UNIT -3

TQM TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES -I

SEVEN QUALITY TOOLS

The Seven Tools
Histograms, Pareto Charts, Cause and Effect Diagrams, Run Charts, Scatter Diagrams, Flow Charts, Control Charts

ISHIKAWAS BASIC TOOLS OF QUALITY

Kaoru Ishikawa developed seven basic visual tools of quality so that the average person could analyze and interpret data. These tools have been used worldwide by companies, managers of all levels and employees.

HISTOGRAMS
Histogram Defined
A histogram is a bar graph that shows frequency data. Histograms provide the easiest way to evaluate the distribution of data.

HISTOGRAMS
Creating a Histogram
Collect data and sort it into categories. Then label the data as the independent set or the dependent set.
The characteristic you grouped the data by would be the independent variable. The frequency of that set would be the dependent variable.

Each mark on either axis should be in equal increments. For each category, find the related frequency and make the horizontal marks to show that frequency.

HISTOGRAMS
Examples of How Histograms Can Be Used
Histograms can be used to determine distribution of sales. Say for instance a company wanted to measure the revenues of other companies and wanted to compare numbers.

PARETO CHARTS
Pareto Chart Defined
Pareto charts are used to identify and prioritize problems to be solved. They are actually histograms aided by the 80/20 rule adapted by Joseph Juran.
Remember the 80/20 rule states that approximately 80% of the problems are created by approximately 20% of the causes.

PARETO CHARTS
Constructing a Pareto Chart
First, information must be selected based on types or classifications of defects that occur as a result of a process. The data must be collected and classified into categories. Then a histogram or frequency chart is constructed showing the number of occurrences.

PARETO CHARTS
An Example of How a Pareto Chart Can Be Used
Pareto Charts are used when products are suffering from different defects but the defects are occurring at a different frequency, or only a few account for most of the defects present, or different defects incur different costs. What we see from that is a product line may experience a range of defects. The manufacturer could concentrate on reducing the defects which make up a bigger percentage of all the defects or focus on eliminating the defect that causes monetary loss.
Actual chart is on the next slide

PARETO CHARTS

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAMS

Cause and Effect Diagram Defined
The cause and effect diagram is also called the Ishikawa diagram or the fishbone diagram. It is a tool for discovering all the possible causes for a particular effect. The major purpose of this diagram is to act as a first step in problem solving by creating a list of possible causes.

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAMS

Constructing a Cause and Effect Diagram
First, clearly identify and define the problem or effect for which the causes must be identified. Place the problem or effect at the right or the head of the diagram. Identify all the broad areas of the problem. Write in all the detailed possible causes in each of the broad areas. Each cause identified should be looked upon for further more specific causes. View the diagram and evaluate the main causes. Set goals and take action on the main causes.

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAMS

An Example of When a Cause and Effect Diagram Can Be Used
This diagram can be used to detect the problem of incorrect deliveries.
Diagram on next slide

When a production team is about to launch a new product, the factors that will affect the final product must be recognized. The fishbone diagram can depict problems before they have a chance to begin.

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAMS

Diagram of the Incorrect Deliveries Example:

SCATTER DIAGRAMS
Scatter Diagrams Defined
Scatter Diagrams are used to study and identify the possible relationship between the changes observed in two different sets of variables.

SCATTER DIAGRAMS
Constructing a Scatter Diagram
First, collect two pieces of data and create a summary table of the data. Draw a diagram labeling the horizontal and vertical axes.
It is common that the cause variable be labeled on the X axis and the effect variable be labeled on the Y axis.

Plot the data pairs on the diagram. Interpret the scatter diagram for direction and strength.

SCATTER DIAGRAMS
An Example of When a Scatter Diagram Can Be Used
A scatter diagram can be used to identify the relationship between the production speed of an operation and the number of defective parts made.

SCATTER DIAGRAMS
An Example of When a Scatter Diagram Can Be Used (cont.)
Displaying the direction of the relationship will determine whether increasing the assembly line speed will increase or decrease the number of defective parts made. Also, the strength of the relationship between the assembly line speed and the number of defective parts produced is determined.

FLOW CHARTS
Flow Charts Defined
A flow chart is a pictorial representation showing all of the steps of a process.

