. Failed fumigations not only leave the treated commodity at risk, but also create conditions conducive to the

Extending leafy vegetable shelf life...from page 2

Dr OHare says that the ISHS symposium was especially informative, providing an excellent chance to catch up on global developments in postharvest research, and particularly to gauge where the projects work stood in relation to research on senescence around the world. He reports that the projectss work on pak choy senescence appears to be yielding results that are at the forefront of understanding what makes a leaf reach the end of its shelf life.

PROGRAM NEWS

ACIAR meeting helps spread the news on rice cracking

gradually gained recognition and acceptance. Rice growing countries took notice and the research findings were soon applied, opening the door to new and improved rice harvesting and processing capabilities.

rofessor Otto Kunze of Texas A&M University, USA was recently named by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) for his association with one of the Outstanding Agricultural Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century.
Swimming against the tide of mainstream scientific opinion at the time, Professor Kunze for many years worked to confirm by experiment and to tenaciously promote his views on the causes of rice fissuring, a phenomenon with the potential to severely reduce grain quality. In the end, his views prevailed. The citation from the ASAE journal reads as follows:

Philippines introduced an explanation for sun cracking of rice grains that received wide acceptance for three decades. Copeland wrote, Sun cracking, as the word indicates, is a fine cross-wise cracking of the grain, typically due to exposure to the sun and rapid drying. The effect is that an excessive proportion of the grains break in milling, etc. In the early 1960s, ASAE member Otto R. Kunze, a professor at Texas A&M University, found that rice drying in the sun evaporated moisture from the grain surface, causing the grain center to be in compression. The internal cracking of the grain was then caused by tension which developed when the grain reabsorbed moisture at night in the field. Since Kunzes finding was contrary to the accepted dogma, his work had to be documented convincingly with data, words and photographs before it was accepted for publication. Kunzes results corroborated those obtained in 1930 by earlier researchers, such as Kondo and Okamura of Japan, which though published had been ignored and rejected by the scientific community. Successive publications continued to affirm the validity of the mechanism, which

Rice Fissuring Mechanism

Rice, the staple food for over half the worlds population, is produced in abundance worldwide. For many years, however, several million tons of rice were wasted annually due to the lack of understanding the problem of rice fissuring or sun-cracking. In 1924, E.B. Copeland of The University of the

Professor Kunze was an invited speaker at the ACIAR-cosponsored international conference on Grain drying in Asia, held in Bangkok in October 1995. He presented a paper entitled Effect of drying on grain quality, which includes a detailed coverage of the mechanisms of rice fissuring and their implications (see ACIAR Proceedings No. 71). Following the ASAE announcement, Professor Kunze wrote to Bruce Champ, manager of the Postharvest Technology Program at the time of the Bangkok conference, to thank him for the role the conference played in spreading the word on the true causes of rice cracking. Part of his message was: I am indebted to many people for this [ASAE] citation. The exposure which our work received at the Grain Drying in Asia Conference was helpful to bring our research to the attention of many rice scientists throughout the world. A nice endorsement of the benefits of international meetings on high priority commodities and issues of the type supported by ACIAR. s

Free agricultural engineering textbook offer

s a result of marketing changes, Associate Professor Cliff Studman (Massey University, New Zealand), the author of the textbook Agricultural and Horticultural Engineering, has acquired a number of copies of this textbook which he is prepared to make available free of charge as class text sets to teachers in universities in developing countries, though they must cover the cost of freight (see later).
Sets of books are available in cartons containing 25 copies. University teachers in developing countries who wish to take advantage of this opportunity should contact A/Prof. Studman at email address <c.studman@massey.ac.nz> giving details of their university course and the numbers of students involved. The textbook contains 500 pages of engineering material for first and

second year degree students in agricultural and horticultural engineering. Included in the contents are chapters on: surveying; the engineering approach; basic physics and modelling systems; workshop methods and welding techniques; hydraulics and farm water supply principles; electricity and electronics; power systems; thermal systems; building structures and design, including soils, foundations, concrete, timber and steel, greenhouses and fruit support structures; stock fencing design; electric fencing; milking machine technology; the design of milking sheds; postharvest systems; and an introduction to environmental pollution issues. The coverage is aimed at students who have a limited understanding of engineering, and who wish to undertake courses in agriculture or horticultural science. First published in 1990 by Butterworths, it has been adopted as a student text by several universities.

The offer to less developed country universities is made on the understanding that the books will not be offered for resale, and that they would be retained by the university lecturer concerned and the university library as a set of textbooks for student use over several years. The receiving university will be required to pay the cost of shipment of the text book sets from New Zealand. The offer is made subject to stocks being available and is on a first-come, firstserved basis. Examples of recent freight costs for shipping 25 books are: South Pacific region East Asia Europe Rest of World US$51 US$69 US$80 US$101

For other universities, copies may be obtained by contacting the author at the above email address. The cost is US$30 plus the cost of postage from New Zealand (around US$16). s

CONFERENCE REPORT

Food and water: essential for life...and peace

Ed Highley
No fear can stand up to hunger, no patience can wear it out, disgust simply does not exist where hunger is; and as to superstition, beliefs, and what you may call principles, they are less than chaff in a breeze. Dont you know the devilry of lingering starvation, its exasperating torment, its black thoughts, its sombre and brooding ferocity? It takes a man all his inborn strength to fight hunger properly. Its really easier to face bereavement, dishonour, and perdition of ones soul than this kind of prolonged hunger. Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness

in the money-making enterprises of the elites. Whatever the causes of conflict, civil unrest can have a multiplier impact on developing economies in which agriculture is the primary engine for development. This point was elaborated by two other speakers at the conference Mr Alexander Downer, the Minister for Foreign Affairs in the Australian Government, and Admiral Chris Barrie, Chief of the Australian Defence Forces. Crops take time to grow and livestock must be tended; if the cycle is broken by civil unrest caused by food insecurity, food shortages may become even more entrenched and serious. Admiral Barrie made the deceptively simple point that people will fight for food if they have to ... for whichever army offers the best prospects of delivering. Food is a stronger driver than allegiances and politics. Dr Alan Dupont of the Australian National University added a few extra terms to an already complex security equation. In terms of what he called human security there is often now a divergence between the interests of the people and those of the state, explaining why most of the conflicts around the world are local or intra-state rather than between countries. Dr Dupont seemed to be a little less sanguine than some other speakers about our capacity to meet the populationfood challenge. The availability of adequate supplies of water suitable for a range of purposes is emerging as a problem in both developed and developing countries. The gene revolution might be reliant to some degree or other on irrigated cropping. Environmental degradation, HIV AIDS, and global warming are a few other factors bearing on human security over the next few decades. Three other speakers in the Food, water and war focused on issues relating to water: the topic of Professor Adel El-Beltagy, Director General of the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, was Strategic options for alleviating conflicts over water in dry areas; Dr Meryl Williams, Director General of the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, spoke on Fish wars: science is shaping a new peace agenda; and for Mr Don Blackmore, Chief Executive Officer of Australias Murray Darling Basin Commission, the topic was Dams: the dilemma.

hat there is enough food to feed all the worlds people seems to be generally agreed. That so many people nevertheless end every day hungry is seen as a distribution problem. Thats the picture now, but what about 20 years hence, when we will need to have increased grain production by 40% if we are to feed a predicted world population of 7.5 billion?
Many scientists are optimistic that food production can be increased sufficiently to keep pace with population growth, even on a shrinking area of arable land available for cropping. Some have a great deal of faith in genetic engineering being able to produce a gene revolution in agriculture even bigger than the green revolution of the 1970s. But can we engineer a way through the distribution problem? Many economists see free trade as delivering that particular miracle. There is no doubt that, even now, the distribution problem is a cause of serious conflict in many parts of the world. Shortages of food, and water, foster insecurity, anxiety, and eventually desperation among the people they affect. In the developed world, security might mostly be thought of in terms of military security a negligible or low risk of being attacked and, in the unlikely event of an attack occurring, the capacity to repel it. In many parts of the developing world, on the other hand, security is more likely to be thought of in terms of ready day-today access to food and water, allowing freedom from the spectres of hunger and disease.

