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Dear students Most students tend to take it easy after the board examinations of Class X. The summer vacations immediately after Class X are a great opportunity for the students to race ahead of othe r stu dents in th e competitive world of IITJEE, whe re le ss than 2% stud ents get se lected every year for the prestigious institutes. Some students get governed completely by the emphasis laid by the teachers of the school in which they are studying. Since, the objective of the teachers in the schools rarely is to equip the student with the techniques reqired to crack IITJEE, most of the students tend to take it easy in Class XI. Class XI does not even have the pressure of board examinations. So, while the teachers and the school environment is often not oriented towards the serious preparation of IITJEE, the curriculum of Class XI is extremely important to achieve success in IITJEE or any other competitive examination like AIEEE. The successful students identify these points early in their Class XI and race ahead of rest of the competition. We suggest that you start as soon as possible. In this booklet we have made a sincere attempt to bring your focus to Class XI and keep your velocity of preparations to the maximum. The formulae will help you revise your chapters in a very quick time and the motivational quotes will help you move in the right direction. Hope youll benefit from this book and all the best for your examinations. Praveen Tyag i Gaurav Mittal Prasoon Ku mar
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CONTENT S
Description Page Number 03 04 06 07 1. Units, Dimensions & Measurements
2. Motion in one Dimension & Newtons Laws of Motion 3. Vectors 4. Circular Motion, Relative Motion, and Projectile Motion 5. Friction & Dynamics of Rigid Body 6. Conservation Laws & Collisions 12 14 09
7. Simple Harmonic Motion & Lissajous Figures 8. Gravitation 9. Properties of Matter 10. Heat & Thermodynamics 11. Waves 12. Study Tips 35 18 20 25
30
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n1 u 2 = n2 u 2
or
n2 = n1
L1 L2
N
T 1 T2
X =
X - X + ... + X
1
(iv) Absolute error in each measurement (v) Mean absolute error (vi) Fractional error (vii) Percentage error = =
X X X x 100
: | X| = | X X| i i
i
: X =S | m
X
X | N
Zc
is:
+|c|
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for
=distance covered
s1 + s2 s1 s + 2 v1 v2 2v 1 v2
= s 2 = d, then
v=
v1 + v 2
= Harmonic mean
= t 2 , then v =
v1 + v2 2
Average velocity
: (a) v av = : :
r2 - r 1 t 2 - t1
d r dt
v =
and | v |
a av =
v2 - v1 t 2 - t1 a = d v / dt dv dx
Instantaneous acceleration
1 2
2
at2 ;
+ 2ax;
1 2
at2 ; t;
1 2 at 2 ;
s = x - x0 = ut +
2
= u 2 + 2a (x x 0 ) : dn = u +
a (2n1) 2
Motion of a ball : (a) when thrown up: h = (u 2 /2g) and t = (u/g) (b) when dropped: v = v (2gh) and t = v(2h/g) Resultant force : F = v (F1 2 + F Condition for equilibrium Lamis Theorem :
P sin
2 2
+ 2F 1 F2 cos
Q R sin p -
)
2
=F 3 =|F 1 F 2 |
= ()-() () p a
: F = m a ; F = d p / dt
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(1)
(a)
F =- F 12 12
M+m
(xv iii)Non inertial frame : If a be the acceleration of frame, then pseudo force
0
mv2 r
=m
2r
(xix) Lift problems : Apparent weight = M(g a 0 ) (+ sign is used when lift is moving up while sign when lift is moving down) (xx) Pulley Problems (a) For figure (2): Tension in the string, T = Acceleration of the system, a = The force on the pulley, F = (b) For figure (3): Tension in the string,
T=
1
m1
m1 m 2 m1 + m 2
g m2 g
Frictionless surface
T m2
m1 + m2 2m1 m 2 m1 + m 2 2m m
1 2 2
Fig. 2
m2 g
m +m
g a g T T T T
2 2
a=
m 2 - m1 m 2 + m1
1
F=
4m m
1
m +m
g Fi g. 3
m1 m2
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VECTOR S
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v ) Vector addition : R = A + B = B + A and A - B = A+ ( - B ) Unit vector : Magnitude : Projection : (a) Component of (b) Component of (c) If (vi) (a) (vii)
A A A = (A/ A ) A = v (A
2 x ^
+ A2 + A 2)
y z
Direction cosines
=A . B
A
along
A.B
^ x
i+A
^ y
j,
= tan
(A y /Ax )
Dot product :
A. B
= AB cos
A . B = A x Bx + A y By + A z Bz
AB sin
n;
(b) (c)
A x A = 0;
^
Ax B
k Az Bz
Ax Bx
Ay By
(b)
P= F .v ; t = t x F;
(c) (g)
= E . A;
(d)
= B . A;
(f)
Fm = q | Ax B |
vx B
Area of a parallelogram
: Area =
1 2 x
| Ax B |
^
+ j
+k
Volume of a parallelopiped
V = A . Bx C
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: tan
= (v 2 /rg) : v = v (s rg)
= v 2 /r g
(vi) Overloaded truck : (a) R < R ou t e r w h ee l in ne r w he el (b) maximum safe velocity on turn, v = (vii) Nonuniform Circular Motion : (a) Centripetal ac celeration a = (v 2 /r); r (b) Tangential acceleration a = (dv/dt); t (c) Resultant acceleration a= v (a 2 + a 2 ) r t
