Watson, Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism 001

&-i
LIBRARY
1VERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Received
Accessions No.
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THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY

OF
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

WATSON AND BURBURY
pontoon
HENRY FROWDE
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE
AMEN CORNER,
E.G.
ms
THE
MATHEMATICAL THEORY
OF
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

BY
H. W.
WATSON,
AND
D.Sc.,
F.RS.
FORMERLY FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
S.
H.
BUBBUBY,
M.A.
FORMERLY FELLOW OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE CAMBRIDGE
//Y^
Of
Hi
V>
Yo,
fwrflW
ELECTROSTATICS
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

M DCCC LXXXV
[
All rights reserved
N>
I.
PREFACE.
THE
exhaustive
character
of
the
late
Professor
Electricity and Magnetism has necessarily reduced all subsequent treatises on these
Maxwell's work on
subjects to
the rank of commentaries.
Hardly any
advances have been made in the theory of these branches of physics during the last thirteen years of which the
first
But
suggestions may not be found in Maxwell's book. the very excellence of the work, regarded from
the highest physical point of view, is in some respects a hindrance to its efficiency as a student's text-book.
under the conviction of the paramount importance of the physical as contrasted with
it
is
Written as
the purely mathematical aspects of the subject, and therefore with the determination not to be diverted
from the
facts
immediate contemplation of experimental to the development of any theory however fasis
cinating, the style is suggestive rather than didactic,
and the mathematical treatment
occasionally some-
what unfinished and
obscure.
It is possible, therefore,
that the present work, of which the first volume is now offered to students of the mathematical theory
of electricity,
may be
of service
as an introduction
Its aim or commentary upon, Maxwell's book. to, is to state the provisionally accepted two-fluid theory,
and to develop
it
into its mathematical consequences,
VI
PREFACE.
regarding that theory simply as an hypothesis, valuable so far as it gives formal expression and unity to experimental facts, but not as embodying an
accepted physical truth. The greater part of this
volume
is
accordingly
occupied with the treatment of this two-fluid theory as developed by Poisson, Green, and others, and as The success of Maxwell himself has dealt with it.
this theory in formally
experimental results is and unreal character of the postulates upon which

is
explaining and co-ordinating only equalled by the artificial

it
based.
The
electrical fluids are physical
impossi-
bilities,
tolerable
only as the basis of mathematical
calculations, and as supplying a language in which the facts of experience have been expressed and
results
calculated
and
anticipated.
These
results
serve
being afterwards stated in more general terms may to suggest a sounder hypothesis, such for
as
instance
we have
offered
to
us in the displace-
ment theory of Maxwell.

In the arrangement of the treatise the first three chapters are devoted to propositions of a purely mathematical character, but of special and constantly
recurring application to
electrical
theory.
an arrangement
in
it
is
hoped that the

little
By such reader may be
able to proceed with the
development of the theory

interruption as possible
due course with as
from the intervention of purely mathematical processes. Few, if any, of the results arrived at in these three
chapters contain anything new or original in them, and the methods of proof have been selected with a
PEEFACE.
Vll
view to brevity and clearness, and with no attempt

at
any unnecessary modifications of demonstrations
already generally accepted. All investigations appear to point irresistibly to a state of polarisation of some kind or other, as the
accompaniment of
physical
electrical action,
and accordingly the
properties of a field of polarised molecules have been considered at considerable length, especially in Chapter XI, in connection with the subject of
specific induction
posite dielectric,
and Faraday's hypothesis of a comand in Chapter XIV, with reference
to Maxwell's displacement theory.
The value of the
last-mentioned hypothesis
nised,
and
than any
the
universally recogas of more promise generally regarded other which has hitherto been suggested in
it is
is
now
way
of placing electrical theory
upon a sound
physical basis.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
ABT.
1-2.
3.
5.
I.
GREEN S THEOREM.
PAGE
Green's Theorem
Generalisation of Green's
Theorem
...
. .
.
1-2
. .
.
3-5
6-17.
Correction for Cyclosis Deductions from Green's
5-6
Theorem
6-19
CHAPTER
II.
SPHEEICAL HAEMONICS.
18-19.
Definition of Spherical
Harmonics
20-21 21-26
27<-38
20-24.
25-34. 35-37.
General Propositions relating to Spherical Harmonics Zonal Spherical Harmonics
38-39.
Expansion of Zonal Spherical Harmonics Expansion of Spherical Harmonics in general
.... ....
39-40
41-44
CHAPTER
III.
POTENTIAL.
40-46.
Definition of Potential
45-51
47-50. 51-63.
64-68.
Equations of Poisson and Laplace
51-54 54-67
to the Potential
.
Theorems concerning Potential Application of Spherical Harmonics
67-73
CHAPTER
IV.
DESCRIPTION OF PHENOMENA.
69. Electrification
70. 71.
Electrification
Electrification
by Friction by Induction by Conduction