That these two ways of thinking about security are in fact not so very different was highlighted by many of the speakers at an international conference held in Canberra during August. Food, water and war: security in a world of conflict, a conference organised by the Crawford Fund, drew speakers from very diverse backgrounds, but most were agreed that hungry people, become discontented people, become disaffected people, become people who are more readily swayed by what Dr Indra de Soysa of the University of Bonn, Germany, frighteningly called conflict entrepreneurs. Thus, the collapse of food security can quickly lead to the collapse of local, national, or regional security in the wider sense. Dr de Soysa noted that high food prices and land distribution issues were primary causes of fractiousness, the former often leading to urban food riots. From his research, he has found that such conflicts are usually initiated by elite groups in the community, who do no fighting themselves. The fighters are the poor, who are generally also the losers. Warlords and other conflict instigators display economically rational behaviour; by inciting conflict they stand, through their position and activities, to make greater returns from conflict than from peace. Tragically in such circumstances, the disaffected poor may feel they are fighting for justice or freedom, but they are often only cannon fodder

Concluded at foot of page 13. 5

Proficiency testing for mycotoxin analysis*

tained from collaborative trial data, relevant legislation or from the appropriate form of the Horwitz equation (Thompson 2000). The Food Analysis Performance Assessment Scheme (FAPAS) was established by the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food at the Central Science Laboratory (CSL) in 1990. Ten years later it has become the premier international scheme of its type. An outline of the FAPAS mycotoxin program for 20012002 is shown in the table below. For further details contact:
FAPAS, CSL, Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, UK Fax: +44 1904 462111 Email:fapas@csl.gov.uk Web: www.csl.gov.uk

roficiency testing provides an independent and unbiased assessment of the performance of all aspects of the laboratory being tested.
Proficiency testing is not to be confused with collaborative trials in which the method, rather than the laboratory, is being tested. In proficiency tests the laboratory is encouraged to use its usual analytical method, simulating the testing of a routine laboratory sample as closely as possible. While the outcome of the analysis may be dependent on the choice of method, it could also be affected by the performance of laboratory equipment or the analyst. Those laboratories performing well can ensure high standards are maintained and those performing unsatisfactorily can implement corrective action rapidly. Thus, proficiency testing provides the means by which external customers can compare competence in carrying out specific tests. The requirements for establishing and running proficiency testing schemes are stipulated in an ISO/IUPAC/AOAC International Harmonised Protocol (Thompson and Wood 1993). This external check of quality is a powerful addition to a laboratorys own internal quality systems, particularly for analysts involved in the quantification of mycotoxins, and who may be undertaking such work within a legislative framework, for example as set out by the European Union (EC 1998). The variety of raw materials that may contain mycotoxins makes it difficult to ensure proficiency tests cover the range of matrices that analysts routinely encounter. Hence, in practice proficiency testing tends to concentrate on those commodities of major interest and occasionally include matrices known to present analytical difficulty. It is important to use, where available, food samples naturally contaminated with the mycotoxin in question. Spiked samples may not behave in the same way as regards mycotoxin extraction and recovery. The distribution of mycotoxins within a contaminated food is notoriously non-uniform. Homogeneity
* This article was contributed by FAPAS, the Food Analysis Performance Assessment Scheme of the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.

testing therefore is a vital part of test material preparation in order to ensure each participant receives an identical test material. The Harmonised Protocol (Thompson and Wood 1993) stipulates a strict homogeneity testing procedure and only when the resulting data pass the appropriate statistical tests should the test material be used for a proficiency test. Most proficiency testing schemes report the performance of participants in terms of a z-score:
where x = the participants reported result, X = the assigned value, and = the target value for standard deviation. The assigned value should be the best estimate of the true concentration of the analyte. It can be obtained from the mean of results submitted by participants by using robust statistics to ensure that the influence of any outliers is minimised.
z=

( x X )

References
EC (European Commission) 1998. European Commission Regulation No. 1525/98. Thompson, M. 2000. Recent trends in inter-laboratory precision at ppb and sub-ppb concentrations in relation to fitness for purpose criteria in proficiency testing, Analyst, 125, 385386. Thompson, M. and Wood, R.. 1993. The international harmonised protocol for the proficiency testing of (chemical) analytical laboratories. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists International, 76, 929940. s

The target value for standard deviation defines the scale of acceptable variation among laboratories in each particular test. It may be ob-

FAPAS mycotoxin proficiency tests available in 20012002

Mycotoxin
Aflatoxins B/G &/or total Aflatoxin M1 Patulin Ochratoxin A Deoxynivalenol Fumonisins Zearalenone

Matrix
Maize, peanut powder, spice, peanut butter, sunflower seeds, dried fruit/figs Milk, yoghurt Apple juice & apple puree Cereal, coffee, dried fruit Wheat flour Maize Maize

All about soybeans

he Proceedings of the Third International Soybean Processing and Utilization Conference, recently published, contains more than 270 papers from 22 countries around the world.
The theme of the conference was 2000: Dawn of the Innovative Era for Soybeans. The topics of the eight main conference sessions were:

Production for processing and utilisation; Quality control; Nutrition and physiological functionality; Traditional products; Modern processing and utilisation of foods; Edible oil and feeds; Innovative non-food uses; and Strategies for dissemination. The conference ended with a public symposium, intriguingly entitled The miracle of Asiamarvellous fermented soyfoods. There is much to interest postharvest specialists in this volume. Can any reader enlighten us as to its cost and availability? If so, please contact <ed@arawang.com.au>. s

REVIEW ARTICLE

Managing maize stocks in developing countries*

Mary Webb and Ed Highley aize (Zea mays) is the worlds third most important cereal crop after rice and wheat. It has been predicted that the demand for maize in the coming two decades will grow faster than that for any other cereal crop in the developing world. Maize recently surpassed cassava as Africas most important food crop in terms of calories consumed, and its production in sub-Saharan Africa has increased an average of 2.6% annually over the past 25 years. In Asia, the demand for maize, which was 138 million tonnes in 1993, is predicted to reach 243 million tonnes by 2020. China alone could witness a 94% increase in maize demand over this period.
Many farmers grow maize simply to provide enough food for their families to survive, but in some parts of the developing world, especially in Latin America and Asia, commercial production of maize for animal feed and industrial uses is increasing. In Thailand, for example, domestic consumption of the maize crop increased from around 30% in 1985 to 75% in 1990 as a result of the growth of the poultry industries. Maize is produced on more than 80 million hectares in developing countries alone, in a vast array of climates and conditions. In north-eastern China, for instance, where there are only about 140 frost-free days, the growing period is relatively short and it is possible to grow only a single crop each year. Highland maize in Mexico and the Andean region of South America grows slowly in the relatively low temperatures and farmers must wait up to nine months to harvest. At the other extreme, tropical environments are suited for year-round production, and it is common for two crops per year to be grown. With increasing urban encroachment into the best farming land and little additional land suited to maize production, where will developing countries get the extra maize that they want? Imports may offer a partial solution,
* This review was compiled using information from the sources listed at the end of the article.

but the larger, domestic portion will rely on two facets: improvements in both productivity and postproduction management. However much we are able to improve production in the future, we can maximise the benefits of these improvements only if we have the postharvest capabilities to match them.

important is the postharvest handling of the maize in order to reduce losses and maintain the quality of the harvested crop. If more grain could be held safely without losses until needed, Some pressure would be taken off the need to increase production, and fewer resources would be wasted. It is clearly more efficient to preserve what has already been produced than to use fresh resources to produce more.

