The Cell

Biology Unit Chapter 2

pg 266 - 295
Addison-Wesley Science 10 Text
 Key Concepts
• By the end you will be able to:
– Describe the function of cell organelles in a
cell, in terms of life processes, and use models
to explain these processes and their
applications
 Student Learning
Outcomes
• Describe the cell as a functioning open
system that acquires nutrients, excretes
wastes, and exchanges matter and energy
• Identify the structure and describe, in
general terms, the function of the cell
membrane, nucleus, lysosome, vacuole,
mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes, chloroplast and cell wall, where
present, of plant and animal cells
1. All life forms are made from cells
2. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells
3. The cell is the smallest form of life
 Two Types of Cells
• Prokaryotic Cells
pro Æ before
karyo Æ nucleus
• Eukaryotic Cells
eu Æ true
karyo Æ nucleus
 Prokaryotic Cells
• Lack an organized nucleus Æ contain nucleoid
– This is where the genetic material is localized
• No membrane surrounding nucleoid or internal
structures
• Most organelles are lacking
• Functions of life are carried out in the cytoplasm
 Prokaryotic Cells
• Cell wall is present
• Genetic material is
DNA
• Division via binary
fission
• Group includes
bacteria and blue-
green algae
 Eukaryotic Cells

• Contains a nucleus as well as distinct organelles

• DNA is enclosed in a nuclear envelope
• Cell division by the process of mitosis
• Includes plants, animal cells, fungi and protists
 Plant & Animal Cells

• Plant cells Æ rigid cell wall, chloroplasts & large

vacuoles
• Animal cells Æ centrioles
The Cell is an Open System
• Matter and energy are
exchanged with the
environment
– Think of an ancient
fortressed town -
enclosures in place so
threats would be kept
out, but supplies and
materials could get in
– Also anything built
within the town could
be transported out
Cell Structures & Their
Functions
 Cell Functions
• Life processes must
occur within
specialized structures
called organelles
– Intake of nutrients
– Movement
– Growth
– Response to stimuli
– Exchange of gases
– Waste removal
– Reproduction
 Cell Membrane

• The protective barrier for the cell

– Allows transport of needed materials in & waste out
– Cell-to-cell interaction & communication
– Recognition of molecules
• Phospholipid bilayer with embedded cholesterol,
glycoproteins, and integral & peripheral proteins
 Nucleus

• Organelle that contains the DNA (genetic material

of the cell) and directs all cellular activity
– Surrounded by nuclear envelope
– Pores allow for transport of materials
 Cytoplasm

• Gel-like substance inside the cell membrane

– Contains nutrients required by cell to carry on life
processes
– Substance which organelles are suspended
– Physical nature allows for movement Æ cytoplasmic
streaming
 Cell Wall

• Found in plants,
bacteria, some
protists & fungi
• Is the rigid frame
around the cell that
provides strength and
support
 Chloroplasts
• Found in plants and
some protists
• Contain chlorophyll
• Site of photosynthesis
– Conversion of solar
energy into chemical
energy
6H2O + 6CO2 + energy
Æ 6O2 + C6H12O6
 Vacuoles/Vesicles
• Membrane-bound
structures which store
nutrients, products of
secretions, and fats
– In plants, central
vacuole is for water
storage
– Swell to give cell
turgor, increasing
pressure and firmness
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Series of interconnected
tubes that branch from
the nuclear envelope
– Materials can be
transported through these
tubules
• Rough ER - has
ribosomes attached to it,
associated with protein
synthesis
• Smooth ER - associated
with fat & oil production
 Ribosomes
• Dense-looking granules formed of two parts
• May be attached to endoplasmic reticulum or be
free in the cytoplasm
• Site where amino acids are assembled into
proteins
 Lysosomes
• Membrane-bound
sacs from where
digestion can occur
• Various roles include
– Defense against
bacteria
– Destruction of
damaged cell
organelles
– Controlled digestion
of certain tissues
during development
Golgi apparatus
• Composed of flat,
disc-shaped sacs
involved in secretions
• Receives substances
from ER, packages
them for transport out
of the cell
 Mitochondria