.
74
75
76
.
72-79.
80-81.
Further Experiments with Conductors and Insulators

Electrical
Theory
77-83 83-86
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
ART.
82-87.
Y.
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
PAGE
Properties of Conductors and Dielectric to the Two-fluid Theory
Principle of Superposition Case of Single Conductor
Electrified
Media according
87-90 90 90 91-92
88. 89.
and
Electrified Point
.
90-91.
92-94.
95.
96.
System inside of Conducting Shell Explanation of Experiments II, V, VI, and VII Case of given Potentials General Problem of Electric Equilibrium
Lines, Tubes,
93-95
96
....
. .
96-97
97-98.
99-103.
Experimental Proof of the Law of Inverse Square and Fluxes of Force
97-100
100-107
CHAPTER
VI.
APPLICATION TO PARTICULAE CASES.

105.
106.
Case of Infinite Conducting Plane
108
Infinite Coaxal Cylin-
Two
Infinite Parallel Planes;
two
107-117.
ders; two Concentric Spheres Sphere in Uniform Field; Conducting Sphere and Uni-
109-110
110-123
formly Charged Sphere;
Infinite
Conducting Cylinder
CHAPTER
VII.
THE THEORY OF INVERSION AS APPLIED TO ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS.

118-122.
123-124.
Theory of Inversion; Geometrical Consequences; Transformation of an Electric Field Problem of Conducting Sphere and Electrified Point solved
124-129
129-130
125. 126.
127.
by Inversion The converse Problem

Case of two Infinite Intersecting Planes Case of n Intersecting Planes Case of Hemisphere and Diametral Plane Two Spheres external to each other
Deductions therefrom
....
. .
.
130
131-132
132-133
128-129.
130.
181.
133-134
134
Distribution on Circular Disc at Unit Potential
135-136
132-133.
136-138
134-135.
136-140. 141-142.
Case of Infinite Conducting Plane and Circular Aperture Case of Spherical Bowl
Effect of small hole in Spherical or Plane Conductor
.
138-140
140-143
143-146
CONTENTS.
XI
CHAPTER
ART.
VIII.
ELECTBICAL SYSTEMS IN TWO DIMENSIONS.

PAGE
Definition of Field
143-144.
145-146. 147-150.
151-152.
Definition and Properties of Conjugate Functions Transformation of Electric Field
147-148 148-152 152-154 154-156
Example
of Infinite Cylinder
....
IX.
153-154.
Inversion in two Dimensions
156-158
CHAPTER
SYSTEMS OF CONDUCTOES.
155-156. 157-158.
Co-efficients of Potential
and Capacity
159-160
160-162
Properties of Co-efficients of Potential

Properties of Co-efficients of Capacity and Induction Comparison of similar Electrified Systems
159-164.
165.
162-164
165
CHAPTER
X.
ELECTEICAL ENEKGY.
166-168. 169-170.
171-174.
The Intrinsic Energy of any Electrical System The Mechanical Action between Electrified Bodies The change in Energy consequent on the connexion
.
.
166-170 170-171 171-173
of
.
Conductors, or the variation in size of Conductors

175.
Earnshaw's Theorem
174-176
176-181 181
176-181.
182.
System of Insulated Conductors without Charge fixed in a field of uniform force
Electrical Polarisation
CHAPTER
XI.
SPECIFIC INDUCTIVE CAPACITY.

183-185.
Specific Inductive Capacity
183-184
186-192.
Mathematical investigation of Faraday's theory of Specific

Induction
Lines, Tubes, and Fluxes of Force on this theory Application of the theory to special cases
of the theory to Anisotropic
.
193.
184-194 195
194-195.
196-200
195a-198. Extension
199-200.
Dielectric
Media
200-205
205-207
Determination of the Co-efficient of Induction in special
Xll
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
ART.
XII.
THE ELECTRIC CURRENT.