Current postharvest practices

In many countries, postharvest conditions for maize are far from ideal. For example, farmers in Ethiopia lose 25% of their grain during storage and are further penalised with a 25% price reduction for the remaining damaged grain. One of the few means by which farmers will be able to obtain better profit margins and alleviate poverty is to improve the ways they handle the grain at and after harvest. They need help to do this. In developing countries, maize is usually hand picked. The harvested maize may accumulate on farms for up to five days waiting for drying, machine shelling and sale. Significant quality deterioration can occur at this time, particularly of wet maize, which is most prone to the two main agents of deterioration insects and fungi. Sun drying remains the most common means of drying maize in developing countries. Sun drying may take place in the field, in farmers drying yards, at grain depots, under dwellings or any other convenient location. It is a labour-intensive activity and in many countries there continues to be a strong drift of labour from rural to urban areas. The recommended maximum moisture content (m.c.) for safe storage and transport of maize is 14.5%; the ideal storage moisture content is 14%. Maize is then stored in a variety of ways, usually depending on local custom: it can be stored on the cob, with or without husks, or as shelled grain. It can be kept in earthen pots or metal containers, in jute gunny sacks, or hung as cobs or in many other ways. There are advantages and disadvantages to all these methods. Sacks made from woven polypropylene are replacing jute sacks for commodity storing in many developing countries. In sub-Saharan Africa this has been accompanied by an increase in stackburn, a condition in which maize becomes discoloured during storage; losing commercial and possibly nutritional value. Stackburn is
Continued on next page.

Improving production
Productivity of maize in developing countries is less than half that of the developed world. This reflects low soil fertility and acidic soils, restricted use of fertilisers, the occurrence of droughts and floods, the effects of weeds, diseases, and field pests, poor infrastructure, and farmers low cash reserves. Seed production and availability are critical in subsistence economies where poor-yielding varieties are perpetuated and the introduction of hybrid maize has precluded farmers from collecting seed for future crops. Given that we want more maize to be produced on the same (or even less) land, increasing the productivity of individual maize plants is essential. Current research is concentrating on increasing production through highyielding varieties, hybrids, and inbred lines, resource management, training, and other innovative strategies. In addition, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) is developing quality protein maize (QPM), a new product that could contribute significantly to the wellbeing of millions of resourcepoor farmers and consumers in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The nutritive value of the protein in QPM is high, approaching that of protein from skim milk. As a bonus, QPM has superior yields: 10% more than leading commercial varieties of normal maize. CIMMYT is also working to enhance other nutritional components of QPM maize, including zinc, iron and vitamin A. Furthermore, researchers are also developing maize varieties that can withstand drought and infertile soils, and have improved resistance to stored grain pests. Improving production is only part of the answer. At least equally

caused by chemical changes in the grain induced by high temperatures during storage; it may in part be the result of non-enzymic browning. Studies in Zimbabwe and elsewhere have identified insect metabolic activity as one possible cause of heating. Storage of maize cobs in cribs is popular in many countries throughout the world. This is a very simple, low cost technique, in which cobs can be safely stored for 612 months depending on the environmental conditions. One study showed that crib storage dried the grain from 40% to 16% m.c. during storage with no visible mould growth during the storage period. However, there was 28% insect infestation and 50% germination loss after 7 months of storage. The value of mechanical drying is being increasingly appreciated, especially in areas where timely and complete sun drying is not possible and cheap sources of energy for heating are available. There are many types of mechanical dryers available and in use, including flat-bed dryers, rotary dryers, fluidised-bed dryers, mixed flow dryers, and so on. It is important that the right type and capacity of dryer is selected so that it matches the drying task and that the dryer operators are fully trained in its use. In China, an estimated 13001500 maize dryers have been installed in recent years in the three north-eastern provinces of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang and in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Almost all of them are indirectly heated, coal-fired continuous-flow dryers. There are reports that many of them, owing to improper design and poor quality of manufacture and erection, are not working well, resulting in quantitative and qualitative losses of maize. Nevertheless, in the absence of knowledge about the availability of better alternatives, such dryers are still being produced and sold. Thus, despite many technological advances made over several decades, many problems are still prevalent in the postharvest handling of maize, particularly in developing countries.

The postharvest problems associated with maize vary depending on the environmental conditions in which it is grown. For example, in north-eastern China, the maize is harvested as the weather is cooling in fact, the maize often freezes in the field and is maintained in that state until the following spring, at which time drying huge amounts of rapidly thawing, high moisture grain becomes a formidable problem. China is not alone; in many other countries, merchants and storage operators cannot cope with the large amounts of grain which arrive at depots at peak harvest time. In Southeast Asia and other tropical areas where two crops are grown per year, one of these is necessarily harvested during the rainy season, thus making proper sun drying a major challenge. The Chinese grain system receives maize with a high moisture content of 2530%, sometimes as high as 35%. If the initial moisture content of maize is very high, it is difficult to reduce it to the recommended 14% in one drying pass without damaging the grain. One solution here is two-stage drying, mentioned again later in this article. Another important feature of the current situation may be that, as in Thailand, there are no incentives for farmers to dry their grain to less than 18% m.c. Storage problems have increased as traditional varieties have been replaced by improved, high-yielding varieties which are generally more susceptible to insect damage than those of local origin, thus increasing the need for insecticides. Studies in Malawi have shown that hybrid maize suffers from very high losses (more than 20%) in traditional storage if left untreated. The message here is that the full benefits of the new varieties cannot be captured without increased attention to storage management.

storage form (on the cob, or shelled) different pests prefer each form; temperature and humidity high temperatures (2630C) and relative humidities (7080%) are optimal conditions for the development of storage pests such as Prostephanus and Sitophilus; level of hygiene in the storage place; type of store; and level of infestation before harvest. Insect control currently relies mainly on the use of chemical pesticides insecticides and fumigants. For health and environmental reasons, there is increasing concern worldwide about the use of such pesticides. Some markets will not accept commodity containing even minute amounts of pesticide residues. The use of methyl bromide, formerly one of the two most important grain fumigants, is being phased out, and the effectiveness of the remaining one, phosphine, is being compromised by improper use (see article in this issue). Alternatives include fumigation with controlled or modified atmosphere storage using gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Other farmer practices are varied and include spraying the stored maize with ash and pepper, smoking of the storage structure, and a host of other traditional remedies.

Fungal damage and mycotoxin contamination

Fungi can invade the grain before harvest (field fungi) or after harvest (storage fungi). The primary factors influencing fungal growth in stored food products are temperature and moisture content. Fungi can cause two quite distinct, though not unrelated, problems in stored commodities: spoilage resulting from fungal growth (moulding), and mycotoxin formation. Mould growth in grains can cause loss of weight, loss of nutritive value, poor milling quality or deterioration in flavour, colour, or other organoleptic qualities. Losses from spoilage, though much less dangerous than the presence of fungal toxins, may be of greater economic significance. Spoilage and downgrading may be caused by growth of fungi before harvest, or may be the result of inadequate drying or mismanagement in storage. Particularly in the tropics, conditions are often perfect for fungi and it is difficult to control commodity moisture. Damaged grain is more prone to fungal invasion (and therefore mycotoxin contamination).
Continued on next page.