FLOW CHARTS
Creating a Flow Chart
First, familiarize the participants with the flow chart symbols. Draw the process flow chart and fill it out in detail about each element. Analyze the flow chart. Determine which steps add value and which dont in the process of simplifying the work.

FLOW CHARTS
Examples of When to Use a Flow Chart
Two separate stages of a process flow chart should be considered:
The making of the product The finished product

RUN CHARTS
Run Charts Defined
Run charts are used to analyze processes according to time or order.

RUN CHARTS
Creating a Run Chart
Gathering Data
Some type of process or operation must be available to take measurements for analysis.

Organizing Data
Data must be divided into two sets of values X and Y. X values represent time and values of Y represent the measurements taken from the manufacturing process or operation.

Charting Data
Plot the Y values versus the X values.

Interpreting Data
Interpret the data and draw any conclusions that will be beneficial to the process or operation.

RUN CHARTS
An Example of Using a Run Chart
An organizations desire is to have their product arrive to their customers on time, but they have noticed that it doesnt take the same amount of time each day of the week. They decided to monitor the amount of time it takes to deliver their product over the next few weeks.

CONTROL CHARTS
Control Charts Defined
Control charts are used to determine whether a process will produce a product or service with consistent measurable properties.

CONTROL CHARTS
Steps Used in Developing Process Control Charts
Identify critical operations in the process where inspection might be needed. Identify critical product characteristics. Determine whether the critical product characteristic is a variable or an attribute. Select the appropriate process control chart. Establish the control limits and use the chart to monitor and improve. Update the limits.

CONTROL CHARTS
An Example of When to Use a Control Chart
Counting the number of defective products or services
Do you count the number of defects in a given product or service? Is the number of units checked or tested constant?

SEVEN MANAGEMENT & PLANNING TOOLS

Affinity Diagram Interrelationship Digraph Tree Diagram Prioritization Matrices Matrix Diagram Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC) Activity Network Diagram

Relation Between New Seven Q.C. Tools and Basic Seven Tools
FACTS Data Numerical Data
Define problem after collecting numerical data

Verbal Data
Define problem before collecting numerical data

The Basic Seven Tools

Analytical approach

The Seven New Tools

Generate Ideas Formulate plans

Organize Information

AFFINITY DIAGRAM
STEP1
CONSTITUTION OF SIX TO EIGHT MEMBER TEAM FOR FINDING A SOLUTION TO PROBLEM

STEP 2

THE MODERATORE FIXES THE MEETING VENUEAND TIME

STEP 3

EACH MEMBERS COMES OUT WITH WHAT HE THINKS IS THE SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM AND WRITE DOWN HIS IDEAS ONE IN EACH POST it CARD OR SHEET AND FIXES IT ON THE BOARD

 CONTD
STEP 4
AFTER ALL THE MEMBERS HAVE EXHAUSTED THEIR IDEAS THE TEAM DISCUSSES AND REMOVES THOSE SHEETS OR CARDS CONTAINING IDEAS , WHICH EITHER MAY BE DUPLICATE IDEAS OR MAY NOT BE DIRECTLY RELEVANT

STEP 5

NOW THE TEAM DISCUSSES AND CLUBS RELATED IDEAS INTO GROUPS . EACH GROUP OF IDEAS IS GIVEN A LOGICAL GROUP NAME

STEP 6

NOW EACH CARD OR SHEET IS PULLED OUT AND PLACED UNDER A GROUP NAME,DEPENDING ON THE AFFINITY OF THE IDEA TO THE GROUP .THE TEAM MAY MEET MAY BE THE NEXT DAY AND FINALIZE THE AFFINITY DIAGRAM AND TRANSFER INTO THE COMPUTER

EXAMPLE
UNSKILLED EMPLOYEE (PROBLEM)
EMPLOYEE ELIGIBILITY AMBIGUOUS COLLEGE COMMITMENT

LACK OF SKILL TEACHERS

POOR QUALITY OF SYLLABUS POOR INFRASTRUCTU RE

NO REVIEW

UNSYSTEMATIC HR DEPARTMENT POLICY NOT CLEAR NOT SYSTEMATIC

RELATION SHIP DIAGRAM

It brings out the relationship of the identified causes. One identified cause in the above may caused by another factor It is used to
Improve quality Improve cycle time Reduce defects Reduce quality cost

EXAMPLE
QUALITY OF SYLLABUS
LACK OF COLLEGE COMMITMENT UNSKILLED STUDENT (EMPLOYEE)

INFRASTRUCTURE

UNSKILLED TEACHERS

TREE DIAGRAM
A tree diagram is a highly effective way of organizing large and complex projects and breaking down into activities And specific task to be carried out for successful completion of the project.

