CHAPTER 17: A NEW THEORY: EVOLUTION VS. CREATION 1. Alfred Wallace: Father of biogeography: relationship between location/species a.

Geographic distribution of species, similar environ has similar species b. See Lyell and Darwin: they learned from each other 2. Cuvier: Theory of Catastrophism a. Studied fossils and comparison with living organisms b. Defined: abrupt changes in fossil record marked times of mass extinctions c. Survivors repopulate the world, no new species 3. Lamarcks view: Offspring inherit traits acquired by parents during lifetime a. Perfection driven by environmental and internal needs b. Internal force: directed need for change and improvement of structures c. Correct that: environment is an important factor in evolving species d. Environment can alter phenotype of individuals, but not of their offspring 4. Darwin: studied Finch beaks on Galapagos Islands a. Variations in traits influence an individuals ability to secure resources and to survive and reproduce in an environment, survival of fittest b. Natural Selection Theory: outcome of differences in reproduction among individuals of a population that vary in shared traits. Environmental agents of selection act on the range of variation, and the population may evolve. c. Ie: insect with the genotype/phenotype resistant to DDT are able to adapt to an environment subjected to DDT, ADAPTATION IS KEY!!! 5. Lyell: Theory of Uniformity from book Principles of Geology a. Darwin used Lyell Theory plus Wallace biogeography together b. Gradual repetitive change had shaped the earth more than rare catastrophes c. Earth age: took millions of years to sculpt present earth, time for evolution 6. Malthus: populations grow faster than the resources to feed them, competition a. ? relationship geometric vs arithmetically, Mr Conners 7. Darwin use of other scientists and their studies a. Wallace: Biogeography pattern between environment and species present b. Lyell: Theory of Uniformity: gradual changes in global environment c. Malthus: Competition for resources 8. Geologic Time Scale: Four abrupt changes in fossil sequences a. Proterozoic: oldest, predates fossil, start photo prokaryotes, with increase in Oxygen: aerobic metabolism and eukaryotes to protists and on super continent break-up and Ice age with mass extinction

b. Paleozoic: near end Pangea and world oceans form, mass extinction c. Mesozoic: continued Pangea break-up, Asteroid mass ext dinosaurs d. Cenozoic: finally humans, next mass extinction begins 9. Continental Drift: a. Start with Gondwana supercont 420 mya b. All land mass collide into Pangea 260 mya: pole to pole (polarity) c. Split Pangea to current oceans/continents 65 mya 10. Comparative Morphology: study of body plans: Macroevolution a. Homologous structures: similarity in one or more structures may suggest evolved from a common ancestor (location, tissue, arrangement, develop) b. Morphologic Divergence: comparable body parts are modified in different ways in different lines of descent from a common ancestor i. Example: forelimb stem reptile: crouched low to ground 1. porpoise: flippers for swimming 2. elephants: pillar like limbs for support c. Analogous structures: different responses of different body parts to similar challenges or the independent adaptation of a body part in different species to different physical challenge, ie flying d. Morphologic Convergence: dissimilar parts in different species evolve in a similar manner to the same physical constraints or challenges CHAPTER 18: MICROEVOLUTION: species characterized by morpho, physio, behave 1. Gene Pool: all the genetic resources of a given population a. Trait: morphology based on the alleles inherited b. Inheritance of alleles determine genotype and phenotype c. Mutation: only event that can create new alleles 1. Types: helpful, neutral or lethal mutations 2. Genetic Equilibrium: a population is not evolving with respect to that locus: Hardy-Weinberg Formula: if traits occur in different proportions, deviation present Example: 16% recessive, take square root and get: q = 0.4 and p = 0.6 AA= 36%, Aa= 48%, and aa= 16% Conditions Are: p2(AA) + 2pq(Aa) + q2 = 1, where p+q=1 1. No mutation vs. mutation 2. Infinitely large population vs. gene drift 3. Isolated population of same species vs. gene flow 4. Individuals mate at random vs. sexual selection 5. Individuals survive and produce same number offspring vs. natural selection 3. Natural Selection: outcome of differences in reproduction among individuals of a

population that vary in their shared traits, some individuals more adaptive than others under prevailing environment ** Most influential process of microevolution, in other words: adaptation favors the individuals in a population most likely to survive and reproduce in a given environment A. Directional Selection: allele frequency shifts in one direction, favors one phenotype for survival and reproduction based on directional change environ.. 1. Example: Moths: light type (no pollution/lichen on trees) Dark type (pollution/no lichen/soot darkens tree) 2. Antibiotics example: overuse of antibiotics for bacterial infections has Lead to an increase in resistant bacteria by killing off non-resistant 3. Super Rats or Cockroaches: coumadin or pesticides will kill of non-resistant types and predators, result super rats and stronger roaches that inflict more damage B. Stabilizing Selection: favors the intermediate phenotypic range 1. Key point: this mode natural selection can counter mutation, Genetic drift and gene flow. 2. Example: light and heavy babies and survival rates, Fig 18.9 p 291 3. Sociable weavers: favors intermediate weight birds. Body mass is a trade off for starvation and predation. Light birds unable to store enough fat: they starve, and Heavy birds: decreased mobility and attractive to predators: increased predation and death C. Disruptive Selection: favors phenotypes at either end of spectrum over The intermediate forms 2. Example: Large and Small Billed Birds, experimental crosses has resulted in only Large Bills or Small Bills and nothing in between, genetic basis! **Genes for resistance are already present in the population, when the novel conditions or environmental conditions favor them, a great increase in resistant type occurs rather quickly. Resistant bacteria have increased survival; they pass on their genes to their offspring which results in a greater increase in resistant bacteria, etc. 4. Sexual selection: explained by natural selection, dimorphism of sexes is common Males larger and flashier, plus mating rituals and male aggression, favors the Fittest survival despite energy and time requirements 5. Balanced Polymorphism:2 or more alleles are maintained at a relatively high frequency or p + q is greater than 1, Aa: 2 x (.6)(.6) == 0.52 **Conditions that favor Heterozygotes: higher fitness as compared to homozyg. **Example: Human sickle-cell anemia and Malaria (parasitic infection of RBCs) 1. Normal: HbA/HbA: normal RBCs infected by parasite, spreads and Kills off RBCs, increased mortality 2. Heterozygote: HbA/HbS: when RBCs infected, cells sickle and Bodies antibodies kills these RBCs, increased survival

3. Recessive: HbS/HbS: all cells sickle leading to an increased mortality 6. Genetic Drift: a random change in allele frequency, the rate of fixation increases in smaller populations, Leads to: a loss of genetic diversity. **Fixation: when all individuals in a population have become homozygous for one allele at a locus, fixation has occurred// diversity remains low unless mutation or Gene flow introduces new alleles A. BOTTLENECKS: drastic reduction in population results in a few individuals to rebuild or start a new population. Example: Elephant seals killed off to 20, rebuild: all genes are only homozygous **Key: small population size with a small gene pool B. FOUNDER EFFECT: unpredictable genetic shift when a few individuals establish a new population, a form of bottlenecking *genetic drift: less pronounced in inbred populations Example: Inbred population: the non-random mating among very close relatives **Negative impact: leads to homozygous conditions, lowers fitness if harmful recessive alleles are increasing frequency