Insect infestation
During storage, maize can be infested with insects and mites, fungi, microorganisms and rodents. Insects cause massive losses to stored crops throughout the world and maize is no exception. Typical insect pests of stored maize include Sitophilus zeamais (maize weevil), Prostephanus truncatus (larger grain borer), Sitotroga cerealella (Angoumois grain moth) and Tribolium (flour beetle) species. Factors affecting infestation include: grain moisture content grain stored at high moisture levels (30 35%) deteriorates rapidly;

Problems encountered
Grain deterioration
The deterioration of grain begins at harvest and the rate of quality loss depends on handling and storage conditions. The main problems are linked in that badly handled grain is more likely to be attacked by insects and insect-damaged grain is more susceptible to fungal growth.
8

Grain can be damaged through postharvest procedures, such as shelling, or by insect attack. Insects also cause damage through increased moisture caused by their activities. Mycotoxins are poisonous chemical compounds produced by certain fungal species which infect maize (and other crops). They can be acute poisons, or have chronic or cumulative effects, and have great significance in the health of humans and livestock. In a high proportion of maize that has received less than ideal postharvest treatment, a range of mycotoxins is likely to be found. The majority of these are produced by two genera of fungi: Fusarium (fumonisins, fusarin and trichothecenes) and Aspergillus (aflatoxins). Aflatoxins are potent human carcinogens and interfere with the functioning of the immune system. Epidemiological data continue to show that chronic exposure to aflatoxins causes liver cancer. Another aspect of aflatoxin that has serious human health implications is the transfer of an aflatoxin B1 metabolite aflatoxin M1 into the milk of lactating animals. There are reports that up to 70% of all stocks of maize in the Philippines are contaminated with aflatoxins. A number of Fusarium species affect maize both before and after harvest and the high toxicity of the mycotoxins they produce is being increasingly recognised. Fumonisins have been found as a very common contaminant of maize-based food and feed in Africa, China, France, Indonesia, Italy, the Philippines, South America, Thailand, and the USA. Fusarium moniliforme is the most common fungus on maize in most parts of the world. Consumption of F. moniliforme-infected maize is associated with a high incidence of human oesophageal cancer in southern Africa and parts of China. One of the most serious toxigenic fungi in Canada and the north-eastern USA is F. graminearum, which is associated with ear rot in maize. The principle inoculum source of F. graminearum is host debris, e.g. old maize stalks, ears and stubble, and debris of small grain cereals left on the soil surface. Weeds also serve as a source of mould inoculum. The risk of contamination here could be reduced by greater attention to hygiene and crop management. Animals are affected to varying degrees by different mycotoxins. For example, aflatoxins are particularly toxic to chickens, causing a range of problems including increased suscep-

tibility to disease. Pigs are particularly vulnerable to Fusarium mycotoxins, whereas poultry are relatively resistant. Cattle are thought to be generally less susceptible to the effects of mycotoxins because the toxins are degraded in the rumen. As well as directly affecting the health and productivity of livestock, mouldy feed may be less attractive to animals and has the potential to cause two different types of residues in meat that might then be consumed by humans. Firstly, specific residues of mycotoxins may occur. Secondly, most fungi produce a range of antibiotics, and these might be detected in bacterial inhibitory tests used to screen meat for residues of therapeutic antibiotics. The secondary effects on humans have not yet been ascertained. By far the most important cause of mycotoxin problems is failure to dry grains adequately before storage. Difficulties in sun drying and/or the inexperience of farmers and traders in the use of dryers are important factors here.

avoid grain damage (including mechanical and insect damage); and ensure proper storage conditions. Under suitable environmental conditions, sun drying is a good option, especially where the cobs (or grain) can be dried under cover, but with good exposure to sunlight and natural ventilation, such as under the edge of a house. Drying maize on the cob, before shelling, is a very good practice to reduce grain damage (damaged grain being more prone to fungal invasion). The benefits of mechanical drying are increasingly being appreciated, especially in wetter climates where timely sun drying is often impossible. Where mechanical drying is possible, drying conditions and equipment should be carefully selected, as improper drying can result in high costs, low efficiencies, high milling losses, poor quality of the grain or reduced germination capacity of dried seeds. Research in China has shown that it is possible to dry high moisture content maize in one drying pass provided certain continuous-flow dryer types are used with appropriate tempering. These dryers also give the best drying throughput, drying uniformity and energy efficiency. Flatbed dryers for maize on the cob are popular in Vietnam. They are locally designed and manufactured, are effective, entail a low initial investment, and have a low operating cost. Two-stage drying is gaining in popularity in many parts of the developing world, including the Philippines, Thailand and, most recently, China, where the effectiveness of the technique has been proven in a program of grain drying research supported by ACIAR since the early 1980s. A current ACIAR project (PHT/1994/037) aims to improve two-stage drying of wet maize in north-eastern China. The project is based at Harbin in Heilongjiang province. In two-stage drying, the high moisture grains (more than 24% m.c.) are dried rapidly to a more manageable level of about 18%, followed by slow drying to 14%. The benefits of two-stage drying include improved grain handling capability, premium grain quality, lower operating and drying costs, more affordable investment, ease of operation, and flexible drying capacities. The second stage can be undertaken in-store. Instore drying, sometimes called dryeration, has an added potential benefit of insect control.
Continued on next page.

Possible solutions
Solving any one of the postharvest problems encountered in maize helps to solve another. For example, reducing the level of insect damage helps reduce fungal attack of the grain. Hence, a system of integrated commodity management that combines the most appropriate methods of handling, storage and therapeutic treatments is the most effective approach to maintaining the highest possible quality of maize after harvest. The key aspects of adequate grain drying and good storage conditions are able to minimise or prevent physical deterioration, insect and other pests, fungal invasion and other postharvest problems.

Proper grain drying

Wet grain management is arguably the most important aspect of postharvest maize handling, as it affects how long the maize can be stored safely, by moderating its susceptibility to insect and fungal attack. Prevention of fungal invasion of commodities by drying to a safe moisture content for storage is by far the most effective method of avoiding mycotoxin problems, as fungi cannot grow (and hence mycotoxins cannot be produced) in properly dried food. The best way to prevent and control mycotoxins in maize is to: dry the grain as soon after harvest and as rapidly as feasible;

It may reduce the temperature within the grain to a level at which insects cannot reproduce and in some instances may kill any insects already present.

Storage
Ideally, storage should be in bags or structures which are impermeable to moisture. On a small scale, polyethylene bags are effective; on a large scale, safe storage requires well-designed structures with floors and walls impervious to moisture. Appropriately timed aeration with ambient air of a suitable temperature and moisture content can be helpful. All large-scale storage areas should be equipped with instruments for measuring inside and outside temperatures and absolute humidities, so that air appropriate for aeration can be selected. In modern storage systems, the operation of aeration fans is usually automatically controlled using sensors and a microprocessor. Sealed storage under modified atmospheres for insect control is also very effective for controlling fungal growth, provided the grain is adequately dried before storage, and provided diurnal temperature fluctuations within the storage are minimised. It is also useful in keeping out rodents. Sealed plastic enclosures such as those developed and tested in ACIAR projects PHT/1983/007 and PHT/1988/ 045 and the Israeli Volcani cubes provide these conditions, and have the advantage that they can be used to safely store grain outdoors where no suitable storage buildings are available. Shade screens and an upper layer of straw or husks insulate the stack from diurnal temperature fluctuations. Within the storage ecosystem sealed structure, an oxygen-depleted and carbon dioxide-enriched atmosphere is generated which arrests insect development. Grain is protected by maintaining the number of live insects below the threshold of economic damage without the need for pesticides.

or storage is an effective way of physically removing visibly damaged cobs. The procedure, although timeconsuming, has the potential to significantly reduce subsequent problems. Ensuring that the area used to store the maize is free of dirt and other contaminants is another basic step which reduces the risk of insect or fungal infestations arising in the store itself. In other words, hygiene and other good storagemanagement practices are of paramount importance.