201-203.
204-206.
General description of the Electric Current Laws of the Steady Current in a single metal at Uniform
.
208-210
210-213 214-218
207-211.
212-215.
Temperature Determination of the Resistance in special cases Systems of Linear Conductors

Generation of Heat in Electric Currents Electromotive Force of Contact
216-218. 219-221.
222-225.
........ ...... .... ......

.
218-221 221-224 224-226

226-228
Currents through Heterogeneous Conductors
CHAPTER
XIII.
VOLTAIC AND THERMOELECTRIC CURRENTS.

226-229.
230-238. 239-240.
241.
The Voltaic Current. The Electromotive Force
229-232
of
any given Voltaic Circuit
232-236
Clausius's theory of Electrolysis Electrolytic Polarisation
236-238
238
242-243. 244-248.
248-250.
251.
Thermoelectric Currents
239-240
.
Laws of a Thermoelectric Circuit The Energy of a Thermoelectric Circuit

Systems of Linear
Metals and Temperatures
... ....
. .
240-244 244-246
246-247
Conductors with Wires
of
different
CHAPTER
XIV.
POLARISATION OP THE DIELECTRIC.

252-253.
254.
255.
Polarisation of the Dielectric
Stresses in a Polarised Dielectric
248-254
254-257
.
256-257.
258-262.
Explanation of Superficial Electrification of Conductors The Relation between Force and Polarisation at each
point
of.
257-258
a Dielectric
258-259 259-264 264-266

. ,
Theory of
Electrical Displacement
263-264.
265.
Displacement Currents All Electric Currents flow in Closed Circuits
266-268
CHAPTER
ARTICLE
I.
GREEN'S THEOREM.
1.]
a?,
LET 8 be any
y,
functions of
and
#,
closed surface, u and w' any two which are continuous and single-valued
everywhere within 8. Then shall du du' du du' du du'
= /YV ds- /7YV |^=

in
ffw
?p4#_
f/Tw
taken throughout tfye space and the double integrals over the surface, dv is by S, an element of the normal to the surface inside of S but measured outwards in direction, and V 2 stands for
triple integrals are
which the
enclosed
+
(~dtf
+
"dy*
&?)'
For
v lt x
let a line
a?
y, z
and and a? #!
/**a
=
,
x cut the surface in the points Then integrating by parts between y, ir , we have 2
parallel to
2;.
J Let and #2
/ Xl
w7
.<i
-
tfc
da?
/ -^ = (^,du\ \
/
/
2
,du\
/^
C X2 du du'
dx
4
)
-ft*'--) v dx
A
/
3-^-^. cte
c?o;
1
^^ be the base of a prism

is
of which the line between
xl
one edge.
Then
dx dx
Now
if
1}
%,
% be
the direction-cosines of the normal to
8
of
drawn outwards
at the point
# 1}
y,
0,
and
if
d8l be the element
area cut out at that point
by the prism, dydz =-~ll dSlt

B
VOL.
I.
GREEN'S THEOREM.
,
[2.
and using corresponding notation at the point #2

dydz
Therefore
r*i
l
y,
z,
dS2
dydz
Jx-i *i
^ dx
,
du.
du
C xz du du
xl and x2 are functions of y and and transposing, we obtain grating

Therefore, noting that
z,
inte-
in which the triple integrals comprise the whole space within and the surface integrals comprise the whole surface of S. Similar equations, mutatis mutandis, hold for y and z.
S,
Therefore
du'
dudu
dudu
U/
~I~^~~
1
u'
=
We have
u -=dS
1 1
uû
dxdydz by symmetry.
supposed the line through y z to cut S in two points It may cut it in any even number only, #! , y, z and #2 y, z. of points, but all the reasoning would apply to each pair so
,
long as
to the point of ingress, and #2 of egress. The a? x relates equation will therefore hold equally where lines can be drawn cutting the surface in more than two points.
surfaces,
Further, the proof evidently holds for the space between two St and S2 whereof S2 completely encloses St
, .
On
the Application of the
Theorem
to the Infinite
External Space.
surfaces,
JS^
2.] Let us consider more closely the case of two and S2 of which $2 completely encloses S^
,
3.]
GENERALISATION OF GREEN' S THEOREM.
Applying the theorem to the space between them we have
JJJ \dx dx
/7T5
^^
dy dy
du^
dz dz
in
which the
,
first
second to
S2 and
of the double integrals relates to /S^, and the the normals on S1 are measured inwards as
.
regards the space enclosed by S1 Now let S2 be removed to an infinite distance.