EXAMPLE

MATRIX DIAGRAM
The matrix diagram allows individuals or teams to identify , analyze the rate of relationship among two or more variables. The data presented in table form and can be objective or subjective , which can be given symbols with or without numerical values.
Example : QFD (quality function deployment)

STANDARD FORMATS
There are five standard formats used in matrix diagram,
L- shaped (2 variables) T- shaped (3 variables) Y- shaped (3 variables) C- shaped (3 variables) X- shaped

FORMATS CONT
The matrix format consist of uncomplicated two dimensional chart consist of rows & columns . The columns are representation of subcategories of one variable while the rows represent the subcategories of the second variable.

EXAMPLE :

-- Poor --Good

--Better --Excellent

MATRIX DEVELOPMENT PROCESS:

To construct a matrix diagram it can be done in following ways: Select the problem. Form a team with 4-5 people the team should identify the problems existing. Choose a facilitator for the co-ordination of teams activities. Determine the product or process variable to be studied.

CONT
Decide on the matrix shape based on the task. Place the information in the matrix. Determine the symbols to be utilized. Enter the symbols in to the correct cells. Analyze.

WHEN TO USE IT ..
Use it when comparing two lists to understand the many-many relationship between them. Use it to determine the strength of relationship between either single pairs of items or a single item another to complete it. Use it when the second list is generated as a result of first list to determine the success of it.

T- shaped matrix
An example a supervisor wants to document the assigned tasks and expertise level of his engineers in matrix format. Since he needs to interrelate two different sets of information to third common sets then T- matrix is used.

Diagram..

 The graphical symbols are used to inter relate the elements. primary responsibility. secondary responsibility

1- assignment level 2- expertise level

Conclusion..
Matrix diagram is essential tool for identifying relationship between two pairs. Its increasingly being used in united states. Its an excellent organization device that pinpoints gaps in a firms performance, which will aid the firms process development. Its proven since 1980s matrix diagram are essential and most effective.

FMEA FAILURE MODE EFFECT ANALYSIS

FAILURE MODE AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS(FMEA)

one who fears failure limits his activities.Failure is only the opportunity to more intelligently begin again. -Henry Ford

RELIABILITY
Reliability of an entity is defined as the probability that it will perform its intended function for a specified period of time under the stated operating conditions Reliability is a measure of the ability of a product to function as intended at a given time.

PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION

Reliability is a probability of survival of a product. The survival or success of a product can be characterized by a random variable. Two types of random variable
Continuous Discrete

F(t)=lamda e(-lamda x t) Lamda- failure rate.

HAZARD FUNCTION
The hazard function is a measure of tendency of a product failure. If the value of the hazard function is high then the probability of failure will be greater. H(t)=lamda RELIABILITY FUNCTION R(t) =f(t)/h(t) R(t)=e(-lamda x t)

FAILURE RATE
The hazard rate is same as the failure rate. Failure rate indicates the number of failures per unit time. Failure during constant failure rate is due to random causes or chance causes hence it is called chance failure.

HISTORY
The FMEA process was originally developed by the US military in 1949 to classify failures "according to their impact on mission success and personnel/equipment safety". FMEA has since been used on the 1960s Apollo space missions. In the 1980s it was used by the Ford Motor Company to reduce risks after one model of car, the Pinto, suffered a design flaw that failed to prevent the fuel tank from rupturing in a crash, leading to the possibility of the vehicle catching fire

WHAT IS FMEA?
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis Objectives of FMEA FMEA is an engineering technique used to define, identify and eliminate the problems which occur in the system, design, process and service before they reach the customer. It is a before-the-event action It is a never-ending-process improvement tool.