both the temperature and the relative humidity of the aeration air. While effective, this method is too expensive for most situations in emerging economies, though it has been used in paddy storages by a major rice marketing authority in Malaysia. Grain cooling using refrigeration, and other strategies such as the use of controlled atmospheres or preservatives or natural inhibitors are not usually feasible in developing countries as they are almost always more expensive than effective drying. Inert dusts and other materials. The move away from chemical pesticides has renewed interest in the use of inert substances to keep insects at bay. Worldwide, locally available inert materials have been used by communities for many generations to protect their stored commodities. The main drawback of such materials, which include wood ash, lime and fine sand, is the large quantities required to provide protection. Their mode of action is probably a combination of their abrasive qualities and the inhibition of normal insect behaviour. Inert dusts bring about death by desiccation, and as a result their performance is affected by ambient relative humidity. They have been proven effective in both laboratory and large-scale trials against a range of storage pests. In a recent Indonesian study, zeolite a hydrated silicate compound close in composition to the common mineral feldspar had been successful in killing 100% of S. zeamais during storage of three months. Dryacide, an activated amorphous silica used widely as a surface treatment of stored wheat in Australia, also provides an effective means of disinfesting storage facilities and farm machinery. It can be dry blown or applied as an aqueous slurry as appropriate. Biological control. One success story has been the biological control of P. truncatus, the larger grain borer, which was accidentally introduced to Africa from Central America with devastating effects on maize. Previously, the main option for farmers to reduce losses was to admix pesticide with their grain which was costly and had the usual health and environmental implications. Careful research led to identification of a predatory beetle Teretriosoma nigrescens which is now being used successfully to control the borer.

Pesticide use
The use of pesticides is still the most common means of achieving therapeutic pest control. Fungicides are commonly used to control mycotoxin-producing fungal growth, and fumigant and residual insecticide use is still prevalent. For effective disinfestation using fumigants, the two most important factors are provision of a gastight enclosure, and good distribution of gas throughout the commodity. It is critical that all insects in all parts of the storage be exposed to the required concentration of fumigant for the required time. Leaky enclosures lead to failed fumigations, loss of commodity and the risk of selecting for resistance to the fumigant among the surviving insects. Increasingly, traditional insecticides based on plant derivatives are being used in integrated pest management systems. In such systems, fumigations are undertaken sparingly, in conjunction with best practice management techniques of clean storage areas, hygiene and alternative control methods. Adequate protection of stored maize against P. truncatus has been recently achieved by treating only the top 20% and bottom 30% of grain, after a study of the insects behaviour revealed their tendency to move down a grain bulk. Insects and fungi are developing resistance to a range of chemical pesticides, and the number of pesticides is being reduced, so the need for alternative approaches is becoming increasingly urgent.

The basics of pest control

Once the grain has been properly dried, there are, according to the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), four major types of control measures applicable to maize storage: inspection; housekeeping/sanitation; chemical methods; and physical and mechanical methods. Sorting maize before shelling and/

Alternative pest control methods

Grain chilling. Increasingly, chilled aeration in which the grain temperature is lowered independent of ambient conditions for the control of insect development, is a popular means of preserving grain quality. Grain is cooled using a mobile refrigeration system that controls

Continued on next page.

10

Although relatively costly in research terms, studying insect life cycles, physiology and behaviour to develop strategies to outwit them, can lead to solutions which are harmless to all but the target pest, e.g. in Kentucky, USA, S. cerealella has been successfully controlled through timing strategies, such as early harvesting, which minimise the window of exposure to potential colonising moths. The change to bulk handling of grain has also markedly reduced the importance of this pest. Bacterial antagonism is being investigated as an alternative means of fungal/mycotoxin control. For example, inoculation of grain with Bacillus megaterium can reduce Aspergillus populations and aflatoxin content. Although the mechanism of action and the antagonistic metabolite of the bacterium have yet to be characterised, the technique illustrates the potential use of biological control on a wide variety of target organisms. In addition, researchers are obtaining promising results by intentionally introducing into field crops fungal strains that do not produce mycotoxins but which successfully out-compete strains that do, with the result of reducing overall mycotoxin contamination. Other methods. In a recent study, insect growth regulators were shown to be effective in protecting unshelled maize against S. zeamais and shelled maize against S. cerealella. Very few insect growth regulators are registered for food storage use, but this is likely to change as pressure to reduce reliance on conventional insecticides mounts. Physical treatments with heat or irradiation are also being tested. These have the advantage of being residue free.

success: density segregation of contaminated from non-contaminated kernels, food processing practices, and treatment with chemicals such as sodium bisulfite, ozone, ammonia, ammonium carbonate, sodium carbonate, and calcium hydroxide. Other strategies have included dilution of contaminated grain with uncontaminated grain, the use of binding agents, anion exchange and so forth.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank Dr Bruce Champ for his expert comments on this review, but acknowledge that any errors of interpretation are theirs.

Sources
Banks, H.J., Wright, E.J. and Damcevski, K.A., ed. 1998. Stored grain in Australia. Proceedings of the Australian Postharvest Technical Conference, Canberra, 2629 May 1998. Canberra, Stored Grain Research Laboratory, CSIRO Entomology. Champ, B.R., Highley, E. and Johnson, G.I., ed. 1996. Grain drying in Asia. Proceedings of an international conference held at the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, 1720 October 1995. ACIAR Proceedings No. 71. Champ, B.R., Highley, E., Hocking, A.D. and Pitt, J.I., ed. 1991. Fungi and mycotoxins in stored products. Proceedings of an international conference held at Bangkok, Thailand, 2326 April 1991. ACIAR Proceedings No. 36. GASGA (Group for Assistance on Systems Relating to Grain After-harvest) 1997. Mycotoxins in grain. Technical Leaflet No. 3. Wageningen, The Netherlands, CTA (Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation). Highley, E., Wright, E.J., Banks, H.J. and Champ, B.R., ed. 1994. Stored product protection. Proceedings of the 6th International Working Conference on Stored-product Protection, 1723 April 1994, Canberra, Australia, Volumes 1 and 2. Wallingford, CAB International. Jin Zuxun, Liang Quan, Liang Yongsheng, Tan Xianchang and Guan Lianghua, ed. 1999. Stored product protection. Proceedings of the 7th International Working Conference on Stored-product Protection, 1419 October 1998, Beijing, P.R. China, Volumes 1 and 2. Chengdu, Sichuan Province, Sichuan Publishing House of Science and Technology. Johnson, G.I., Le Van To, Nguyen Duy Duc and Webb, M.C., ed. 2000. Quality assurance in agricultural produce. Proceedings of the 19th ASEAN/1st APEC Seminar on Postharvest Technology, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, 912 November 1999. ACIAR Proceedings No. 100.

Funding, education and social factors

There is a trend toward reducing publicly funded research and dissemination efforts for maize. This is particularly worrying given the fact that small-scale farmers in many regions are not served by private companies. Teaching farmers, traders and cooperatives correct procedures for drying, fumigating, and other storage and handling practices is the key to success in the postharvest handling of maize. Just as important, however, is to explain the reasoning behind these techniques if the people growing, handling, storing and marketing the grain understand how and why grain deteriorates, it places them in a better position to improve their practices, and they are more likely to do so. For example, many farmers are unaware that maize kept moist and in unsuitable storage is prone to aflatoxin contamination. Providing (financial) incentives to farmers and processors to achieve lower moisture contents in their stored grain would probably also see a higher level of compliance. The importance of training farmers is highlighted in a recent survey which found a significant relationship between training and the level of technology utilisation in the Philippines. Also, farmers themselves, with their extensive local knowledge, can contribute to better methods of handling and storage. The best way to capture the benefits of this local knowledge and increase levels of adoption of technologies that are shown to be effective may be through farmer participatory research projects. In addition, social factors such as gender issues need to be considered when undertaking research and extension which is aimed at helping developing countries, as these may play a crucial role in whether the outputs are taken up by their intended beneficiaries. For example, at the village level in many countries it is women who do the bulk of the postharvest work. They should therefore be among the primary targets for research and training in better postharvest management of the crop.