/"*
If in that
infinitely
/*
case the surface integral
/ /
-^-
dS2t extended over the
distant surface
S29 vanishes, the theorem is true for the infinite outside of S1 , as well as for the finite space within it, the space normal being in this case measured inwards as regards S^.
'
In order that
the
II u'
dS2 should vanish, when extended over
infinitely distant surface, it is sufficient and necessary In the physical 1. that uu' should be of less degree than theorems with which we are concerned, this will generally be the case.
Generalisation of Green's Theorem.

3.]
Let
K be any continuous function of

du du dx dx -jdu du'
#, y, z.
Then
rrC JJJ
+ -r -r- + ~r dz dz j-[dxdydz 3 dy dy
du dul
by the same process of
The conpartial integration as before. dition for application of the theorem to the external space will f 1 in this case be that Kuu must be of less degree than
.
It will sometimes be convenient to denote the expression
d
dx
du
=
d
) $-
\J*-
(xL
du )
d
T-
du
dz
~z~ )
(A.
dx'
dy
ay
dz
by
V2 K'U.
B 2
4
4.]
x, y,
GENERALISATION OF GREEN
THEOREM.
[4.
We
and
have assumed u and

z.
u' to
be continuous functions of
If at a certain surface within S, one of them,

discontinuous but
finite,
,
suppose Uj
is
and
.
its
_
differential
co-
du
efficients -=da?
>
du
-=>
du
-7>
dy
d0
or one of them, are infinite, the theorem

:
requires modification as follows It still remains true, u being always finite, that
d u-r lv du\, (K-=-)dne

dx^
dx'
.du\ = (uK-=-)
.
dx' Xli
(uK
,du\ ) dx' Xl
C x*
JXl
dudu' Kdx\ dx dx
and from
this
we may deduce
du du
Green's theorem in the form
= ffuK ^-dSBut we cannot

ternative form
.
ffluû'dxdydz.
theorem in the
al-
assert the truth of the
K(^dx
du du dx
|-
&c.
) '
dxdydz y
\udxdydz.
If u become infinite at any point within $, we cannot include in the integration the point at which the infinite value occurs. But we may describe a surface S' completely enclosing, and very
near to, that point, and apply the theorem to the space between S and /S", regarding u' and its differential coefficients as constant
throughout $'. For instance, let u become infinite at a point P within S. Let S' be a small sphere described about P, and let
ft'
-=-2
and
dv
surface of S'.
Kp
be the values of
ft',
-=-
av
and
in or on the
Then we obtain
(fudSf -
In this form the theorem can be made use of whenever the
two
surface integrals relating to
',
namely //^ J/S'and
//
-g-dff,
5.]
THE CORRECTION FOR CYCLOSIS.

finite
are
or
zero.
For instance,
if
= -,
where r
is
the
distance of
any point from P,
sr=0
and the equation becomes
and
^=-
Correction
for
Cyclosis.
5.]
We
/
have assumed
#, y, z
;
also that
is,
u and
u' are single-valued
functions of
integral
that
that for any such function the line
-~- dl)
taken round any closed curve that can be
drawn within the space S to which Green's theorem is applied, is zero. The functions with which we shall have to deal in this
treatise will generally satisfy this condition.
If however for any function u the condition
dl
$,
be
not satisfied for certain closed curves drawn within
the state-
ment
of Green's theorem requires modification in the manner pointed out by Helmholz and Sir W. Thomson. The reader
will find the subject fully treated in
Maxwell's Electricity and
Magnetism, Second Edition, Arts. 96 b 96 d. It will be sufficient here to shew the modification required in a simple case. Suppose, for instance, S conof an anchor-ring, Fig. I, and that for any closed curve drawn within it, so as
sist
to
embrace the
axis, as
OPQO,
-jj
dl= H,
but for closed curves not embracing the axis
/ do
dl
0.
Let us suppose u to be mea-
sured from a section
of the ring.
Let
be a point in the
6
section
.
THE CORRECTION FOR CYCLOSIS.
[5.
Then, if we start from 0, with u for the value of u will, on arriving again u, and proceed round the curve OPQO, at 0, have assumed by continuous variation the value U Q + H. Let Sl be any other section of the ring. Then $ and 8
divide the space within the ring into two parts, /S P/S i and No curve embracing the axis can be drawn wholly S1 QS
.
f
within either
S PSl
or
Sl QS
Therefore Green's theorem