 DEFINITION OF FMEA: A systematic group of activities intended to:

Recognize and evaluate the potential failure of a product/process and the effects of that failure, Identify actions that could eliminate or reduce the chance of the occurrence of potential failure

SOME RELATED DEFINITIONS

FAILURE CAUSE: The physical, design effects, quality detects or other processes, which are the basic reasons for failure or which can initiate the physical process by which deterioration leads to a failure. FAILURE MODE: It is the observed result of failure. It is the way in which a failure is observed. Failure mode describes the way the failure occurs. FAILURE EFFECT: FMEA is all about studying the effect of failure of components or parts of the system.

RISK PRIORITY NUMBER

The QS9000 standard brought out a technique for FMEA based on RPN number. It is a quantitative technique It helps in finding out the risk and action plan for reducing the risk

RISK PRIORITY NUMBER

In most formal systems, the consequences are then evaluated by three criteria and associated risk indices: Severity (S), Likelihood of occurrence (O) and also known as probability (P)) Inability of controls to detect it (D) An FMEA simple scheme would be to have three indices ranging from 1 (lowest risk) to 10 (highest risk). The overall risk of each failure would then be called Risk Priority Number (RPN) and the product of Severity (S), Occurrence (O), and Detection (D) Rankings: RPN = S O D.

PURPOSE OF FMEA
Enables structured analysis of the design for identifying potential failure modes It examines the potential failure modes Each failure mode is analyzed to find out their causes Develop product or process requirements that minimize the likelihood of those failures Ensure that any failure that could occur will not injure or seriously impact the user Helps in preparing for unavoidable failures

BENEFITS OF FMEA
Improve product/process reliability and quality. Increases customer satisfaction. Early identification and elimination of potential product/process failure modes. Prioritize product/process deficiencies Capture engineering/organization knowledge. Document and track the actions taken to reduce risk. Provide focus for improved testing and development. Minimize late changes and associated cost. Act as catalyst for teamwork and idea exchange between functions.

PROCEDURE
Define the product / process and its function. Step 1 Construct the reliability block diagram of the product / process Step 2
Complete the header on the FMEA worksheet

Step 3

System name,FMEA NUMBER, SUBSYSTEM

Cont
List the part along with its function
Step 4
COMPONENT : C1 CAPACITOR FUNCTION : STARTING FAN

Identify potential failure modes

Step 5
COIL BURNT, SHORTED ETC.,

Potential effects of failure

Step 6
NOISE, ODOUR ETC.,

Cont
Assign severity number for the effect

Step 7

1- NO EFFECT, 10 - SEVERE

Classification Step 8
CRITICAL, MAJOR, SIGNIFICANT

Potential causes Step 9

EXCESSIVE HEAT, INCORRECT ALGORITHM

Cont
Probability of occurrence

Step 10

1- RARE, 10- HIGH

Identify current controls (design/process) Step 11

Determine the likelihood of detection

Step 12

1- DETECTABLE ,10- IMPOSSIBLE

Cont
Assign risk priority number

Step 13

RPN=SEVERITY*PROB OF OCCURENCE*DETECTION

Step 14

Determine the recommended action Estimate the new ranks.

Step 15

BENCHMARKING

INTRODUCTION
Benchmarking will help in identifying the current level of performance of the processes in the organization and bringing them up to the level of the best processes. It is used to compare product features and process also.

DEFINITION
Benchmarking is the process of comparison of two or more products, services, process or organizational practices. Business process benchmarking is comparing a business process with the best process in that area. Benchmark standard or point of performance

 The generic definition of benchmarking is a basis for establishing rational performance goals through the search for industry best practices that will lead to the superior performance.

TRIGGERS FOR BENCHMARKING

Two categories of benchmarking.
Problem based benchmarking.(reactive approach)
It arises out of a problem in the organization The trigger for benchmarking in this category comes out of a problem that is faced by the organization.

Process based benchmarking.(proactive approach)

It is initiated as apart of process improvement strategy of the organization This benchmarking arises from defined mission, defined objectives, defined priorities.

TYPES OF BENCHMARKING
Three types of benchmarking.
Internal
Benchmarking with in the divisions.

Competitive
Benchmarking is to improve the performance level of the competitors. Competitor performance is compared with the current performance in the organization. This comparison known as competitive benchmarking.

Functional.
Comparing the methods of organization with similar processes. Comparison of similar processes in both the organization can be made for carrying out benchmarking.