• Rod-like structures where chemical energy in

sugars is converted to energy the cell can use
• Process called cellular respiration
6O2 + C6H12O6 Æ 6H2O + 6CO2 + energy
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
The Liver Cell
 Chemical Composition
• Major elements making up cell structure:
– Carbon
– Hydrogen
– Oxygen
– Nitrogen
 Chemical Composition
• Organized into 4 major organic
compounds
– Lipids (fats and oils)
– Carbohydrates (sugars, starches, cellulose)
– Protein (muscle fibre)
– Nucleic Acids (DNA)
 Chemical Composition
• Water also major compound
– Is the solvent providing environment for
reactions inside and outside of cells
• Can find trace elements in tiny
amounts
– Zn (zinc)
– Mg (magnesium)
– Fe (iron)
– Mn (manganese)
Modeling the Membrane
• Sometimes referred to as
the plasma membrane
– Consists of a phospholipid
bilayer
 Modeling the Membrane
• Double layer of lipids with phosphate
group attached
– Phosphate faces watery fluids - hydrophilic
– Lipids face towards each other - hydrophobic
Modeling the Membrane
• Proteins are suspended in the bilayer
– Attach to outside of cell membrane
PERIPHERAL
– Attach to inside of cell membrane
– Run through the membrane INTEGRAL
Modeling the Membrane
• Cholesterol embedded in phospholipid
bilayer - hydrophobic
• Glycoprotein - is a type of protein with
oligosaccharide attached
Modeling the Membrane
• Fluid mosaic model
– Proteins are like tiles
in a mosaic
– Lipid bilayer is like
the grout holding the
tiles together
– Each part has role for
moving nutrients,
gases & wastes in and
out
Cell Membrane &
Transport Roles
Section C 2.2 - pages 274 - 283
Review - Cell Membrane
• Cell is an open system Æ what does this mean?
– Nutrients & waste can transport in and out
– Barrier against threats
– Interacts with surroundings
• Fluid mosaic model Æ what does this mean?
– Proteins embedded in phospholipid bilayer
– From a top-down view looks like a mosaic piece
 Roles of Proteins
1. Carriers:
• Bring materials in & out of cell
2. Receptors: recognitions of cells
• Involved in cell metabolism
• Detection of hormones, viruses, bacteria, etc
3. Adhesion
• Link other cells together
Particle Model of Matter
1. All matter is made of particles - may be
different in size & composition in
different substances
Particle Model of Matter
2. Particles are constantly moving or
vibrating
• Move least in solids, most in gases
• Adding or removing energy will affect
particle movement
Particle Model of Matter
3. Particles of matter are attracted to one
another or are bonded together
4. Particles have spaces between them
• Smallest in solids (except ice)
• Greatest in gases
 Diffusion
• Natural movement of particles from area
of high concentration to area of low
concentration
• End result - state of equilibrium
– Particles are still moving but maintain an
overall balanced distribution
 Diffusion
• Rate of diffusion can be increased by
adding energy & increasing molecular
movement
– Ex. by stirring or heating
• Process of diffusion will continue even
in absence of added energy
 Diffusion
• Occurs in cells
– Water is the solvent providing environment
for all biological reactions
• Diffusion of water or solutes can occur
across cell membrane or within
cytoplasm
– Must have a difference between
concentrations
 Diffusion
• Concentration gradient - difference
between areas with two concentrations
– Determines the direction water or solutes
will move
• In the cell, the cell membrane is the gate-keeper
trying to maintain equilibrium
 Diffusion
• Movement by diffusion is considered to
be passive transport
– Energy input is not required for process to
occur
– The energy in the particles is enough for
movement along concentration gradient
 Diffusion
• The cell needs to keep some substances
out while letting other substances enter
• Consider the cell membrane to be
selectively permeable
– Will allow certain particles through, but not
others
 Diffusion
• Semi-permeable membranes are those
which allow certain particles through,
but excludes others
– Naturally occurring
– Can be synthetic as
well
 Diffusion
• Passage is determined by
– Size of molecule
– Charge on molecule
– Solubility in lipids
• In general, particles move from an area of
high concentration to an area of low
concentration
 Different concentrations
must be separated
by a membrane

Must involve
Drives osmosis different
and diffusion concentrations
in cells
Concentration
Gradient