it
may
be applied to either space.
Applying
to
SQ PSlt we have
(1)
in which the
first
double integral relates to the surface of the

f
S ring, and the other two to the sections SQ and 1 respectively. the theorem to <S 1 Q"S'o> and regarding the Again, applying normals to S and S1 as measured in the same direction as in
the former case, that
question,
is
inwards as regards the space
now
in
we have
du du
(
-T-
+ &c. ) dxdydz
duf_
~d>>
(2)
If we now add the two equations (l) and (2) together, obtain for the whole space within the ring
.du
we
du
fffz(JJ J
~
r r
fj
Htnce
case.
HI
K^dS
is
the correction for cyclosis in this
Its value depends on the section of the ring arbitrarily chosen as the starting-point from which u is measured.
7-]
DEDUCTIONS FKOM GREEN'S THEOREM.
Deductions
from
mi
Green's Theorem.
-i
o.J
j > i Let u be a constant. e
du'
-=
>
Then, since
0$
du' -y-
>
and -7- are
du'
severally zero,
we obtain the
result that for
any function
u,
the integrals being taken over any closed surface enclosed space.
7.]
8 and
the
(a) There exists one function
u of x,
y,
and z which has
arbi-
trarily assigned values at each point on a closed surface 8, and z at each point within S, satisfies the condition V K u being
everywhere positive.
For evidently an
u
exist
infinite
number of forms of the function

that
satisfying
the
condition
S,
has
the
value at
each point of
irrespective
of the value
assigned of V* u K
within
8.
For any function u
let the integral
throughout the space enclosed by 8 be denoted by Q^ This integral is necessarily positive, and cannot be zero
for
any of the functions in question, unless the assigned values are the same at every point of S in which case a function having that same constant value within S satisfies all the conditions
9
of the problem. If the assigned values of u be not the same at each point of S, then of all the functions which satisfy the surface conditions,
there
must be some
positive, is
one, or more, for which Q U) being necessarily not greater than for any of the others. Let u be
such function.
ditions, so that
satisfies
Let u + u' be any other function which satisfies the surface conf u at each point of S. Then also u + On'
the surface conditions, if
be any numerical quantity
whatever, positive or negative.
DEDUCTIONS FROM GREEN' S THEOREM.

Then
[7.
du du
du du'
du
by Green's theorem,
= Qu+0 because u' =

Now
Q U '-2
on
r
8.
Qu+eu
is
by hypothesis not
0*
less
than
QU} and
therefore
Quf-20 fffu' V^ u dxdydz
cannot be negative for any value of 0, or any value of u'. But unless V 2 be zero at each point within S, it is possible to assign such values to #', consistently with its being zero on S,
as to
make
/
uV K u dxdydz
2
differ
from
zero.
Therefore,
it is
possible to assign such a value
to
as to
make
0*
Qu>- 2
\\\u'
V\u dxdydz
negative. It follows that
at each point within 8, when u is a V^ function satisfying the surface conditions for which Q u is not greater than for any other function satisfying these conditions.
COROLLARY.
surface condition, but such that
If u + u' be any other function satisfying the V Z u' is not zero at all points K
within S, evidently
(b)
The theorem can
side of
S with
function u of #, each point on S, and

outside of S,
also be applied to the infinite space outa certain modification, namely, There exists a y, and z which has arbitrarily assigned values at
satisfies the condition
K being positive, and
such
VK u = that Ku 2 is
z
at each point of lower degree
than
1.
9.]
DEDUCTIONS FEOM GREEKS THEOREM.

all
For of
the functions which satisfy the surface conditions on
the condition as to degree, there must be some one or more for which the integral Q u extended through the infinite external space
S and
Let
11
is not greater than for any of the others. be another function which is zero on S, and
satisfies
the condition as to degree. Then Green's theorem may be to the infinite external space with u arid n for functions. applied And it can be proved by the same process as used above that,
at every point in the external space, some be given to u' which will make Q u+u less than Q u Therefore when Q u has its least possible value for all functions
unless
VK u =
2
value
may
'
satisfying the conditions,
VK u
Z
must be zero
at all points outside
8.]
The theorems can be extended
to the case
where V*KU,
instead of being zero, has any given value p, a function of or, y> z, at each point within the limits of the triple integral, i.e. within
or outside of
as the case
may
be.
satisfies
For
let
VK V =
be a function of the required degree which
p at all points within the limits of the triple integral. exists independently of the surface con-
Such a function always

