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Thevenins Equivalent: An independent voltage source in series with a resistor, which replaces an interconnection of sources and resistors. EX:

Remove the 7k ohm, since it is not part of the circuit we wish to simplify. Keep the terminals open since we are finding the Thevenin.

Find Vth, the voltage across the terminals (in this case it is the voltage over the 3k ohm). Combine the 1k and 2k in parallel. 1k || 2k = (1k*2k) / (1k+2k) = 2M/3k = 2/3k = 667 ohms

Now use a voltage divider to compute Vth across the 3k ohm.

Vth = [3k/(667+3k)] * 5V = 4.1V

Find the Thevenin Resistance by deactivating all sources and computing the total resistance across the terminals. The voltage sources is shorted, as shown:

Now let's redraw the circuit, bringing the 1k and 2k into a vertical position (but still keeping them connected the same way electrically).

They are all in parallel, so: Rth = 1k || 2k || 3k = 1 / (1/1k + 1/2k + 1/3k) = 545 ohms Note, as a check, the equivalent resistance for parallel resistors is always smaller than the smallest resistor in the combination. For example, 545 is smaller than 1k. The final Thevenin equivalent is then:

Nortons Theorem

In order to find the Norton Short-circuit current, short the terminals where the capacitor used to be, since we are finding the Norton

Now the 2k ohm resistor is shorted-out, so we can eliminate it. Then we'll find the current through the short. Here are two different ways to solve for the current:

mesh-current analysis

Mesh-current analysis to find the current through the short.

Notice that all the mesh currents were drawn counter-clockwise. I3 is the current we are particularly interested in. Here are the mesh current equations: KVL for i1: 12k*i1 -1k*i4 -12 = 0 KVL for i2: -15 + 4k*i2 - 4k*i3 = 0 KVL for i3: -4k*i2 + 10k*i3 -6k*i4 + 12 = 0 KVL for i4: We have trouble writing the voltage over the current source, so we either must add another variable, or simply write: i4 = 20mA Now solve the system of equations. Solving the second equation for i2, we get: i2 = (15 + 4k*i3) / 4k Now rewrite equation 3, plugging in our formulas for i2 and i4: -4k*(15 + 4k*i3)/4k + 10k*i3 - 6k*20mA + 12 = 0 Solve for i3: -15 - 4k*i3 + 10k*i3 -120 + 12 = 0

i3 = 123/6k = 20.5mA

Now find the Norton resistance (same as Thevenin resistance). First, open the terminals where the capacitor used to be:

Now deactivate all sources (short voltage sources, open current sources):

The 4k ohm is shorted out, so it can be removed, and the 5k cannot have any current through it, so it can also be removed.

We can combine the 8k, 3k, and 1k in series.

However, the 12k combination is shorted out by the wire, so it can be eliminated.

Now let's redraw the circuit: The resistors are in parallel, so the total resistance seen by the capacitor is Rth = 6k || 2k = 6k*2k/(6k+2k) = 12M/8k = 1.5k ohms

Thus the final Norton is shown below:

o Source Transformations

P = iV V = iR P = i2R KCL: Sum of currents = 0 OR current in = current out KVL: Change in Voltage = 0 (1)Count and label essential nodes and branches (2) Label currents (i1, i2 etc) with subscripts and arrows indicating direction of current (3)KVL & KCL enough for solution. Batteries tend to send current out the positive side, unless theyre being overpowered by another battery/ source.

Voltage Divider Theorem:

The voltage division rule (voltage divider) is a simple rule which can be used in solving circuits to simplify the solution. Applying the voltage division rule can also solve simple circuits thoroughly. The statement of the rule is simple: Voltage Division Rule: The voltage is divided between two series resistors in direct proportion to their resistance. It is easy to prove this. In the following circuit

Voltage Divider the Ohms law implies that (I) (II) Applying KVL . Therefore . Hence . Substituting in I and II , . Consequently

, . which shows that the voltage is divided between two series resistors in direct proportion to their resistance. The rule can be easily extended to circuits with more than two resistors. For example,

Voltage Division among four resistors , , , . The voltage division rule can be used solve simple circuits or to simplify solving complicated circuits. Problem 1-16: Voltage Divider Find a) (or ) and (or ) using voltage division rule.

b)

c)

d)

Solution

a)

Voltage divider: Ohms law: b)

Voltage divider: Ohms law: Please note that is leaving from the positive terminal of the Ohms law results in . . Therefore, applying

c)

Voltage divider: Ohms law: d)

The tricky part in this problem is the polarity of . In the defined formula for voltage divider, the current is leaving the voltage source from the positive terminal and entering to resistors from positive terminals. In this problem, the current is entering to the the resistor from the negative terminal. Therefore, the voltage for is the negative of the voltage obtained from the voltage divider formula. The reason is that another voltage can be defined with the inverse polarity and its value can be found using the voltage division rule. is the negative of the defined voltage

because it represents the voltage across the same nodes with inverse polarity. Voltage divider: Ohms law ( . One of the common mistakes in using the voltage division rule is to use the formula for resistors which are in parallel with other elements. For example, the voltage division rule cannot be used in the following circuit directly. is entering from the negative terminal of ):

It will be incorrect if one tries to find resistor as

using voltage divider by neglecting the other

So, . However, if solving other parts of a circuits confirms that the current of the other element/branch is zero, the voltage division rule can be still

applied. For example, suppose that the following network is a piece of a larger circuit.

Lets assume that the analysis of the circuit shows that

. In this case,

regardless of where A and B are connected.

Current Divider Theorem: -> Y ; Y -> Conversion: Ammeters & Voltmeters: Node Voltage Method (KCL) Mesh Current Method (KVL)