Different molecules
or ions move along Involves molecules
concentration gradient or ions of a
independent of single type
each other
 Osmosis
• Refers to the movement of water through
a membrane in response to a
concentration gradient
– Membrane not permeable to the solute
• Passive transport
• Movement from high concentration to low
concentration
 Osmosis - Hypotonic
• “hypo” means under
– Lower concentration of solutes in solution
than in the cell
– Water will enter the
cell
 Osmosis - Hypertonic
• “hyper” means over
– Higher concentration of solutes in solution
than in the cell
– Water will leave the
cell
 Osmosis - Isotonic
• “iso” means equal
– Equal concentration of solutes in solution and
in the cell
– Water will leave the
cell and enter the cell
no net movement of
water but is in
equilibrium
 Facilitated Diffusion
• Substances soluble in water but not lipids
need some way to cross the cell membrane
– Use of proteins embedded in membrane
• Channel proteins
• Carrier proteins
 Facilitated Diffusion
• Channel proteins
– Create pores or channels in membrane
• Small, water-soluble particles are able to move
through
• Movement in response to concentration gradient
 Facilitated Diffusion
• Carrier proteins
– Able to attach to larger molecules not capable
of diffusing across membrane on own
– Changes shape and physically moves
molecules across and into cells
 Facilitated Diffusion
• Movement in response to concentration
gradient but needs protein facilitator
– Forms of protein-mediated passive transport,
as no added energy is required
 Active Transport
• Transport via protein carrier will, in some
cases, require energy input
– Moving against concentration gradient
– From areas of low concentration to areas of
high concentration
• Carrier proteins work almost like a pump
 Active Transport
• Energy needed comes from substance
called adenosine triphosphate, ATP
 Endocytosis
• Use of vesicles, sacs surrounding large
particles
– Usually small and temporary
• When feeding (example: amoeba), comes
across food particle, and engulfs it using
the cell membrane: ENDOCYTOSIS
– Pinches off and membrane then encloses
particle within it
 Exocytosis
• Use of vesicles, sacs surrounding large
particles
– Usually small and temporary
• Moves to the plasma membrane & fuses
– Ruptures, releasing contents into
surroundings
Check & Reflect
Page 283
#2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10
 Application of Cellular
Transport
• Industrial use of synthetic
cell membranes which
mimic natural function
– Known as membrane
technologies
– Pharmaceutical research
uses understanding of cell
membrane proteins to
develop new drug
therapies
 Membrane Proteins &
Disease
• New discoveries focus on receptor or recognition proteins
– May be able to produce a “lock-and-key” model to prevent
viruses to enter cell
• Ex. HIV viral research
– Single out defective cells, not healthy ones using recognition
proteins
• Ex. Cancer drugs
Protein Hormone Transport
• Ex. Insulin - small protein
produced in pancreas
– Secreted into bloodstream,
binds with membrane
receptors
– Receptor sites including
liver, muscle and fat
• Binding stimulates
movement of glucose, which
is used to produce energy
 Dialysis
• Two types of dialysis
– peritoneal dialysis
– hemodialysis
 Reverse Osmosis
• Desalination Æ removing salt from sea water to
make it suitable for drinking
– Move water through series of smaller and smaller
filters
• Requires pump activity Æ against concentration gradient
• Active transport
Surface Area to
Volume Ratio
Section C 2.4 - pages 289-293

YOU NEED A
CALCULATOR!!!
 Is Bigger Better?
• Why are cells so small?
• Wouldn’t it be better if cells grew bigger?
– Then you would only need a few hundred cells instead
of trillions
• Let’s consider this …
 Time for Math …
• Ability to transport material in and out is critical
– Must be kept at a maximum
• If cells become larger, the volume increases
– Thus more molecules will need to be transported
– The distance they must travel will also increase
• Surface area will also need to increase!!
• Get out your calculators!! Let’s calculate this …
• Surface area to volume ratio calculated by:
Shape & Size of Organisms
• Amount of surface exposed to environment is
crucial
– SA determines opportunities for transport of materials
 Maximizing Potential
• Cells must have greatest SA:V
– Maximizes efficiency & promotes survival
– Distance any molecule must travel is not too far
• In humans, no cell is more than 0.1 mm from a
blood-transporting capillary
• Plants utilize xylem and phloem for transport
systems
 Check for
Understanding
• Page 294 Unit C 2.0 Section Review
– Complete Questions
• 2, 4, 6, 7, 15, 16, 17, 31, 33