ditions *.
if <r be the assigned value of u on S, there exists, by a function W, having at each point on S the value cr 7, and such that V^ 0, at all points within the limits of the triple integral. Let u 7.
Then
7,
Art.
W=
= W+
Then u has
at each point
<r,
on S the value
cr
V-\- 7,
that
is,
the required value
and
=P
at each point within the limits of the triple integral. of u be given at each point on S 9.] If the value
9
and
if the
value of
whether zero or any other assigned value, be at each point within S, u has a single and determinate given
value at each point within 8.
V 2j^,
///
is
one such function.
10
DEDUCTIONS FROM GREENES THEOREM.
[lO.
For, let u and u' be two functions both satisfying the conditions.
Then u = u' and
uu'=
0,
at each point on
or V* (u-u') K
and
.......... (1)
Vû-Vû''=
at each point within 8.
0,
Then
..
(2)
by
(1).
It follows that
du dx
_ du
dx
du
dy
_ du'
dy
du
dz
_ du
dz
and therefore u and u', being equal on 8, have identical values at each point within S. It follows as a corollary that, as stated above, if u be constant z at each point on S and if V K u = everywhere within S, u has
at each point within S,
9
the same constant value everywhere within 8. For the constant satisfies both the surface and internal conditions, and there can
be no other function which does satisfy them. The last theorem can be applied to the infinite space outside of 8 as well as to the space within it, if we add the condition
is of a less degree than 1, without which Green's theorem could not be applied to deduce (2). 10.] There exists a function u of #, y^ and z which satisfies the
that Kit?
conditions following ; namely (1) u has values constant lut arbitrary over each of a series of closed surfaces 8lt 82 ... Sn , and given constant values over
,
each of a second series of closed surfaces $/, \. (2) u is of lower degree than
Sm'.
and
//;
where
ely e2 ,
...
e n are given constants,

,
.
and
the double integrals are
taken over
Slt S2
. .
8n
IO.]
DEDUCTIONS FROM GREEN'S THEOREM.

(4)
11
V2 u =
at every point not within any of the surfaces
For, consider a function u which satisfies (l) and (2), and also
satisfies
(a)
u 1 e1 + u 2 e<2 + ...+u n e n
= E,
or
.
Sue
. .
=. E,
where
values assumed
u n are the constant any arbitrary constant, and u^ by u on S1 ... Sn Evidently there exists an infinite variety of such functions. For every such function %, the volume integral
.
E is
zero, if
extended throughout all space not within the surfaces, cannot be be not zero, and is positive.
There must therefore be some one or more of such functions for which Q u is not greater than for any other.
Let u be such function. Let u + u' be any other function satisfying (1), (2) and (a). Then u' has constant values, %', u2', &c. on the surfaces Slt
;
S2
. .
Sn which
satisfy uê^
...
+ n2'e2 + &c. =
is
0, is
zero on each of
of the required degree. These are its only conditions. Also u' being of less degree than i may be used with u in Green's theorem for external
space.
the surfaces S-^
Sm', and
Let
be any numerical quantity, positive or negative.

(l), (2),
Then
u + 6u' also satisfies
and
(a).
Then
= Qu +
Qu>
+2
+ &c. dxdydz
uV
since u' is constant
u dxdydz
,
>
on each of the surfaces S1

...
. . .
Sn and
is
zero
on each of the surfaces S^
Sm'.
12
DEDUCTIONS FROM GREEN' S THEOREM.

>
[ll.
be,
Now Q U+0U
whatever
cannot be
be.
less
than
Qu
whatever
u'
may
and
may
But unless the factor of 20 in the last expression be zero, than Q u there must be some value of 6 which makes Q U + 0U less 20 must therefore be zero for all The quantity multiplied by f values of u consistently with its conditions. 2 V & must therefore be zero at all points within the triple integral, and
'
for all values of %',
# 2', &c. consistent with
ul'e 1 + u2'e2 + &c.