REASONS FOR BENCHMARKING

It bring out clearly and objectively the real status with regard to the performance of the organization as well as the processes. It is the way to improve the processes and reach the top. It has to be carried out periodically so as to maintain the leadership position.

IDENTIFYING PROCESS TO BENCHMARK

Every process in an organization has inputs and outputs. To carry out benchmarking one has to measure the characteristics of the output. Steps involves in identifying what to benchmark.
Select processes Determine the vital measure Prioritize processes and measures.

BENCHMARKING PROCESS

RESONS FOR FAILURE OF BENCHMARKING

Lack of commitment. Wrong selection of process. Not being cost effective. Wrong selection of team members. Under estimating the time required. Lack of involvement of management.

SIX SIGMA

ORIGIN OF SIX SIGMA

Six sigma was born in the 1980s at Motorola. Bill Smith (MOTOROLA ENGINEER) - correlation between products field life or reliability and how often that product had been repaired during the manufacturing process. Improve quality by making error-free, simultaneously reduce the cost. In 1988, Motorola received the first MBNQA from the US government for its improvement record based on six sigma program.

DEFINITION OF SIX SIGMA

A statistical measure of performance of a process or a product, by establishing a measureable status on yield, also defects per million opportunities.

-3s

-2s

-1s

+1s

+2s

+3s

68.26 percent 95.46 percent 99.73 percent

MM74

u-6s u-5s u-4s u-3s u-2s u-1 s s u u+1s u+2ss u+3s u+4s u+5s u+6s 68.26% 95.44% 99.73% 99.993% 99.999943%

99.999998%

CITED EXAMPLES
Motorola introduced the concept and in the later part if time started using it. GE Plastics Pacific, using six sigma resulted in increased plant capacity of 30%. Sony, Polaroid and many other companies succeeded using this concept.

OBJECTIVES OF SIX SIGMA

Decrease manufacturing and design cycle time. Enhance customer satisfaction and market position. Decrease cost due to inventory, scrap and rework. Cultivates new business and hold on to old business. Increases profitability and share holder value.

METHODOLOGY OF SIX SIGMA

Identification of a process. Measure Key Processes. Analyzing a problem. Continuous Improvement (KAIZEN). Process Control.

SIX SIGMA PROCESS MODELS

DMAIC (used for improving existing process)
DEFINE MEASURE ANALYZE IMPROVE CONTROL DEFINE MEASURE ANALYZE DETAILED DESIGN VERIFY

DMADV(it is employed for design of new products)

DMADV
Define

Verify
Measure

DMADV Methodology

Design

Analyze

SIX SIGMA IMPLEMENTATION Six sigma implemented at three levels.

Business level(it take few years) Operation level(it take 12-18 months) Process level.(it take 6-8 weeks)

Champions
Senior management persons assume the role of champions. They are familiar with basic and advanced statistical tools

Master black belt

Employees working on full time basis for six sigma projects A organization needs one master black belt for every 20 black belts. The champions select the master black belts. They attend 2 or 1 week training program.

 contd
Black belt
Junior level with 5 or more years experience They know basic and advanced statistical tools. One black belt for every 100 employee

Green belt (process owners/ low level employees carry 6 projects. As their normal job.) Companies adopted 6
Motorola Honda General electric IBM Canon Hitachi etc

ROLES OF VARIOUS PERSONS IN SIX SIGMA IMPLEMENTATION

Senior Executive Executive Committee Champion Process owner Master Black Belt Black Belt Green Belt

SENIOR EXECUTIVE
Maintain a long-term view Act as a liaison to wall street, explaining the longterm advantages of six sigma management Participate on appropriate six sigma project teams Conduct project reviews Lead the executive committee

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
Deploy six sigma throughout the organization Conduct reviews of six sigma projects with the senior executive, and within their own areas of control Improve the six sigma process Identify strategic improvement initiatives Remove barriers to six sigma management and projects Provide resources for the six sigma management process and projects.

CHAMPION
Remove any political barriers or resource constraints to six sigma project Select a black belt to lead the project team Provide a link between the project team and executive committee Help team members manage their resources and stay within the budget Review the progress of their project with respect to the projects timetable Keep the team focused on the project by providing direction and guidance Ensure that six sigma methods and tools are being used in the project

PROCESS OWNER
Be accountable for the monitoring, managing, and output of his or her process Focus the project team on the project objective Empower the employees who work in the process to follow an improve the best practice method for the process Assist the project team in remaining on schedule Allocate the resources necessary for the project Accept, manage and sustain the improved process after completion of the six sigma project Ensure the process objectives are linked to the organizations mission Understand how the process work, the capability of the process, and the relationship of the process to other processes in the organization.