Quiz on Chapter 2
TOMORROW
… Bring a CALCULATOR
 Plants
Biology Unit Chapter 3
pg 296 - 333
Addison-Wesley Science 10 Text
 Cells, Tissues &
Systems
• Survival happens when
– Needs are met
– Challenges in environment are met
• May be dependent on single-cell or
interaction of countless cells
 Division of Labour
• Cells can be specialized for one particular
function
– More effective performance
– Efficient performance
• Single-celled organisms must be able to
multi-task
 Size
• Surface area to volume ratio restricts size
of unicellular organism
• In multi-cellular organisms, internal
structures aid in efficient material
exchange
 Interdependence of
Cells
• When a single-celled organism dies, that is
the end of it
• When a cell in a multi-cellular organism
dies:
– Does not kill entire organism
• However there is a cost
 Why do Cells Divide?
– To grow new tissues
– To repair damaged tissues
• Process is via mitosis
– One cell literally divides into two daughter
cells
 Why do Cells Divide?
• Cell division does not occur at the same
rate throughout the entire organism
– Meristems are growth areas in particular
spots on the plant
• Produce root tissue and shoot tissue
 Multicellular Structure
• Living systems made up of many parts
– Cells begin to have specialized functions
• Groups of cells performing same function
together are called tissues
 Multicellular Structures
• When tissues contribute to the same
function they are called organs, and these
come together to form systems
 Multicellular Structures
• In a plant there are
two systems
– Shoot system
– Root system
 The Shoot System
• Refers to everything above the ground
– Includes stem, leaves, buds, flowers and
fruits
– Also includes tubers
• Swollen stems underground that store food, ex.
potatoes
 The Root System
• Refers to everything that is underground
– Also includes aerial roots, even though these
are above ground
 Roots and Shoots
• Made up of tissues specialized for
different activities
– Some examples are gas exchange, transport
of materials, photosynthesis …
• These tissues are made up of three main
types of individualized, specialized cells
Dermal Tissue (Epidermis)
• Outer layer that covers all herbacious
(non-woody) plants
– Generally one-cell layer thick
– Duty is exchange of matter and gases into
and out of the plant
Dermal Tissue (Epidermis)
• In woody plants, replaced by cork and
bark in secondary growth stage of
development
Dermal Tissue (Epidermis)
• In the shoot system
– Comprises the stem and leaves
• Primarily involved in gas exchange
– Protects from disease
– Secretes a waxy substance - cuticle
• Resists attacks from pests
• Reduces water loss
Dermal Tissue (Epidermis)
• In the root system
– Responsible for the uptake of water &
mineral salts
from the soil
 Ground Tissue
• Makes up majority of the plant
– Found as the layer beneath epidermis
• Has several important functions
– In the stem Æ provides strength & support
– In the roots Æ involved in food & water
storage
– In the leaves Æ where photosynthesis occurs
 Vascular Tissue
• Responsible for the movement of
materials through the plant
– Xylem tissue moves water and dissolved
minerals from the roots up the stem to the
leaves
– Phloem tissue transports sugars from the
leaves to other parts of the plants
Xylem & Phloem
 Xylem Tissue
• Thick-walled tubes of varying diameter
 Phloem
• Formed from individual long sieve tube
cells
– Have perforated end walls
– Continuous ducts
 Phloem
• Connected to small, nucleated companion
cells
– Direct activities
Plant Cell Specialization
• Root hairs - responsible for absorption of
water & minerals from soil
– Increases surface area for absorption
– More water can enter, maximizes osmosis
Plant Cell Specialization
• Cuticle - produced by dermal cells of
shoot system
– Protects cell from water loss
Plant Cell Specialization
• Guard Cells - form tiny pores called
stomata
– For gas exchange
– Upper epidermis usually fewer stomata than
lower epidermis
 Check & Reflect
To be completed for homework
**summative**
Pg 302
Q #s 1, 2, 4, 5, 7
We will take these up for homework
marks tomorrow first thing
 Section C3.2
The Leaf & Photosynthesis
 Monocot vs Dicot
• Two types of plants
– Monocotyledons
• Only one seed leaf in the embryo
(ex corn)
– Dicotyledons
• Two seed leaves in the embryo (ex
beans)
• Closer comparison of the two
 – Monocots tend to have
parallel veins while Dicots
usually are netted

Venation
 – Monocot floral parts
are in multiples of 3
– Dicot floral parts are
in multiples of 4 or 5