Therefore
= 0.
we must have
where p
some constant, the same for all the surfaces function u be found for any value of E, then jx If the from (a), and is proportional to E.
is
S-^
...
Sn
is
known
There must, therefore, be some value of E for which p is unity, and the function u determined for that value of E satisfies (1),
(2), (3),
and
(4).
11.]
The theorem can be extended
to the case
where
V%,
instead of being zero at every point within the limits of the triple integral, has any assigned value p, a function of x, y, z.
For let be a function of the required degree which has Sn has constant but arbitrary values on each of the surfaces S1 the given constant values on S^ ... m', and satisfies V 2 p at
.
F=
all
such a function
The existence of points external to both series of surfaces. is in Art. 8. 7 being so determined, let proved
Then, as we have proved, there exists a function required degree having, some constant values on S1 value zero on 8^ ... Sm', and satisfying
S2
W of the
.
. .
Sm
the
=e
-e.;,
&c.,
and
V /F=
2
at all points external to all the surfaces.
12.]
DEDUCTIONS FORM GREEN*S THEOREM.

u
13
Let
= W+
V.
Then u has some constant values on each of the
surfaces
Sl
...Sni and the given constant values on each of the surfaces
K...8.'.
Also
Similarly,
and
at all external points. 12.]
= &c., V w= V JF+V F=p

&c.
2 2
2
and
(3) of Art. 10,
If u be a function which satisfies the conditions (l), (2), and for which V 2 u has any assigned value, zero
or otherwise, at every point not within any of the surfaces, then u has single and determinate value at each point in external
space.
u' be two functions, each of degree less than the surface conditions, so that u and u' are both J, satisfying constant on each surface, and
let
For
u and
rr
JJ
and so on
Also
J( 3 di* "
or
for each of the surfaces.
V2 ^
and
VV both
point in the external space, every point in that space.
have the same given value at each and therefore V 2 (^ #') = at
Then
fff(u- u')
,
V (u-u) dxdydz
2
+ ^-u, rrd(u-u)
)JJ
-^-^dS.
jjj
0.
u-V*u'} dxdydz
14:

du jefo?
[13.
Therefore
= du' T~
cfo
>
du T<fo/
= du ;r~'
and
du
:r "
= du T~'
and since
?*
= w' at
an
infinite distance,
= &' at every point not

dS be given
for each of
within any of the surfaces.

13.]
We proved in Art. 10 that if

Slt S2
...
,
/ /
-7-
the surfaces
Sn and u be constant on each

\,
surface,
and
of degree lower than least value when
V% = V%
then the triple integral Q u has its at each point in external space.
/ /
"j
We
surface
can
now prove
that given
dS
as before for each
= p at each point not within any of the and given and u of degree lower than J, Q u has its least value when u is constant over each surface. For let u be the function which satisfies the four conditions of Art. 1 0, u' any other function
surfaces,
of degree less than J which satisfies conditions (3) and (4) of that Article, but is not constant on each of the surfaces 8l ... Sn
.
Then
u'= u+u'
and
if
u,
f
Qu
and
spectively,
we
Q M denote the triple integral Q for u and u rehave, as in the preceding articles,
/
which the double integral is understood to relate to each of the surfaces in succession. The second line is zero by the condiin
tions,
and therefore
if u' differ
from
u,
The theorems
of the last three articles can also be extended to
the more general case in which the value of
d {J^du d fv du )+-r- (K J-(A dx^ dx' dy^ -j-) dy'

instead of
Tr + T- (^ dz' )> dz^

-
du.
or
V* u K
V2 u
are given within the limits of the triple integrals,
and
4.]
15
where
is
positive
and constant
1
.
for each surface,
and Ku* of
ex-
lower degree than

For,
we have only
d
.
to replace
V2 u
d
.
by the more general

.
pression
Tr
du
(K ) dx^ dx'
and
du.
dy^
(K
dy'
+ dz^ dz' (K ),
Tr
du^
or
V*KU,
Q u by
and every step in the process applies as

14.] Again,
if
before.
external to each other, and if
be a closed surface, or series of closed surfaces o- be a function having arbitrarily

S,
assigned values at each point on u satisfying the condition

(1)
2
there always exists a function
=
Vu=
u
is
a-
at each point on
(2) (3)
at each point in external space,

J.
of lower degree than
For there must be an

satisfy the conditions
infinite variety of functions

/ /
which
arbi-
(4)
UcrdS
JE,
where
is
any
trary quantity differing from zero,
and
(5)
is
of lower degree
than
J.
For any such function the integral Qu must be greater than There must therefore be some one or more of such functions for which this integral is not greater than for any other. Let u be any such function. Let u + u' be any other function satisfying
zero.
(4)
and
(5),
it
and
for
which therefore Tlu'trdS
0.
Then
-,-
can be shewn by the same process as in Art. 10 that
oc
o-,
and
V2 u =
QU + U
at all points external to S, and that