v(gdr/2h)
(viii) Motion in a vertical Circle : (a) For lowest point A and highest point B, T T B = 6 mg; v A v(g l ) (b) Condition for Oscillation: v < v (2g l ) A (c) Condition for leav ing Circular path: v(2g l ) < v A < v(5g l ) (ix) (x) (xi) Relative velocity :
v
BA
= v 2 B + 4g l ; v A = v(5g l ); and v B =
= vB- vA
(r
- v B )x ( v A - v B ) = 0
Crossing a River : (a) Beat Keeps its direction perpendic ular to water current /vb )x
(1) v = v (( v 2 + v 2 ) ; (2) = tan 1 ( v w / v b ); R w b (3) t=(x/v ) (it is minimum) (4) Drift on opposite bank = (v b (b) Boat to reach directly opposite to starting point: (1) sin (xii) = (v w /vb ); (2) v resu lt a n t= v b cos Projectile thrown from the ground (a) equation of trajectory: y = x tan (b) time of flight:
T = 2 u sin g
2
; (3) t=
x v b cos
:
gx2 2 u 2 cos
2
/2g)
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(e) Range is maximum when = 45 0 (f ) Ranges are same for projection angles (g) Velocity at the top most point is = u cos (h) tan = gT 2 /2R 2 ) = (g/8) (i) (H/T
and (90
(xiii) Projectile th rown from a height h in horizontal direction (a) T = v (2h/g); (b) R = v v (2h/g); 2 /2u 2 ) (c) y = h (gx (d) Magnitude of velocity at the ground = (e) Angle at which projectiles strikes the ground, (xiv) Projectile on an inclined plane (a) Time of flight, T =
2u sin
2gh u
()0
g cos
R =
2u 2 sin
()-
0 0
cos
g cos 2
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Force of friction : s = s N (self adjusting); ( s )ma x = s N k = k N ( k = coefficient of kinetic friction) k < s Acceleration on a horizontal plane
FRICTIO N
Acceleration of a body sliding on an inclined plane Force required to balance an object against wall Angle of friction : tan
t2 - t1
: = (d
-
/dt)
v = x r
; In general form, v =
r sin
t 2 - t1
: a = (d
/dt) = (d 2 /dt2 ) :
Relation between linear and angular acceleration (a) a = a r and a R = (v 2 /r) = 2 R T (b) Resultant acceleration, a = v (a 2 + a 2 ) (c) In vector form,
a = a T + a R ,where
T R
a T = a x r and a R =
x u =
x r
t+
0 2
1 2
a t2 ;
m1 x 1 + m 2 x 2 m1 + m 2 m1 v 1 + m 2 v 2 m1 + m 2 m 1 a1 + m 2 a 2 m1 + m 2 dx CM dt
Also (ix)
CM
and a
CM
dv C M dt
d2 x
CM
dt 2
Centre of mass
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X CM =
S m i xi M Sm i r M d r
CM i
CM
v CM =
dt d v CM dt
CM
a P F
CM
; = S m i vi
CM
= Mv =M a
; If
F e x t = 0, a
CM
ex t
CM
= Sm i a i = S F i .
= 0, V C M = constant ; S mi r
i
(g) Also, moment of masses about CM is zero, i.e., (x) (b) (xi) (xii)
= 0 or m 1 r1 = m 2 r 2
Moment of Inertia : (a) I= Sm i r i 2 2 , where = m m /(m + m ) I= r 1 2 1 2 Radius of gyration : (a) K = v(I/M) ; (b) K = v[(r12 + r 2 2 + + r :K=
1 2
2 n
or
I= (2K/
() ()= a L
r x p ; (b) L = rp sin
; c mv d
() () = a t
r x F; b
t = r F sin
Relation between
t and L :
t = dL / dt
;
1 2
I: (a) L = I ; (b) K =
= L 2 /2I
(xv ii) Relation between t and a : (a) t = Ia , (b) If t = 0, then (dL/dt)=0 or L=constant or, (xv iii)Angular impulse : (xix) Rotational work done (xx) Rotational Power :
L = t t td =t
:W=
av
P = t.
(xxi) (a) Perpendicular axes theorem : Iz = Ix + Iy (b) Parallel axes theorem : I= Ic + Md 2 (xxii) Moment of Inertia of some objects (a) Ring: I= MR 2 (axis); I=
1 2
MR2 (Diameter);
I= 2 MR 2 (tangential to rim, perpendicular to plane); I= (3/2) MR 2 (tangential to rim and parallel to diameter)
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10
(b) Disc: (c) Cylinder: (d) Thin rod: (e) Hollow sphere : (f ) Solid sphere: (g) Rectangular: (h) Cube: (i) Annular disc:
I=
1 2
MR2 (axis); I=
1 2 MR
2
1 4
MR2 (diameter)
I=
() axis
I= (ML 2 /12) (about centre); I= (ML 2 /3) (about one end) Idi a = (2/3) MR 2 ; It a ng e nt i al= (5/3) MR 2 Id ia = (2/5) MR 2 ; It a ng e nt i al= (7/5) MR 2
I
C
M l 2 + b2 12
2
()
(centre)
I= (1/6) Ma
I= (1/2) M (
2 R1 + R 2 2
(j) Right circular cone: (k) Triangular lamina: (l) Elliptical lamina:
I= (3/10) MR 2 I= (1/6) Mh 2 (about base axis) I= (1/4) Ma 2 (about minor axis) and
: and I= MK 2 )
K =
MV
1 2
1 2
MV
1+
K2 R
2
QV = R
For inclined plane (a) Velocity at the bottom, v = (b) Acceleration, a = g sin (c) Time taken to reach the bottom, t =
2gh
2
1+
R2
1+
r2 2s 1 + K
2
R2
g sin
(xxvi) Time period for disc : T = 2 p v (3R/2g) Minimum time period for disc, T = 2 pv (1.414R/g) (xxvii)Time period for a rod of length L pivoted at one end : T = 2 pv (2L/3g
The heights by great men reached and kept were not attained by sudden flight, but they, while their companions sl ept were toiling upwards in the night.