MASTER BLACK BELT

Teach black belts and green belts six sigma theory, tools and methods Mentor black belts and green belts Continually improve and innovate the organizations six sigma process

BLACK BELT
Communicate with the champion about progress of the project Lead the project team Schedule meetings and coordinate logistics Help team members design experiments and analyze the data required for the project Provide training in tools and team functions Recommend additional six sigma projects Lead and coach green belts leading projects limited in projects Help team members prepare for the reviews by the champion and executive committee Help to prepare project charter.

Green belt
Refine a project charter for the project Review the project charter with the projects champion Select the team members for the project Communicate with the champion, master black belt / black belt and process owner throughout all stages of the project Facilitate the team through all phases of the project Analyze data through all phases of the project Train members in the basic tools and methods through all phases of the project.

Companies which have adopted six sigma

Motorola Sony IBM Honda Canon General Electric Hitachi Allied signal Polaroid

Benefits of Six sigma management Organisation

Reduced total defects Improved communication Enhanced knowledge Higher levels of employee and customer satisfaction Increased productivity Improved capacity and output Increased quality and reliability Decreased unit costs Increased price flexibility Better designs Decreased time to market Faster delivery time

To stakeholders
Shareholders receive more profit due to decreased cost and increased revenue Customers are delighted with products and services Employees experience higher morale and more satisfaction from the work Suppliers enjoy a secure source of business.

FUNDAMENTAL OF STATISTICS
Statistics has been defined as the collection, organization analysis, interpretation and presentation of data. It is a tool to analyze complex problems and arrive at a conclusion with a high probability of accuracy. It is used for logical analysis and decision making. It is useful tool for quality control and process control.

SOME DEFINITION
Statistic- A numerical data measurement taken from a sample that may be used to make interference about a population. Parameter The true population value, often unknown , estimated by a statistic. Population and sample.
Population large collection of items of the same type. Sample some selective part of population (random)

MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENEDENCY

Mean Mode Median The above three are the characteristic of normal distribution curve. NOTE The frequency distribution may be defined as tabulation or tally , of the number of times a given quality characteristic measurement occurs with in the sample product.

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Another parameter to characteristic a set of data is spread or dispersion. The method of dispersion are :

Range
It is a simplest measure of dispersion Used in many control charts It is difference between largest value and smallest value

Variance
Variance of population

Standard deviation: The standard deviation of a population is measure of the spread of the values a lot.

CHARACTERISTIC OF NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE

The frequency of the mean value of the population () is the highest. All values in the distribution will occur between plus or minus 1 over the mean value. The curve never touches the x axis . The curve extends between to + .

VARIATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION
Distribution may be skewed to the left or right.
Left skewed Right skewed

CONTROL CHARTS
Walter shewhart proposed this tool in 1924. Control chart is aimed at monitoring the quality of the process continuously.
10

8
Axis Title 6 4 2 0 Series 3 Series 1

Category Category Category Category 1 2 3 4 Axis Title

STATISTICAL LIMITS
Upper control limits. Lower control limits. These 2 lines are one above the mean and one below the mean.

PROCESS CAPABILITY
The (USL) and (LSL) are specification limits or tolerance range. The control limits are UCL & LCL. If the process is capable or under control the process spread (control limits) and tolerance range specification limit.

 contd
A capable process is one in which the spread of bell shaped curve is narrower than specification limit. Process capability analysis involves comparing the process variations with in the specification limits(tolerance). This be carried out to confirm the suitability of the process.

PURPOSE OF PROCESS CAPABILITY

Evaluating the newly established process. Evaluating the performance of a new machinery . Process audits Studying the effect of adjustments made to the projects.

NEED OF PROCESS CAPABILITY

A successful organization is the one , which has built processes that are capable. Capability is the ability to carry out a job correctly. The company manufacturing product or delivering service that meets the requirements of the customer first time and every time.