Decontamination
Approaches to mycotoxin decontamination have included physical, biological and chemical treatment of grain, as well as dietary manipulations to minimise the effects of contaminating mycotoxins on the animal, e.g. ammoniation has been shown to be an effective method of detoxifying animal feedstuffs. In cases of light to moderate Fusarium infestation and mycotoxin contamination, physical or chemical methods for cleaning the kernel surface, and hence removing the more heavily contaminated particulate matter, have proven effective in reducing mycotoxin concentrations. These include dehulling, washing and roasting. Many other methods have been tried with varying levels of

Internet websites (November 2000):

CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center): <www.cimmyt.mx/>. IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute): <www.ifpri.org/>. IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture): <www.cgiar.org/iita>. INPhO (Information Network on Postharvest Operations): <www.fao.org/ inpho/>.

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Action against mycotoxins in West Africa

hana, Togo, and Benin are joining forces to fight the toxin-producing fungus, Aspergillus flavus, which is contaminating maize and other widely consumed crops in West Africa. The fungus can produce aflatoxins which penetrate the body only through the consumption of either grainbased food or poultry and cattle fed with such food.
Aflatoxin contamination of maize, peanuts and other food crops is considered to be a major cause of hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer) in humans. The voluntary organisation, Rotary International, has now launched a program to eradicate aflatoxin in the three West African countries. This follows a survey it conducted, the results of which showed a strong correlation between the presence of aflatoxin in the blood and the incidence of liver cancer. Aflatoxins can also contaminate human milk and thereby be absorbed by feeding infants. As a result, their immune system is affected. This contributes to high infant mortality rates and to impaired health through-

out the childs life, said Dr Kitty Cardwell, a member of Rotary International and an expert on aflatoxins

who is based at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria. Infant mortality rates stand at 76 per 1000 in Ghana, 97 per 1000 in Benin, and 77 per 1000 in Togo, compared with about 2 per 1000 in Australia, for example. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the permitted level in food products of aflatoxins is zero parts per billion (0 ppb) for children, 20 ppb for adults and 55 ppb for animals. These norms are not respected in West Africa. Some studies show populations consuming 100 ppb per day since they were born, Dr Cardwell lamented. The studies reveal that consumers are not aware they are eating contaminated food. The problem with aflatoxin is that farmers cannot see the fungus that produces it on the maize. Moreover, it is colourless and it does not disappear after cooking or fermentation. According to the authors of the Rotary survey, The corn seeds are severely damaged in West Africa because they remain too long in the fields where they are attacked by many insects. As a result, they generally have higher levels of aflatoxin. Damage by infestations of insects generally makes the grain much more susceptible to fungal invasion. s

US FDA recommendations
The US Food and Drug Administration initiates regulatory action when aflatoxin exceeds 0.5 ppb in milk for human consumption. Drying maize kernels to 15.5% moisture or lower within 2448 hours of harvest will minimise the risk of fungal growth and consequent aflatoxin production. This assumes that maize and other grain seeds are not already infected with A. flavus in the standing crop. Research by United States Department of Agriculture scientists has demonstrated that two maize lines which are resistant to infection by A. flavus are also resistant to infection by Fusarium moniliforme, another maize ear-rotting fungus that produces fumonisins, another class of mycotoxin. These maize lines may be useful in developing lines which not only resist infection by the two fungi but also to production of the mycotoxins. s

TRAINING NEWS

FORTHCOMING MEETING

Courses at NRI, University of Greenwich, UK

IHC2002

he Natural Resources Institute offers programs leading to a Post-graduate Diploma/Master of Science in Grain Storage Management and Post-Harvest Horticulture. Both programs are offered in both in attendance and computer-mediated distance learning (CMDL) modes of delivery. In attendance programmes:
PGDip. 2001 MSc 12 March to 29 June 2 July onwards

Food Safety PGDip/MSc (subject to validation)

This is a new course, scheduled to start in September 2001. A 45-week full-time program will address the needs of professionals working in food and agriculture who seek a wider view of food safety issues. NRI also offers professional short courses, which can be tailored to suit clients needs. For further details on training at NRI, please contact:
The Training Support Unit The Natural Resources Institute Chatham Maritime Kent, ME4 4TB. Fax: +44 1634 883577 Email: <nri-training@gre.ac.uk> Web page: <http://www.nri.org/ Training>. s

he 26th International Horticultural Congress and Exhibition, sponsored by the International Society for Horticultural Science and implemented by the Canadian Society of Horticultural Science, will be held in Toronto, Canada on 1117 August 2002. The conference theme will be Horticulture Art & Science for Life.
Various items in a list of colloquia given in a recently released circular will be of potential interest to the postharvest community, in particular the proposed colloquium on Food safety issues and concerns: transgenic foods, balancing microbial and pesticide risks, ensuring the safety of fresh produce. For further information on this and other aspects of the program visit the conferences web site at <www.ihc2002.org>. s

CMDL programs:
Dates on request.

12

PROJECT PHT/1996/004 NEWS

ELISA technology transfer workshops in Vietnam*

s part of ACIAR Project PHT/ 1996/004, Monitoring mycotoxins and pesticides in grain and food production systems for risk management in Vietnam and Australia, two project workshops were held at the Post-Harvest Technology Institute (PHTl) in Ho Chi Minh City in September 2000.
The workshops focused on developing ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) technology for preparing specific antibodies to mycotoxins and pesticides. It is intended that these antibodies will be used to provide simple, inexpensive ELISA testing kits to be used for detecting these contaminants in the agricultural produce of Vietnam. Apart from their important role in protecting human and animal health, these tests will be used to provide quality assurance for Vietnamese produce such as maize meal, soybeans, groundnuts, rice and coffee destined for domestic consumption and for export. Both workshops were opened by Dr Le Van To, Director of the PHTl, and leader of the Vietnamese team, who remarked that this was an occasion to train the trainers. The technology will be transferred later to users in the field, once the ACIAR project has successfully developed
* This article by Greg Banova, ACIAR Country Manager in Vietnam, first appeared in the ACIAR Vietnam Newsletter, JulySeptember 2000.