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11
(b)
W = Fd cos ;
(c)
W =
x2 x 1
b : (a ) a
F .d r a (b)
F . d r ; (c)
pa th
F .d r = 0
Pat h 1 Pa th 2 clos ed
For conservative forces, one must have: (iii) (iv) (v ) (vi) (vii) Potential energy : (a)
VU = - W; (b)
Vx F
=0
; c U = F = - VU GMm
F = - ()() dU/dX
() + h R
2 1
1 () () = a 2 U
Kx
1 2
b
2
=
1
K x
( )- x
2 2
1 K=W= 2
mv f 2
mv i ;
() 2 K = b
mv
:=E=K+U : K = U or, K + U = K i + U i
t ot al
= constant
F .v
Equilibriu m Co nditions : (a) For equilibrium, (dU/dx) = 0 (b) For stable equilibrium: U(x) = minimum, (dU/dx ) = 0 and (d (c) For unstable equilibrium: U(x ) = maximum, (dU/dx ) = 0 and (d (d) For neutral equilibrium: U(x) = constant, (dU/dx) = 0 and (d Velocity of a particle in terms of U(x) :v=
2 m
(xii)
[] - U () E x
() b
F = d p / dt
,
F n et = 0 ,then p
(b) Conservation of momentum: If (c) Recoil speed of gun, (xiv) Impulse : (xv)
p = F av t v
G
=p , i
m m
B G
xv
Collision in one dimension : (a) Momentum conserv ation : m u + m 2 u2 = m 1 v1 + m 2 v 2 1 1 (b) For elastic collision, e = 1 = coefficient of restitution 1 1 1 (c) Energy conservation: m u 2 + m 1 u2 2 = m 1 v1 2 + m 2 v2 2 2 2 2 1 21 2 (d) Velocities of 1
st
and 2
nd
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12
v1 =
m1 - m2 m1 + m2
u1 +
2m 2 m 2 + m1
u 2 ;v
2 m1 m1 + m 2
u1 +
m2 - m1 m2 + m1
u2
(e) If m = m 2 = m, then v 1 = u 2 and v 2 = u 1 1 (f ) Coefficient of restitution, e = (v v /u1 = u 2 ) 2 1 (g) e = 1 for perfectly elastic collision and e=0 f or perfectly inelastic collision. For inelastic collision 0 < e < 1 (xvi) Inelastic collision of a ball dropped from height h 0 (a) Height attained after nth impact, h = e 2 n h0 n (b) Total distance trav eled when the ball finally comes to rest, s = h (c) Total time taken, t = (xv ii) Loss of KE in elastic collision
K Ki = m1 - m 2 m1 + m 2
2
(1+e 2 )/(1e2 )
2h 0 g
1 +e 1 -e
and
K l os t 4m 1m 2 = Ki () 1 + m 2 m
; If m 1 = m 2 ,
: K lo st = K i K = 1
2 m1 +m 2
(u1 u 2 )2 (1e2 )
u1
and v
m 1 ()+e 1 m
1
+m
u1
(xix) Oblique Collision (target at rest) : m u1 = m 1 v1 cos 1 + m 2 v2 cos 2 and m 1 Solving, we get: m (xx) Rocket equation (b) V = v
re l 1
v1 si n
= m 2 v2 si n
u1 2 = m 1 v1 2 + m 2 v22
M
0
: (a) log
e
dV dt
=-v
dM
el
dt
b
-M
mb
M0
(c) If we write M = M m b = mass of the rocket and full at any time, than velocity of rocks at 0 that time is: V=v log e (M 0 /M) re l (xxi) Conservation of angular momentum (a) If t ext = 0, then L = L i (b) For planets, (c) Spinning skater,
v
m ax min
r r
max mi n
I1
= I2 W2 or
I
i
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13
:
2
K m
x or a =
m ax
x, where
= v(K/m);
= KA and a :
= 2A
2
Equation of motion
d2 x dt 2
x =0
Displacement : x = A sin ( t + f ) (a) If f = 0, x = A sin t; (b) If f = p/2, x = A cos t (c) If x = C sin t + D cos t, then x = A sin ( (iv) Velocity : (a) v = A cos ( + f); (b) If f =0, v = A cos t; (c) v = A ma x (d) v = v (A2 x 2 ); (e) (v )
x2 A2
(D/C)
v2
2A2
=1
Acceleration : 2x = 2 A sin ( t+f ) ; (a) a = (b) If f =0, a= 2 A sin t (c) |a | = 2 A; ma x (d) F = m 2 A ma x Frequency and Time period (a) = v (K/m) ; (b) =
1 2p
(vi)
() / m K
p
m K
(c) (vii)
T=2
;
2
=1m
2
A2 ; t :
A2 sin2
1 2 1
;
2 (A 2 x );
2 1
A2 cos
2
t;
=2 m m ax
A2
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14
(ix)
Total energy : (a) E = K + U = conserv ed; 2 A2 ; (b) E = (1/2) m (c) E = K = U ma x ma x Average PE and KE : 2 A2 ; (a) < U > = (1/4) m 2 A2 ; (b) < K > = (1/4) m (c) (E/2) = < U > = < K > :
2 v1 - v2 2 ; x 2 - x2 2 1
(x)
(b) T = 2 p :
x0 g m + ()s / 3 m K
x 2 - x2 2 1
2 v1 - v2 2
; (c) A =
()()2 v1 x
- v 2x 1
v2 - v2 1 2
= 2p
: T = 2p
(xiv) Cutting a spring : (a) K = nK ; (b) T = T /v (n) ; 0 (c) = v (n) 0 (d) If spring is cut into two pieces of lengths (n +1) K and K 1 l 1 = K 2 l2 (xv) Springs in parallel : (a) K = K 1 + K 2 ; (b) T = 2 p v [m/(K1 + K 2 )] (c) If T = 2 pv (m/K 1 ) and T 2 = 2 pv (m/K2 ), then for the parallel combination: 1
1 T
2
l 1 = n l 2 , then K 1 = +n
1 n
K,
K2 =
= 1 + 1
T12
2 T2
or
T =
T1 T 2 T12
2 +T 2
and
2 1
2 2
1 K1 1
1 K2 1
2 2
or or
K =
K 1K 2 K1 +K 2
2
2 1
T 2 - T1 + T 22
m ()1 + K 2 K K 1K 2
or
1 2p
m ()1 + K 2 K
K 1K 2
:
d2 dt
2
C I
=0 ;
= 0 si n ( t+f ); = v (C/I) ;
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15
(d)
1 2p
C I
(e) T = 2
pv (I/C), where C = p r4 /2 l : or
d
2
Ia = t = mg l sin = v (g/l ) ; =
1l 2p
dt 2
+ g l
sin
= 0 or
2 2
dt
=0 ;
() g/
p v (l /g) :
(b) T=2
Re g
(when l 8
)
1 + 0 16
2
:T T0
T0 1
A2 16 l 2
(xxii) Tension in string of a simple pendulum (xxiii) Conical Pendulum : (a) v = v (gR tan ) ; (b) T = 2 pv (L cos /g) (xxiv) Compound pendulum (a) For a bar: T = 2 (b) For a disc : T = 2 : T = 2p pv (2L/3g) ; pv (3R/2g)
: T = (3 mg cos
2 mg cos
l +K2 / l 2
()
(xxv) Floating cylinder : (a) K = A g; (b) T = 2 pv (m/A g) = 2 pv (Ld/ g) (xxvi) Liquid in Utube : (a) K = 2A g and m = AL ; (b) T = 2 pv (L/2g) = 2 pv (h/g) (xxvii)Ball in bowl : T = 2 pv [(R r)/g] (xxviii)Piston in a gas cylinder (a) (b)