CAUSES OF PROCESS VARIABILITY

Process can be expressed in terms of flow chart with clear input and output. The process results arise due to complex interactions of varying factors.(men, material, external factors etc) If the process variation is not noted and in the correct time it leads to the variations of the performance of end product.

 Two types of process variation causes

Random causes(under control)
It is also known as common causes. It cannot be traced out or attributed to any particular cause. It is due to the random variations(temperature changes, voltage changes, etc)

contd

Special causes.(out of control)

The variations due to assignable causes are called special cause or assignable cause variation(particular m/c, operator, raw materials etc) This causes are identifiable with analysis.

CONTROL CHARTS FOR IMPROVING PROCESS CAPABILITY

Central limit theorem Control chart
By variable By attribute X bar chart, R control chart X,MR chart NP chart P chart, c chart, u chart Guidance for selection of chart Process capability indices(Cp,Cpk)

PROCESS STABILITY
The aim of SPC is to stabilize the processes, and then improve it. Stability of the process has to be achieved before measuring process capability and prediction of future outcomes. Stability indicates the organizations ability to produce as planned, consistently. It is pre requisite for process improvement.

CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

When we plot a variables or characteristics of individual values in a population we get a bell shaped curve its called a normal distribution. Then we pick a 4 or more samples at random and find their average then plot the values of sample averages again we will get a normal distribution. Both have a central value as

. contd
The central limit theorem states the following. The sample averages (Xbar S) will be normally distributed around then the individual values (xs). The distribution of sample average approaches normal distribution regardless of the shape of the parent population.

 The central limit theorem is basis for control charts. Even when individual values are not normally distributed. The distribution of the average will tend to have a normal distribution. The individual value may follow uniform distribution/triangular distribution. If 4 or more samples are drawn at random then the sample averages is normally distributed. If sample averages are plotted on control chart. The central limit theorem use the properties of normal distribution

contd

CONTROL CHARTS
Theme of the control charts
According to WALTER A.SHEWHART A phenomenon will be said to controlled when through the use of past experience, we can predict at least with in the limit ,how the phenomenon may be expected to vary in future.

SPC and control charts were developed by walter A.Schewart in the 1920s to control quality and there by control the costs. Deming and others used these technique during the world war II and later for improving quality in Japan and other countries

CONTROL CHARTS BY VARIABLES AND ATTRIBUTES

BY VARIABLES VARIABLE DATA ARE ALSO CALLED MEASUREMENT DATA.
THE MEASUREMENT DATA WILL VARY CONTINUOUSLY

BY ATTRIBUTES THE ATTRIBUTES ARE WHOLE NUMBER OR DISCRETE VARIABLES EXAMPLES LATE COMERS NUMBER OF DAYS BUS NOT COME IN TIME

EXAMPLES LENGTH VOLTAGE CURRENT SPEED EFFICIENCY LIGHT INTENSITY

THREE ZONES IN CONTROL CHARTS

CONTROL CHART FOR VARIABLE DATA

XBAR chart and RANGE chart.
We plot this chart in following manner Samples from regular production are picked up at random. Sample size should be grater than 4. Samples are picked up at regular intervals. 25 samples are picked up, measurements are to be carried out on a selected parameter and then listed sub group wise.

X and moving range chart.

STEPS INVOLVED IN ARRIVING XBAR AND R CHART

Step 1 Decide on parameter to be controlled. Step 2- pick up at least 4 samples at a time and measures the performance on the selected parameter. Step 3- find XBAR and R for each subgroup. Step 4- find RBAR as an average of R of the sub group. Step 5 calculate LCL AND UCL
LCL R= D4 X RBAR UCL R= D3 X RBAR

 CONTD
Step 6- plot the R values. Step 7 whether any R values lie outside UCL /LCL. Step 8- if all R values are within limits go to step 11. Step 9 if up to R values are outside the limits eliminate the respective subgroups and repeat the steps. (4-8) Step 10 if some values go out of limits after recalculation in step 9 stop. Find out out special causes and take action improve the process.

 contd
Step 11- the grand average xbarbar is the average of remaining sub groups. Step 12 calculate LCL AND UCL
UCL XBAR =XBARBAR+A2 R BAR LCL XBAR =XBARBAR-A2 R BAR