the test kits in formats more suitable for use in widespread monitoring. The first of the workshops was held from 1214 September and provided specialised training in the synthesis of the chemicals (haptens) needed to raise specific antibodies to mycotoxins and pesticides. Workshop leaders were Dr Robin Allan, Dr Alice Lee, and project leader Professor Ivan Kennedy, all from the University of Sydney. The PHTI has now set up a laboratory to carry out this synthesis. It is run by Mr Vo Thanh Hau who recently returned from the University of Sydney where he received training in the operational techniques required. Access to a nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer (NMR) to prepare these chemicals and confirm their structure is also required and project leaders are very pleased that access to NMR technology can be arranged in Ho Chi Minh City with the cooperation of Professor Cho Pham Ngoc Son of the Centre for Analytical Systems and Experimentation (CASE). Professor Sons Centre is currently the only institution in Vietnam with a suitable 200 MHz NMR instrument. Other participants in the workshop, apart from PHTI personnel, were from the University of Ho Chi Minh City (HCMCU) and the University of Agriculture and Forestry, HCMC (UAF). On the final day of the first workshop, participants tested some chemical products prepared as analogues of DDT insecticide. These and thousands die every day from starvation or from diseases linked to scarcity of clean water. Where there is hunger, there will usually be anger; and where there is anger there can be no peace. The problem remains soluble, but becomes more difficult as time passes. To solve it, developed and developing country governments must commit themselves to increased support for agricultural research national and international to provide the means for producing the food that will be needed by a rapidly growing world population; and to redoubling their efforts to dismantle the walls to free flow of food that are, along with poverty, the main causes of the distribution problem. Poverty can be overcome only through

products can now be linked to proteins for injection into rabbits to produce specific antibodies that will be characterised and incorporated into test kits by Mr Bui Van Thin of the PHTI. Mr Thin will spend time at the University of Sydney in early 2001 to obtain further training in optimising the ELISA assays. The second workshop, which ran from 1821 September, aimed to provide training in the analysis by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) of mycotoxins such as aflatoxins and ochratoxin. The workshop was conducted by Ms Karen Jackson of the Australian Wheat Board Ltd based in Werribee, Victoria with assistance from the University of Sydney team. With its new HPLC now installed and running (purchased with funding from ACIAR and supplied by Shimadzu at a very favourable price) the PHTI will be able to validate the results obtained with the ELISA kits and those by other cooperating laboratories or field workers who use the kits as prototypes for commercial products that may be made in the future. The ACIAR research project, just into the second year of its three-year term, now moves into its next phase of preparing prototype test kits for both aflatoxins and organochlorine pesticides. It is expected that these will be launched at future workshops where PHTI staff will train the future users of the technology based at various institutes and agencies in Vietnam. Dr Tran Van An, a senior member of the PHTI team, is hopeful that this will be possible for an aflatoxin kit, one of the highest priority toxins being studied in the project, in the first half of 2001. s

Food and water: essential for life...and peace...from page 5

Copies of the proceedings of the conference, which contains all the papers presented, are available free of charge from The Crawford Fund, Hilda Stevenson House, 1 Leonard Street, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; fax: +61 3 9347 3224; email: <crawford@mira.net.au>. So what messages emerged from this thought-provoking conference? The main one was certainly that global security can never be fully achieved while large numbers of people around the world remain desperately short of food and water,

economic growth, and here again agriculture and agricultural research have large roles to play, because agriculture is the engine that can power economic growth in many developing countries. s

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Aflatoxin in chilli products a hot topic in Australia

n interesting, but worrying, spin-off of a recent Adelaide University research project on chilli cultivation was the finding that many imported chilli preparations contained much higher than acceptable concentrations of aflatoxin, a cancer-causing agent produced by fungi that invade a range of susceptible foodstuffs.
The project, funded by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) and led by Dr Andreas Klieber, who is also a member of the ACIAR project PHT/1994/016 team (see report in this issue), sought to determine the best conditions for growing and harvesting chillies in South Australia, prepare them for spice manufacture, and prevent the resultant spice from spoiling. Virtually all the chilli spice currently used in Australia is imported. A survey of 90 products made by the researchers showed extensive contamination with aflatoxins (see accompanying table). Overall only 9% of samples complied with Australian standards, with another 12% marginal, Dr Klieber reported. This survey, he said, shows that considerable improvements need to be made to produce a safe food for consumers. Importers need to insist on better quality assurance and testing by producers, but a significant opportunity exists for local producers to develop a safe product that will replace imported products of unknown safety. When the findings of Dr Kliebers research on chillies were published in the Adelaide University newspaper in early August, the news about aflatoxin in chilli preparations generated,

not surprisingly, a great deal of interest and concern. Australia is a country notable for its ethnic, and therefore culinary, diversity and the level of consumption of spices such as chillies is significant and growing. Given the incidence and levels of contamination, was it safe to continue consuming imported products? Dr Klieber put the following view: I would say that people should not stop eating chillies. The aim of our report was really to get the industry to start monitoring for contamination and to correct problems, as they are legally bound to. This reduces the overall load of aflatoxins that we may be exposed to, and that can only be healthy, especially since we as a nation are eating more chillies and other spices. The Australia New Zealand Food Authority (ANZFA), which is responsible for food safety matters, announced that it would conduct a survey into the risks posed to those who eat imported chilli products. ANZFA calculated that the likely exposure to aflatoxins in those people who eat a lot of chillies is about 80% of that expected from people consuming peanuts containing the maximum permissible level of 15 micrograms per kilogram (g/kg) aflatoxin. They concluded that dietary exposure to aflatoxins from chillies, while significant, is not as high as that from peanuts. Dr Klieber agreed, but noted that 80% is pretty close to 100% and that therefore as peanuts are being monitored so also should spices. ANZFA subsequently released a statement clarifying the nature and source of aflatoxin in food, and explaining that the Food Standards Code limits its level in nuts to 15 g/kg and

in other foods to 5 g/kg. ANZFA concluded that, on the basis of the known toxicity of these substances and the level of consumption of chillies in Australia, the levels are not considered to pose a significant health risk. This concurs broadly with Dr Kliebers original findings, which stated that significant consumption of chilli and paprika spice could be in the order of 25 grams per day. In the worst measured case of contaminated product in Dr Kliebers study, this would translate to 0.5 g of aflatoxin consumed per day. Nevertheless, all parties involved in the issue have recognised the need for vigilance. ANZFA has asked the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) to increase the monitoring and testing of imported chilli-based foods, including other spice products which may be susceptible to aflatoxin contamination. The Authority has also briefed all Australian State and Territory jurisdictions on the matter. s

CURRENT AWARENESS ... from page 16

Romolo will be based at PHTI for six months, to work on extending the results of ACIAR project PHT/1997/ 131: Computer aided learning for grain pest management. He will help to set up a grain insect resistance laboratory to test for resistance to pesticides and phosphine in grain pests and instruct technicians in the proper use of phosphine for fumigating ships and warehouses. Romolo said, before departing for Ho Chi Minh City, Im really looking forward to training with the Vietnamese scientists and technicians. It will be interesting with my understanding of the Vietnamese language but I will be relying on an Australian developed CD-ROM that demonstrates correct treatment of stored grains. s

Aflatoxin levels (g/kg) found in a survey of chilli products imported into Australia Product type No. of samples tested Mean Standard deviation Minimum Maximum Samples passeda (%) 0 0 17 18 40 13 9 Samples marginalb (%) 8 5 17 9 20 27 12

Chilli powder Paprika powder Chilli crushed Chilli whole Chilli minced Chilli sauce All
a

26 21 12 11 5 15 90

25 24 13 13 9 14 19

16 20 8 13 9 10 15

7 7 2 0 1 2 0

71 89 28 49 24 39 89

5 g/kg; b 5+ to 10 g/kg Note: The highest level found was 89 g/kg.

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Moroccos horticultural export challenge*

he north-west African nation of Morocco, with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, has long enjoyed a thriving export market for its horticultural produce.
The countrys diverse climates allow for the production of a wide range of temperate, subtropical and tropical fruits and vegetables. Annually, Morocco produces about 67 million tonnes of fruits and vegetables. Overall, more than 90% of exported horticultural produce has European Union (EU) markets as its final destination.