K = A 2E V ; mV A2 E
T =2 p
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(c) (d)
T = 2p
Vm A 2P Vm
2
T =2 p
p 2l
(xxxii)Electrical LC circuit : T = 2 p LC or (xxxiii)Lissajous figures Case (a) : 1 = 2 = or General equation: For For For For
x2 a2
2 2 f= p/4 : x + y -
:
y2 b2
=1:1
2xy cos f = sin 2 f ab
t + f ) and y = b sin
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17
GRAVITATION
(i) Newtons law of gravitation
1
:
11 2
(a) F = G m (ii)
dF F
=-
2 dr r
(iii) Variation of g : (a) due to shape ; g <g e q ua t or (b) due to rotation of earth: (i) g (ii) g (iii) g (iv) (v ) If
p o le po le
eq ua t o r
(c) At a height h above earths surface g = g (d) At a depth of below earths surf ace: g = g (iv) (v ) (vi) Acceleration on moon : gm =
GMm R2
m
1 1
2h g d R
, if h < < R
1 6
Gravitational potential energy of mass m : (a) At a distance r : U(r) = GMm/r (b) At the surface of the earth: U = GMm/R 0 (c) At any height h above earths surface: U U or
U = mgh (if origin of potential energy is shifted to the surface of earth) : F = (dU/dR)
(vii)
(ix) Gravitational potential energy of system of masses (a) Two particles: U = Gm m2 /r 1 (b) Three particles: U = (x) Escape velocity (a) v (b) v (xi)
e
:
Gm m
2 3
Gm1 m 2 r 12
Gm m
1
r3 1
r2 3
:
R 8pG 3
= = R
2GM
or v e = v (2gR) = v (gD)
() v
/v
-1
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(xii)
:
R ; (c) v 2 R+h
0
() v0 = a () ()
GM ; r
bv
=v
ve/ v 2
(if h<<R)
R g if h << R
(xiii) Time period of satellite (xiv) Energy of satellite (b) Potential energy U = (c) Total energy E=K + U=
: (a) T = 2p
()() h 3 R + ()
GM 1 2
; b T = 2p mv2 =
0
1 GMm 2 r
GMm r
2
2 = 4p () + h 3 ; R
GM
R ;
(xvi) Keplers law : (a) Law of orbits: Orbits are elliptical (b) Law of areas: Equal area is swept in equal time 2 (c) Law of period: T r 3 ; T 2 = (4 p2 /GM)r3
1, Vigyan Vihar, Near Anand Vihar, Delhi 92. Ph: 55270275, 55278916 E-16/289, Sector 8, Rohini, Delhi 85, Ph: 55395439, 30911585
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SURFACE TENSION
(i)(a) (ii) (b) E (c) (iii) (iv)
T= Force Length = F
l
; (b)
T=
W A
1/ 3
: (a) R = n
E = 1 Ei
r
1
n1/3
E = 4 pR2 T (n 1/ 3 1) = 4 pR3 T : : =
3T - 1 s
or
3T - 1 sJ r
1 R F cohesive
(a) Plane surfac e (as for water silver) if F (b) Concav e surface (as for water glass) if F (c) Convex surface (as f or mercuryglass) if F (v ) Angle of contact : (a) Acute: If F > F c /v2 ; a (b) obtuse: if F <Fc /v 2 ; a 0 : if F =F v/2 (c) =90 c a c
c
ad h esi ve
>
ad h esi ve
> <
2 F cohesive 2 Fcohesive 2
a dh e siv e
(d) cos
Tsa - Tsl Tl a
, (where T
sa
, Ts l and T
c
la
is acute if T
<T
sa
whil e
is obtuse if T
sl
> T sa
(a) General formula: P (b) (c) (d) (e) (vii) (a) (b)
+ = T 1
R1
1 R2
For a liquid drop: P = 2T/R e xce ss For an air bubble in liquid: P = 2T/R e xce ss For a soap bubble: P = 4T/R exc es s Pressure inside an air bubble at a depth h in a liquid: P
in
=P
atm
+ hdg + (2T/R)
Forces between two plates with thin water film separating them P=T -1
r F = AT -1 r 1 ; R 1 R ;
(viii) Double bubble : Radius of Curv ature of common film R (ix) Capillary rise : (a) (b)
h= h= 2T cos rdg 2T rdg ;
co mmo n
R- r
(For water
=0 0)
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+ rdg h
r 3
(c) If weight of water in meniseus is tak en into account then T = (d) Capillary depression, (x)
h2T cos () p rdg
2 cos
Combination of two soap bubbles : (a) If V is the increase in v olume and S is the increase in surface area, then 3P 0 where P 0 is the atmospheric pressure (b) If the bubbles c ombine in environment of zero outside pressure isothermally, then R3 = v R 2 + R2 1 2
V + 4T S = S = 0 or
()
ELASTICITY (i) Stress : (a) Stress = [Deforming force/crosssectional area]; (b) Tensile or longitudinal stress = (F/ pr 2 ); (c) Tangential or shearing stress = (F/A); (d) Hydrostatic stress = P (ii) Strain : (a) Tensile or longitudinal strain = ( (b) Shearing strain = f; (c) Volume strain = ( V/V) (iii) Hooks law : (a) For stretching: Stress = Y x Strain or (b) For shear: Stress = x Strain or
Y= A ()L P FL
L/L);
= F/A f
(c) For volume elasticity: Stress = B x Strain or B = (iv) (v ) (vi) Compressibility : K = (1/B) Elongation of a wire due to its own weight Bulk modulus of an idea gas
()V/V
2 : L = 1 MgL = 1 L g
2 YA
: Bi so t he rma l = P and B
a di a ba ti c
= P (where
= C p /Cv )
(vii) Stress due to heating or cooling of a clamped rod T hermal stress = Y a ( t) and force = YA a ( t) (viii) Torsion of a cylinder : (a) r = l f (where = angle of twist and f = angle of shear); (b) restoring torque t= c (c) restoring Couple per unit twist, c = p r4 /2 l (for solid cylinder) and C = p (r 24 r1 4 )/2l (for hollow cylinder) (ix) Work done in stretching (a) W = :
1 2 Y (strain)
2
x volume =
1 () stress 2 Y
x volume
(c) Potential energy stored per unit v olume, u = (x) Loaded beam :
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d= d=
Wl 3 4Ybd3 Wl 3
() rectangula r () cylindrical