Flower
Parts
– Monocot roots
are adventitious
– Dicot roots are
both
adventitious and
primary
 – Monocot vascular
Vascular bundles are
scattered
Tissues – In Dicots, the
vascular bundles
form a ring
What is the Leaf?
 What is the Leaf?
• Collection of tissues
• Main purpose is to support process of
photosynthesis
– Dermal, ground & vascular tissues
 The Chloroplast
• Unique to plants
– Where photosynthesis takes place
• Means “putting together with light”
– Identified by their color
• Found in ground tissue of leaves and some stems
 The Chloroplast
• Movement in chloroplasts has given
indirect evident to cytoplasmic streaming
 Gas Production
• Two important reactions take place in
plants
– Produce gases
– Are the opposites of each other
 Gas Production
• Photosynthesis produces oxygen and
glucose
• Cellular respiration produces carbon
dioxide and water, plus ATP energy
– Plants take in carbon dioxide, but they also
produce carbon dioxide!
• Simply take in more carbon dioxide than they produce
 Section 3.3
The Leaf Tissues & Gas Exchange
 Getting Air In, Without
Lungs!!
• Air (gases) can enter cells via passive
diffusion
– This would take a long time
• Leaf has developed specialized cells to
maximize its ability to exchange gases
 Dermal Tissue
• Epidermis on top and bottom of leaf is
very thin and clear
• Tiny openings called stomata are formed
by guard cells
– This allows gas to exchange easily
 Dermal Tissue
• Stomata regulate movement of gases
– Carbon dioxide and oxygen can enter and
leave the leaf
• Direction is determined by a concentration
gradient
• Majority found on
lower surface of leaf
 Abscisic Acid
• A plant hormone
• Mediator in adaption of plant to stress
– Stomata opening and closing are sensitive to
abscisic acid
– Rapid onset when water uptake from roots is
insufficient to keep up with transpiration
 Transpiration
• This is the process of water loss through
the stomata

– Film of water is always on

cell surface
– Means water is continually
being lost by evaporation
– When water is not available,
guard cells become limp,
closing the stomata
 Transpiration
– Water enters
root hair
cells and
moves
through cells
by osmosis
– Water rises
in xylem due
to adhesion
and
cohesion
– Evaporation
has a cooling
effect
 Xerophytes
• Xero means dry
• Phyte means plant
– Therefore, a xerophyte is a plant able to
survive in an environment with very little
water
 Xerophytes
• Adaptations to the habitats can include:
– Reduced leaves
• Spines
– Thickened waxy cuticle
– Reduced number of stomata
– Stomata surrounded by hairs
– Water storage tissue
– Low growth forms
Ground Tissue
 Ground Tissue
• Between upper and lower epidermis is the
mesophyll
– Two very different types of cells here
• Palisade tissue cells (parenchyma) just below
upper epidermis
• Spongy mesophyll tissue (parenchyma) below
palisade and above lower epidermis
 Ground Tissue
• Palisade Tissue
– Long, rigid, rectangular
– Tightly packed
– Responsible for photosynthesis
• Many chloroplasts found here
– Require carbon dioxide, produce oxygen
 Ground Tissue
• Spongy mesophyll tissue
– Loosely packed, irregularly shaped, less rigid
cells
– Increased space allows more gas diffusion
• Moves oxygen towards stomata for release
• Moves carbon dioxide from the air to the palisade
tissue
 Vascular Tissue
• Provides leaf with water for transpiration
& photosynthesis
– Removes sugars produced in photosynthesis
• Xylem & phloem linked together in a
vascular bundle
 Gas Exchange
• No organs specific for gas exchange -
occurs via diffusion
– The leaf is not the only place that gas
exchange occurs
– Pores in bark and herbaceous plants are called
lenticels
• Provide pathway for gas exchange
• Also provide pathway for an opening for
transpiration
Section 3.4
Transport in Plants
 Cohesion & Adhesion
• Water clings to each other, and to other
molecules
– Helps aid in transport of water
• Attraction of water molecules to each
other is called cohesion
 Cohesion & Adhesion
• Due to polar nature of water molecules
– Remember, positives and negatives attract
• Also means water is attracted to other
molecules
– The attraction of water molecules to other
substances is called adhesion
 Root Pressure
• Rate of transpiration is low
• Roots still collecting minerals
• Water is forced from higher pressure in
roots to lower pressure in leaves
 Water Transport
• Transport of water in plants is due to a
combination of factors
– Differences in pressure caused by osmosis &
transpiration
– See diagram in text on pg 318 for summary
 Water Transport
• Evaporation of water through stomata or
lenticels creates
– Tension (or) transpiration pull
– This draws water up xylem to leaves
– Then can be moved into ground tissue and
out through stomata
• In ideal conditions, water can move 75
cm per MINUTE!!
– Very cool …
Tonicity
• Tonicity refers to
solutions being
hypertonic,
hypotonic or
isotonic
• When solute
concentration
around a plant cell
changes, there is
an effect on the
cell
 Tonicity
• Plasmolysis Æ shrinking of cytoplasm and
plasma membrane away from cell wall
– Due to outflow of water in hypertonic solution
– Observed only in cells with rigid cell walls
 Sugar Transport
• What happens if you removed the
phloem?
– Plant would die
• Cells would not be receiving products of
photosynthesis
 Sugar Transport
• Where sugar is manufactured
– The leaf
• Called the source
• Where sugar is used or stored
– Throughout the plant
• Called the sink
Section 3.5
Control Systems
 Response to Stimuli
• Not as pronounced
as in animals
• Do have responses to
specific stimuli
– Light
– Gravity
 Response to Stimuli
• Plants grow towards light
– Phototropism
– Movement of the plant in response to the
stimulus
• Shoots towards light
• Roots away from light
 Response to Stimuli
• Response to gravity
• Called gravitropism
– Roots grow towards gravitational force
– Shoots grow away from it
 Tropisms
Plant Part Stimulus Tropism