Import barriers
Since the entry of Spain and Portugal as full members of the European Economic Community in 1986, Europe has restricted Moroccan imports to protect its members. Preferential access is granted for some products that are not produced in Europe, while other crops are subjected to different restrictions, e.g. Moroccan tomatoes are accepted only in the off-season, when the European weather means that tomatoes cannot be grown and therefore the imports represent no competition to European producers. As well as the annual and monthly quotas noted above, prices are regulated. Other restrictions include pesticide residue levels in the products, sanitary certification, declaration of importation, banning of certain chemicals, and stipulations on packaging types.

analysis, and growers can seek information and support free of charge. Both EACCE and SASMA, together with a variety of other institutions, are heavily involved with growers and exporters in order to produce and ensure good quality produce for export. The collaborative approach has led to implementation of improved irrigation and fertilisation technology, a field sanitary program, means of tracking fruit both before and after harvest, increased use of integrated pest management, and effective monitoring of other preharvest factors. Postharvest, packinghouses are now convinced of the necessity for certification and thus many of them are implementing strategies to comply with quality systems and International Standards Organisation (ISO) 9000 standards. These strategies are reviewed in Ait-Oubahou and El-Otmanis paper all aim to reduce damage and contamination of the harvested produce.

Citrus and tomato fruits

Two of Moroccos most important export fruit crops are citrus and tomato. A paper by A. Ait-Oubahou and M. El-Otmani in the recently published ACIAR Proceedings 100 (see item on page 16), upon which this article is based, reports that 1.5 million tonnes of citrus fruits and 450,000750,000 tonnes of tomatoes are produced annually, with average export quantities of about 55,000600,000 tonnes for citrus and 230,000250,000 tonnes for tomatoes. The EU markets are the dominant recipients: 75% of exported citrus fruit (30% to France and 15% to Germany), and 80% of tomatoes. Citrus fruit is by far the most important horticultural export crop, with the harvest season starting in late September and finishing in June. The main exported varieties are Clementine mandarins and Washington navel and Valencia late oranges. The tomato export industry is based on winter production. Importation into Europe is allowed from October to the end of April, with quotas for each month and an annual total of 150,000 tonnes.

Market expansion
With restricted trade to countries in the EU, Morocco looked to expand its export markets over the last decade, there has been a substantial increase in export destinations. For example, in the 199899 season, Morocco exported about 230,000 tonnes of tomatoes, compared with 90,000 tonnes in the 198990 season. This large increase in export quantity is mainly the result of the export of 35,00040,000 tonnes to the Russian market.

Overcoming these barriers

Morocco is addressing this export challenge in three ways: attention to quality assurance; diversifying export markets; and introducing new fruit varieties.

Quality assurance
In order to maintain its European markets, Morocco has been obliged to address the strict EU requirements. This has necessitated a cooperative approach between growers, exporters, and specialists from private and government organisations. Quality control and standardisation are under the responsibility of a public sector enterprise known as Etablissement Autonome du Contrle et de la Coordination des Exportations (EACCE). Other activities of EACCE include quality inspection, certification for export products, and coordination of exported quantities through consultation with exporting groups and associations. EACCE has two laboratories, in Casablanca and Agadir, for quality analysis of different crops, and offices in several European countries to follow the quality, quantities and prices of the products. An advisory institution financed by associations of growers of citrus and vegetables Socit Agricole des Services au Maroc (SASMA) is also participating through technical support and technology transfer. SASMA has laboratories for quality and pesticide residue

New varieties
Another Moroccan strategy to overcome EU restrictions has been to introduce new varieties which have sought-after characteristics, including easy-to-peel Clementine mandarins (Nour and Afourer) and tomatoes with a long shelf life. Thus, Morocco has implemented diverse and cooperative approaches to the challenges of export marketing which will, it is to be hoped, see it successfully competing on the global stage. s

* This report by Mary Webb draws on the following paper: Ait-Oubahou, A. and ElOtmani, M. 2000. Quality assurance for export-oriented citrus and tomato fruit in Morocco. In: Johnson, G.I., Le Van To, Nguyen Duy Duc and Webb, M.C., ed., Quality assurance in agricultural produce. Proceedings of the 19th ASEAN/1st APEC Seminar on Postharvest Technology, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, 912 November 1999. ACIAR Proceedings No. 100, 706710.

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CURRENT AWARENESS
AustraliaNorth Korea sign agricultural R&D agreement
The Australian Government recently announced that it has signed a memorandum of understanding with the Government of the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK) designed to facilitate cooperation between Australian and DPRK scientists in agricultural research, including the participation of DPRK scientists in research programs and on-the-job training activities in Australian research institutions. Australias participation in the cooperation with the DRPK will be managed by ACIAR. The new agreement also provides for the design and implementation of specific activities that enhance agricultural research and development activities in Australia and the DPRK; the exchange of scientific information; missions of scientists from one country to the other; and the joint publication of collaborative research results in national and international journals. An objective of the agreement is to strengthen DPRK capacity to undertake research and development relevant to its needs. One of the DPRKs most urgent research needs is to strengthen the production of staple food crops through better management of soils and fertilisers, using improved crop varieties, and developing more productive farming systems. Agricultural production in the DPRK has fallen significantly in recent years. There will be another considerable shortfall in the grain harvest this year, and food aid will again be necessary. The DPRK has a solid core of agricultural scientists, but their links with Western counterparts could be further strengthened, and more training in modern agricultural methods made available. Australia sees itself as being well placed to collaborate with the DPRK scientists given its own exceptionally strong research and development capacity.

19TH ASEAN SEMINAR PAPERS PUBLISHED

ACIAR has new communications manager

Ms Heather Briggs joined ACIAR as Communications Program Manager in October 2000. Heather brings knowledge and skills from more than 20 years in a variety of positions in higher education (mainly in science and technology), an earlier career in scientific publishing, and an educational background in chemical and biological sciences. Her most recent position included responsibilities for building relationships and managing offshore educational programs through collaborative ventures in Southeast Asia. She also has experience in incorporating online technologies into established work practices, and supporting change in professional practice. She will promote increased use of the Internet and digital technologies to disseminate information about ACIARs activities, and distribute ACIARs publications to wider audiences.
The proceedings of the 19th ASEAN/1st APEC Seminar on Postharvest Technology, held in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam in November 1999, have been published as ACIAR Proceedings 100 under the title Quality assurance in agricultural produce, at 736 pages the largest ACIAR Proceedings so far. The volume contains almost 100 papers presented at the seminar, together with session summaries, workshop reports, and other supplementary material. The various papers provide first a broad overview of quality issues, followed by accounts, from throughout ASEAN and beyond, of most aspects of grain, fruit, and vegetable quality essential reading for all involved in postharvest management of durable and perishable food commodities. For details of availability, email the ACIAR Publications Manager at <lynch@aciar.gov.au> or use the postal address or fax number given at the foot of page 16. A CD-ROM version of the proceedings has also been produced. s

ACIAR Postharvest Newsletter

This newsletter is published quarterly in March, June, September, and December by the ACIAR Postharvest Technology Program. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research was established in June 1982 by an Act of the Australian Parliament. The Centre encourages research aimed at identifying agricultural problems in developing countries and finding solutions to such problems. It is empowered both to commission research and to communicate the results of such research to interested persons and institutions. Newsletter Compiler and Editor: Mr E. Highley Program Manager: Dr G. I. Johnson ACIARs address: GPO Box 1571 Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia. Phone: (02) [Intl 61 2] 6217 0500. Fax: (02) [Intl 61 2] 6217 05011. Editorial email: ed@arawang.com.au Home Page: http://www.aciar.gov.au Mailing list enquiries: Arawang Communication Group, GPO Box 661, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia. Fax: (02) [Intl 61 2] 6257 7808. ISSN: 1034-8999.
AUSTRALIAN CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Agro-ambassador in PHT program

Mr Romolo Tassone, who is currently based in the Post Harvest Technology Institute (PHTI) in Ho Chi Minh City, is one of four young Australians working on ACIAR projects who have been selected to spend up to 12 months in Vietnam as part of the Australian Youth Ambassadors for Development program funded through the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID).
Concluded on page 14, column 3.

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Typesetting and layout by Arawang Communication Group, Canberra