12Ypr2
(a) Lateral strain = (b) Longitudinal strain = ( (c) Poissons ratio (d) Theoretically, 1 < (xii) Relations between Y, (a) Y = 3B (12 s ) ; (b) Y = 2 (1+ s ); (c)
1 Y = 1 9B + 1 3
D D
- r r
L/L) s=
lateral strain longitudin al strain = - r/r L/L
0.2 0.4
or P
V1 = P 2 V2
1
: (P 1 /T1 ) = (P 2 /T2 )
(iii) Avogadros principle : At constant temperature and pressure, Volume of gas, V number of moles, Where = N/Na [N = number of molecules in the sample 23 /mole] and N = Avogadros number = 6.02 x 10 A
= M sample M
(iv)
Kinetic Theory : (a) Momentum delivered to the wall perpendicular to the xaxis, P = 2m v x (b) Time taken between two successive collisions on the same wall by the same molecule: (2L/vx ) (c) The frequency of collision: . = ( x/2L) co ll (d) Total force exerted on the wall by collision of various molecules: F = (MN/L) <v (e) The pressure on the wall : P =
mN V
2 N
t= >
< v2 > = x
mN 3V
<v 2 > =
1 mN 3 V
v2 = rms
1 3
v2 rms
(v )
/N);
(d) (vi)
= v (3RT/M) ; (e)
()rms ()rms
1 2
m2 m1
M2 M1
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2 (a) (1/2) Mv = (3/2) RT ; rm s 2 (b) (1/2) mv = (3/2) KT rms (c ) Kinetic energy of one molecule = (3/2) KT ; (d) kinetic energy of one mole of gas = (3/2) RT (e) Kinetic energy of one gram of gas (3/2) (RT/M) (ix) Maxwell molecular speed distribution :
(a) n (v) = 4
pN
m 2p KT
3/2
v v=
e- mv
/ 2 KT
RT M RT M
rm s
3RT M m
= 1.73 =
2KT
2RT M
= 1.41
RT M
(e) Speed relations: (I) v < v < v rms p (II) vp : v : vrm s = v (2) : v (8/ p) : v(3) = 1.41 : 1.60 : 1.73 (x) Internal energy : (a) E = (3/2)RT (for one mole) i nt e rn al (b) E = (3/2 RT (for mole) i nt e rn al (c) Pressure exerted by a gas P =
2 E 2 = E 3 V 3
(xi) Degrees of freedom : (a) Ideal gas: 3 (all translational) (b) Monoatomic gas : 3 (all translational) (c) Diatomic gas: 5 (three translational plus two rotational) (d) Polyatomic gas (linear molecule e.g. CO ) : 7 (three translational plus two rotational plus two 2 vibrational) (e) Polyatomic gas (nonlinear molecule, e.g., NH , H2 O etc): 6 (three translational plus three 3 rotational) (f ) Internal energy of a gas: E = (f/2) RT. (where f = number of degrees of freedom) i nt e rna l (xii) Daltons law : The pressure exerted by a mixture of perfect gases is the sum of the pressures exerted by the individual gases occupying the same volume alone i.e., P = P + P 2 + . 1 (xiii) Van der Walls gas equation (a) (b) (c) b = 30 cm
P +a 2 V2 2
2 Vm
3
() - b V ()m V
= R
P +a
- b = RT (where V
/mole
c
a 27 b2
, VC = 3b, TC =
8a 27 Rb
: =
1 2pd2 n
= (N/V) = number of gas molecules per unit volume and d = diameter of mol ecules of the gas
1, Vigyan Vihar, Near Anand Vihar, Delhi 92. Ph: 55270275, 55278916 E-16/289, Sector 8, Rohini, Delhi 85, Ph: 55395439, 30911585
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FLUID MECHANICS (i) The viscous f orc e between two layers of area A having v elocity gradient (dv/dx ) is giv en by: F = A (dv/dx), where is called coefficient of viscosity (i) In S Isystem, is measured IPoiseiulle (P l ) 1P l = 1Nsm 2 = 1 decapoise. In egs system, the unit of is g/cm/sec and is called POISE (ii) When a spherical body is allowed to fall through viscous medium, its velocity increases, till the sum of viscous drag and upthrust becomes equal to the weight of the body. After that the body mov es with a constant velocity called terminal velocity. (iii) According to STOKEs Law, the viscous drag on a spherical body mov ing in a fluid is given by: F = 6 p r v , where r is the radius and v is the velocity of the body. (iv) The terminal velocity is given by: v where
2 = 2r T
()-
s g
where p is the pressure difference between two ends of the capillary and R is the fluid resistance (=8 l /p r4 ) (vi) The matter which possess the property of flowing is called as FLUID (For example, gases and liquids) (vii) Pressure exerted by a column of liquid of height h is : P = h g ( = density of the liquid) (viii) Pressure at a point within the liquid, P = P + h g, where P 0 is atmospheric pressure and h is the 0 depth of point w.r.t. free surface of liquid (ix) Apparent weight of the body immersed in a liquid Mg = Mg V g (x ) If W be the weight of a body and U be the upthrust force of the liquid on the body then (a) the body sinks in the liquid of W > U (b) the body floats just completely immersed if W = U (c) the body floats with a part immersed in the liquid if W < U (xi)
Volume of immersed part of a solid density of solid = total volume of solid density of solid
1 1
ax
v = a 2 v2
1 2
) + gh +
v2 = constant
ax g Fig. 4
v1 = a 2 v2
()- a a
2 1
2gh
2 2
(xv i) Veloci ty of efflux of li quid from a hol e: v = v(2gh), where h is the depth of a hole from the f ree surface of liquid
I do not ask to walk smooth paths, nor bear an easy load. I pray for strength and fortitude to climb rock-strewn road. Give me such courage I can scale the hardest peaks alone, And transform every stumbling block into a stepping-stone
.