Stem Light Positive

phototropism
Root Light Weak negative
phototropism
Stem Gravity Negative
gravitropism
Root Gravity Positive
gravitropism
 Auxin
• Another plant hormone
– Ability to initiate cell elongation response
– Discovered by F.W. Went in Holland
Other Control Mechanisms
• Respond to touch
– To temperature, chemicals and water
– To photoperiod
 Angiosperms

• Sketch this diagram in your notes and label:

– Testa (seed coat)
– Micropyle (ask me!!)
– Embryo root (hyopcotyl)
– Embryo shoot (plumule)
– Cotelydons
 Angiosperms
• Sketch this diagram in your notes and
label:
– Sepals
– Petals
– Anther
– Filament
– Stigma
– Style
– Ovary
 Angiosperms
• Pollination Æ transfer
of pollen grains (♂
gametes) to carpel (♀
gametes)
 Angiosperms

• Fertilization Æ ♂
gametes join with ♀
gametes in ovary of
plant
 Angiosperms

• Seed Dispersal Æ Is
covered by a seed coat -
usually has some stores of
food
• Angiosperm Æ means
“enclosed seed”
 Germination
• Need specific conditions
– Water
• should be a moist environment
– Oxygen
• plenty of access
– Temperature
• usually around 15°C
• moderate
 Starchy Seed Germination
1. Imbibition Æ uptake of water initiates
biological processes
2. Gibberellin transport Æ gibberellin levels rise;
carried from embryo away
3. Amylase production Æ a starch-digesting
protein enzyme is produced
4. Starch digestion Æ starch is converted into
sugars
5. Sugar transport Æ Sugar carried from stores to
embryo; provides energy (cellular respiration)
for germination to occur
 Flowering Plants
• Flowering under control of light
• Is the length of uninterrupted darkness
critical to flowering
 Long-Day Plants
• Flowers after day-length increases above a
certain threshold
• Only when day length >12 hours (short night)
– Ex. Arabidopsis
– Under control of phytochrome and
cytochrome
 Short-Day Plants
• Flower after day length decrease below a
certain threshold
• Long night
– Ex. wheat
Phytochrome
 Phytochrome
• Blue-green pigment
– Active state (Pfr) at sunrise
– Inactive state (Pr) at sunset
• Influences seed germination, stem
elongation and formation of leaves,
flowers, fruits and seeds
– Natural sunlight contains more red
wavelengths than far-red
– Shade contains more far-red wavelengths
than red wavelengths
 Phytochrome
• Pr absorbs red light (650-670 nm) strongly
– Once red photon has been absorbed there is a
rapid change to Pfr
• Now far-red (705-740nm) preferentially absorbed
Phytochrome
– Apical
meristems
responsible
for plant
length
– Found in
roots and
shoots
– Lateral
meristems
responsible
for increase
in plant
girth