PROCESS CAPABILITY INDICES

The fundamental requirement of any process is that it should be stable first. Stability is indicated by consistent performance of the process with in the limits set. The capability can be assessed only on a process, which is consistently stable over a period of time. We will study the capability of the process which has the variations only due to common causes. The process capability indices are deduced to find a relationship between variations due to common causes and tolerance.

contd
The process capability has two indices namely Cp and C pk Cp =USL LSL/6
USL : UPPER SPECIFICATION LIMIT LSL : LOWER SPECIOFICATION LIMIT =RBAR/d2
Cp <1 : this means that the normal curve extends beyond +3-3 limits(UCL AND LCL) therefore the process is in capable. Cp >1, it becomes increasingly capable.

contd
Cpk
It can be applied only when the process is correctly centered about the mid specification. Cpk = minimum of(USL XBARBAR/ 3,XBARBAR LSL/ 3)

If the process means coincides with mid specification then both Cpk and Cp will give the same value. Cpk gives the additional information about the centering. It is also called process performance index

X AND MR CHART
X bar and R chart requires at least 4 items in each sub group. In some industry cost of the sample is high so we can only one sub group. So we cannot find RBAR. In such situation we can using moving range(MR) chart. Moving range is the difference between the value and one immediately preceding it.

PARAMETERS OF X AND MR CHART

PARAMETER X
CENTRE XBAR

MR
MR BAR

UCL LCL

XBAR+3(MRBAR/1.33) MRBAR X 3.21 XBAR-3(MRBAR/1.33) O

CONTROL CHARTS BY ATTRIBUTES

np chart P chart C chart U chart

p, np - Chart
P is fraction nonconforming. np is total nonconforming.
Charts based on Binomial distribution. Sample size must be large enough (example p=2%) Definition of a nonconformity. Probability the same from item to item.

c, u - Charts
c and u charts deal with nonconformities.
c Chart total number of nonconformities. u Chart nonconformities per unit.

Charts based on Poisson distribution. Sample size, constant probabilities.

np chart
Measures plotted
np= number of defectives in samples of constant size of n.

centre line = np bar Control limits

np bar+- 3squareroot of np bar (1-p bar)

Remarks
n= sample size N = number of samples np = defects in the individual sub groups np bar = np/N P bar = np bar/n

P chart
Measures plotted
p= fraction defectives in samples of varying size.

centre line = p bar Control limits

p bar+- 3squareroot of p bar (1-p bar)/nbar

Remarks
n= sample size N = number of samples p bar = p/N n bar = average sample size

C chart
Measures plotted
c = number of defects or deviation in samples of constant size.

centre line = c bar Control limits

c bar+- 3squareroot of c bar

Remarks
c bar = average number of defects in sample of constant size

U chart
Measures plotted
u = number of defects per unit in the samples of variable sizes

centre line = u bar Control limits

u bar+- 3squareroot of u bar /n For each unique n we have to calculate the limits.

Remarks
u= defects per sample U bar =u/N n = sample size N = number of samples

Control Chart Selection

Quality Characteristic
variable attribute

defective
n>1? yes n>=10 or no computer? yes x and s x and R no x and MR constant sample size? no yes p or np

defect

constant sampling unit?

yes c

no u

p-chart with variable sample size

138

NEED FOR CONTROL CHARTS

Provides information about process capability. Provides basis for predicting future performance. Provides a basis for measuring improvement Gives feed back to the process owners Enables highest ROI Helps the management to keep the processes under control and effect savings.

COMPARISON OF VARIABLE AND ATTRIBUTE C HARTS.

VARIABLE CHART
CHART TYPE TYPES OF DATA X BAR AND R , X AND MR MEASURED ON A CONTINUOUS SCALE

ATTRIBUTE CHART
np,p,c,u NUMBAER OF DEFECTIVES OR DEFECTS

ADVANTAGES

USEFUL FOR IMPROVEMENT OF QUALITY FOCUSED ON SPECIFIC PARAMETERS SUITABLE FOR DETAILED ANALYSIS
EXPENSIVE

DATA COLLECTION IS EASY AND ECONOMICAL DATA READILY AVAILABLE IN EVERY ORGANIZATION

DISADVANTAGES

NOT DETAILED ENOUGH NOT SUITABLE FOR CONTROL AND IMPROVEMENT OF INDIVIDUAL PARAMETERS