Gail Brook Burkett
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(v ) The pressure of the gases varies with temperature as : P = P 0 (1+ T), where = (1/273) per t (vi) If temperature on Celsius scale is C, that on Fahrenheit scale is F, on Kelv in scale is K, and on Reaumer scale is R, then (a) (c)
C 5 = F - 32 9 5 9 = K - 273 5 = R 4
(b)
F=
9 5
C + 32
C=
()F
32 K= 5 9
(d) K = C + 273
(e)
() + 459.4 F
(vii) (a) Triple point of water = 273.16 K (b) Absolute zero = 0 K = 273.15 (c) For a gas thermometer, T = (273.15) (d) For a resistance thermometer, R
C
P Ptriple
() Kelvin
= R 0 [1+ a ]
(viii) If mechanical work W produces the same temperature change as heat H, then we can write: W = JH, where J is called mechanical equivalent of heat (ix) The heat absorbed or giv en out by a body of mass m, when the temperature changes by T is: Q = mc T, where c is a constant for a substance, called as SPECIFIC HEAT. (x ) HEAT CAPACITY of a body of mass m is defined as : Q = mc (xi) WATER EQUIVALENT of a body is numerically equal to the product of its mass and specific heat i.e., W = mc (xii) When the state of matter changes, the heat absorbed or evolved is given by: Q = mL, where L is called LATENT HEAT (xiii) In case of gases, there are two types of specific heats i.e., c and c v [c p = specific heat at constant p pressure and C v = specific heat at constant volume]. Molar specific heats of a gas are: C = Mc p p and C v = Mc v , where M = molec ular weight of the gas. (xiv) C p > C v and according to Mayers formula C C v= R p (xv ) For all thermodynamic processes, equation of state for an ideal gas: PV = (a) For ISOBARIC process: P = Constant ; (b) For ISOCHORIC (Isometric) process: V = Constant;
V T
RT
=Constant
P T
=Constant
(c) For ISOTHERMAL process T = Constant ; PV= Constant (d) For ADIABATIC process: PV = Constant ; TV 1=Constant 1 ) T = Constant and P( (xvi) Slope on PV diagram
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(a) For isobaric process: zero (b) For isochoric process: infinite (c) For isothermal process: slope = (P/V) (d) For adiabatic process: slope = (P/V) (e) Slope of adiabatic curv e > slope of isothermal curve. (xvii) Work done (a) For isobaric process: W = P (V V1 ) 2 (b) For isochoric process: W = 0 (c) For isothermal process: W= RT log e (V 2 /V1 ) RT x 2.303 x log 1 0 (V2 /V1 ) P V x 2.303 x log 10 (V2 /V1 ) 1 1 RT x 2.303 x log 1 0 (P1 /P2 ) (d) For adiabatic process:
W=
() V - P2 V2 R () - T2 T P 1 = 1 1 ()- 1 ()- 1
< W i so ba ric
(e) In expansion from same initial state to same final v olume Wad ia ba t ic< W
iso t he rma l
(f ) In compression from same initial state to same final volume: Wad ia ba t ic< W
iso t he rma l
< W i so ba ric
(xv iii)Heat added or removed : (a) For isobaric process: Q = C p T (b) For isochoric process = Q = Cv T (c) For isothermal process = Q = W = Rt log e (V 2 /V1 ) (d) For adiabatic process: Q = 0 (xix) Change in internal energy (a) For isobaric process = (b) For isochoric process = (c) For isothermal process = (d) For adiabatic process: (xx) Elasticities of gases (a) Isothermal bulk modulus = B (b) Adiabatic bulk modulus B U = Cv T U = Cv T U=0 R () - T1 T2 U = W = ()- 1
I
=P
P
= A
(xxi) For a CYCLIC process, work done W = area enclosed in the cycle on PV diagram. Further, U = 0 (as state of the system remains unchanged) So, Q = W (xxii) Internal energy and specif ic heats of an ideal gas (Monoatomic gas) (a) U = (b) (c) (d) C
U= 3 2 3 2
U=
v
R T (for moles);
U = 3 2 R
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(e) C (f )
= Cv + R =
Cp Cv = 5 2 R
3 2
R+R=
3 2 R = 5 3
5 2
= 1.67
(xxiii) Internal energy and specific heats of a diatomic gas (a) (b) (c) C (d) C (e)
U= 5 2
RT (for moles);
5 2 1
U=
v
R T
U T = 5 2 5 2 2
(for moles)
R;
= C v+ R =
Cp Cv = 7R
R+R=
5R 2 =
7 2 7 5
R
= 1.4
: = 1 + 2
= N1 m1 + N2 m2 N1 + N2 Cp = 1 Cp + 2 Cp
1
1 M1 + 2 + M 2 1 + 2 1 Cv + 2 Cv
1
Cv =
1 + 2
and
1 + 2
(xxv) First law of thermodynamics (a) Q = U + W or U= Q W (b) Both Q, W depends on path, but U does not depend on the path (c) For isothermal process: Q = W = RT log | V 2 /V1 |, U = 0, T = Constant, PV = Constant and C i so = 8 (d) For adiabatic process: PV = constant, C
() 1 W = R T2 - T , Q = 0, () 1= Cp Cv =1 + 2
U = Cv (T 2 T ), Q = 0, 1
ad
= 0 and
(where is the degree of freedom) (e) For isochoric process: (f ) For isobaric process: C = ( R/ 1) p (g) For cyclic process: (h) For free expansion: (i) For polytropic process: W = 0, Q = U = Cv T, V = constant, and C v = (R/ 1) Q = Cp T, U = Cv T., W = R T, P = constant and U = 0, Q = W U = 0, Q = 0, W = 0 W = [ R(T2 T )/1n], Q = C (T 2 T ), PV n = constant and 1 1
C= R -1 + R 1- n
(xxvi) Second law of thermodynamics (a) There are no perfect engines (b) There are no perfect refrigerators
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= 1
Q2 Q 2 T2 , = Q1 Q1 T 1
T2 T - T2 1
or
= Q 2 or : Q = KA
= 8
t , where K is coefficient of thermal
(xxvii)The amount of heat transmitted is given by conduc tivity, A is the area of cross section, flow and x is separation between two ends (xxviii)
d = R T h=
d KA
/ d2 Q A () - 2 1 = ()(/ ) 1 + d2 / K2 t d1 K
(b) Rate of flow of heat through the composite conductor: H = (c) Thermal resistance of the composite conductor
RTH = d1 + d2 = ()() R Th + R Th
K1 A
K2 A
(d) Equivalent thermal conductiv ity, K = (xxx) (a) Radiation absorption coefficient: a = Q (b) Reflection coefficient: r = Q /Q0 r (c) Transmission coefficient: t = Q /Q0 t (d) Emissive power: e or E = Q/A .t [t = time] (e) Spectral emissiv e power: e (f ) Emissivity: (g) Absorptiv e power: a = Q (h) Kirchhoffs law: (e (i) Stef ans law: (a) E= For a black body: E = For a body: e = (j) Rate of loss of heat: =
()(/ ) 1 d1 K
0
d1 + d 2
+ d2 / K2
/Q0
At () d
and e =
8 e0
K4 )
4 0
() / dt dQ 1 () / dt dQ
2
r2 1
2 r2
d eAs = dt ms
()() 4
4 0
eAs V s
4 0
A1 V r x 2 = 2 A2 V1 r1
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(For spherical bodies) (l) Newtons law of cooling: (m) Weins displacement law: (n) Weins radiation law: E
(o)
d dt
m
= K ( 0 )
A
5
2 S
or ( 0 ) a e
A
5
K T 3
T = b (where b = 2.9 x 10 d = ( T) d = s T4 or T = e a / T d
1/4
m K)
Solar Constant:
S=
S s
R ES R
S
1/ 2
R ES
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WAVES
1. 2. 3. Velocity : v = n and n = (1/T) Velocity of transverse waves in a string :v=
T m = T pr2 d
Velocity of longitudinal waves : (a) In rods: v = v (Y/ ) (Y Youngs modulus, (b) In liquids: v = v (B/ ) (B = Bulk modulus) (c) In gases: v = v ( P/ ) (Laplace formula) + 0.61t
= density)
4. Effect of temperature : (a) v = v v(T/273) or v = v 0 (b) (v /vrms ) = v ( /3) so u nd 5. Wave equation : (a) y = a sin (b) y = a sin 2 (c) y = a sin ( 6. Particle velocity
2p
(vtx)
t T x
=n
pa rt icl e
)max =
7.
Strain in medium (a) strain = ( y/ x) = ka cos ( t kx) (b) Maximum strain = ( y/dx) ma x = ka (c) (v /strain) = ( /k) = wave velocity p art i cle i.e., v p art i cl e= wave velocity x strain in the medium Wave equation :
2y
8. 9.
t2
= v2
x2
Intensity of sound waves : (a) I= (E/At) (b) If is the density of the medium; v the velocity of the wave; n the frequency and a the amplitude then I= 2 p2 v n 2 a 2 i.e. I n 2 a2 (c) Intensity level is decibel: 10 log ( I/I0 ). Where, I0 =Threshold of hearing = 10 1 2Watt/m Principle of superposition Resultant amplitude : y = y1 + y
2 2 2
: a = v (a 1 2 + a
+ 2a 1 a 2 cos f )
Resultant intensity : I= I1 + I2 + 2 v (I1 I2 cos f ) (a) For constructive interference: f = 2n p, a m ax = a 1 + a 2 and Ima x = ( v I1 + v I2 )2 (b) For destructiv e interference: f = (2n1) p , a mi n = a 2 a 2 and Imin = ( vI1 =v I2 )2
13. (a) Beat frequency = n n 2 and beat period T = (T 1 T2 /T2 T ) 1 1 (b) If there are N forks in successiv e order each giving x beat/sec with nearest neighbour, then n la st = n f irs t+ (N1)x 14. Stationary waves : The equation of stationary wave, (a) When the wave is reflected from a f ree boundary, is: y = + 2a cos
2px sin 2pt T = 2a cos kx sin t
30
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(b) When the wave is reflected from a rigid boundary, is: Y + 2a sin 2px cos 2pt =2a sin kx cos
T
15.
Vibrations of a stretched string (a) For fundamental tone: n (b) For p th harmonic : n =
1
: =
p 1 T m
1
T m
: n 2 : n 3 :.. = 1 : 2 : 3 :
(m =
p r 2 d)
p 2l 2p 2l T m T m
(ii) Longitudinal mode: n = 16. Vibrations of closed organ pipe (a) For fundamental tone: n
1
v 4L
(b) For first overtone (third harmonic): n = 3n 1 2 (c ) Only odd harmonics are found in the vibrations of a closed organ pipe and n : n 2 : n 3 : ..=1 : 3 : 5 : 1 17. Vibrations of open organ pipe : (a) For fundamental tone: n = (v/2L) 1 (b) For first overtone (second harmonic) : n = 2n 1 2 (c ) Both ev en and odd harmonics are f ound in the v ibrations of an open organ pipe and n1 : n 2 : n 3 : =1 : 2 : 3 : . End correction : (a) Closed pipe : L = L pi p e+ 0.3d (b) Open pipe: L = L pi pe + 0.6 d where d = diameter = 2r Resonance column (c) e = 20. Kundts tube :
vair vrod =
air rod
18.
19.
: (a)
l 1 +e =
l2
4 - 3l 1 2
; (b) ; (d) n =
l2 + e =
2 () ()l 1 l2 v or
3 4 =2 l
2
-l
21. Longitudinal vibration of rods (a) Both ends open and clamped in middle: (i) Fundamental frequency, n = (v/2 l ) 1 (ii) Frequency of first ov ertone, n 2 = 3n 1 (iii)Ratio of frequencies, n1 : n2 : n3 : = 1 3: 5 : .. (b) One end clamped (i) Fundamental frequency, (ii) Frequency of first overtone, n1 = (v/4 l ) n 2 = 3 n1
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n1 : n2 : n3 : = 1 : 3 : 5 : :n a
t l2 E
= density
23. Doppler Effect for Sound (a) Observ er stationary and sourc e moving: (i) Source approaching: n =
v v + vs v v - vs
x n
and
v + vs v
v - vs v
x n and
(b) Source stationary and observ er moving: (i) Observer approaching the source: n =
v + v0 v
xn
and
(ii) Observer receding away from source: n = (c ) Source and observ er both mov ing: (i) S and O mov ing towards each other: n =
v - v0 v
x n and
v + v0 v - vs
xn
(ii) S and O mov ing away from each other: n = (iii) S and O in same direction, S behind O : n = (iv) S and O in same direction, S ahead of O: n=
v v m v 0 v v
m
v - v0 v + vs
xn
v - v0 xn v - vs v + v0 v + vs
xn
n' =
vs
(e) Change in frequency: (i) Moving source passes a stationary observ er: For v
s
n=
2vvs v2 - v2 s
xn
<<v,
,=
2vs v
xn
2v0 v
(ii) Moving observer passes a stationary source: (f) Source moving towards or away from hill or wall (i) Source mov ing towards wall (a) Observer between source and wall n = n =
v x n (for direct waves) v - vs v x n (for reflected waves) v - vs
n=
xn
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(ii) Source mov ing away from wall (a) Observ er between source and wall n = n =
v v + vs v v + vs v v - vs v v + vs x n (for direct waves)
xn
(g) Moving Target: (i) S and O stationary at the same place and target approaching with speed u n =
v +u v- u x n or
n =
1+
2u v
x n (for u <<v)
(ii) S and O stationary at the same place and target receding with speed u n =
v- u v +u x n or
n =
2v
1-
2u v
x n (for u <<v)
(h) SONAR: n =
v v sub v v sub
xn
sub
x n
(upper sign f or approaching submarine while lower sign for receding submarine) (i) Transverse Doppler eff ect: There is no transverse Doppler effect in sound. For v elocity component v s cos n=
v v vs cos x n ( sign for approac hing and + sign for receding)
24. Doppler Effect for light (a) Red shift (when light source is moving away): n = For v << c,
1- v / c x n or 1+ v / c
= 1 + v / cx
1 - v /c v x n or c
n=
= v x
c
= 1 - v /c x
1+ v/c v c n or
n=
= v
c
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(c) Doppler Broadening = 2 (d) Transverse Doppler eff ect: For light, n = (e) RADAR: =
12v c v2 c2
=2
v c 1 v2 2 c2
x n= 1
x n (for v << c)
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STUDY TIPS Combination of Subjects Study a combination of subjects during a day i. e. after studying 23 hrs of mathematics shift to any theoretical subject for 2 horrs. When we study a subject like math, a particular part of the brain is working more than rest of the brain. When we shift to a theoretical subject, practically the other part of the brain would become active and the part studying maths will go for rest. Revision Always refresh your memory by revising the matter learned. At the end of the day you must revise whatever youve learnt during that day (or revise the previous days work before starting studies the next day). On an average brain is able to retain the newly learned information 80% only for 12 hours, after that the forgetting cycle begins. After this revision, now the brain is able to hold the matter for 7 days. So next revision should be after 7 days (sundays could be kept for just revision). This ways you will get rid of the problem of forgetting what you study and save a lot of time in restudying that topic. Use All Your Senses Whatever you read, try to convert that into picture and visualize it. Our eye memory is many times stronger than our ear memory since the nerves connecting brain to eye are many times stronger than nerves connecting brain to ear. So instead of trying to mug up by repeating it loudly try to see it while reapeating (loudly or in your mind). This is applicable in theoritical subjects. Try to use all your senses while learning a subject matter. On an average we remember 25% of what we read, 35% of what we hear, 50% of wha t we say, 75% of wha t we see, 95% of what we read, he ar, say and se e. Breathing and Relaxation Take special care of your breathing. Deep breaths are very important for relaxing your mind and hence in your concentration. Pranayam can do wonders to your concentration, relaxation and sharpening your mined (by supplying oxygen to it). Aerobic exercises like skip ping , jogging, swimming and cycling are also very helpful.
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