-=
by
as
properly choosing E
before,
we may make
'
cr
and
V2 ^ =
also, as in
2
CuV
and that
Qu + Q u
f >
This theorem
the
preceding,
may
be extended to the case in which

all
u,
instead of
being zero, has assigned values at

space.
points
in the external
16
[15.
Again, as there always exists a function u satisfying the conditions, so it can be shewn that it has single and determinate
value at
For,
less
all if possible, let
i,
external points. there be
two functions u and
u' of degree f
7
sJ
than
both satisfying the conditions, so that
-7-
dv
-7
dv
at each point
on
8,
and
V 2 u = V 2 */,
or
V 2 (u
u) =
at all
external points.
Then
= 0,
and therefore
an
-=-
da
-=, dx
&c.,
and u
u',
since both vanish at
infinite distance.
can shew also by the same process that there exists a 15.] function u satisfying the condition that y 2 ^ at all points
We
in the internal space,
and
(JvV
o-
at all points on 8, provided

0.
adS ffFor
if
that
condition
were
not
satisfied,
the
condition
ua-dS=E might
be satisfied by making u a constant, in
which case Q u would not have a minimum value greater than In fact, if V 2 u zero, and the proof would fail. everywhere
within
at all
dS and therefore -=- cannot be equal to ; dv JJ dv rr points on 8 unless / / a dS = 0.

8, / / -r-
<r
If
8,
V 2 w,
instead of being zero,
is
to have the value p within
the problem
maybe
solved, provided // <rdS
=
at
fffpdxdydz,
as follows.
Let
within
W
S,
be a function such that
V 2 ZF=
dSt
every point
and therefore that
dW
Ji
6.]

exists a function
Then there
V such
that
dV
dv
at each point on S,
dW
(T
dv
at each point within S.
and
V V
2
Let
= V+ W.
Then
du dv
dV
dv
dW _
dv
2
at each point
on
S,
and
V w = V F+V
2 2
JF
at each point within $. It can easily be
shown
also that if
u and
,
u'
be two functions
within
both satisfying the conditions,

S,
=^
&c., at all points
and therefore u can only differ from u by a constant. 16.] Let p, g, r be any functions of #, y and z, each of degree less than f, satisfying the conditions
lp
+ mq + nr
a-
=
dr dz
<r
(1)
at every point
on
$,
where
dp dx
is
any
arbitrary function,
and
dq
dy
at all points
without
S.
Then we know that there

than
exists a function
u of degree
less
J satisfying the conditions
du dv
at each point
du
~~
du
dy
d du
1-
du
dz
_^
dx
on
S,
and
d du
dx
d du
1
û = dx
at all external points.
-_
dy dy
dz dz
=0
(3)
Therefore the system
du
satisfies
du
du
(1)
and
(2).
It can
now
be shewn that the integral
VOL.
I.
18
DEDUCTIONS FKOM GREEN'S THEOKEM.

S,
[17.
extended throughout the space external to
has less value
when
dx
&c.,
than when
jp,
q,
and r are any other functions

(2).
of degree less than
f satisfying (l) and
For
if
du
du
du
be any other three functions of the required degree satisfying

(1)
and
(2), a,
&
and y must
la
satisfy
+ mfi + ny =
(4)
at each point
on
S,
and
dz
(5)
at each point in external space.
Then
n *****
dx
'
dy
By
and
integrating the last term by parts, and attending to (4) we prove it to be zero. Because na, ufi, and uy being (5),
2,
of less degree than
the double integrals
\\uadydz
&c.
vanish for an infinitely distant surface.
Hence the integral
is less
than
corresponding proposition can be proved for the space within S without restriction on the degree of p, q, r, and u. 17.] The propositions of Arts. 1 4 and 1 5 can be extended to the
case in which
K-=dv
is
written for
dv
at the surface,
and
Via
7.]

space
1
;
19
for
V 2 u at points in
and Art.
may
be similarly extended
to prove that
K
has a
minimum
value
when
du
dx*
du
dy*
du
dz
a?,
being in each case a given positive function of such that Kp &c. are of lower degree than f.
y,
and
0,
and
c 2
CHAPTEK
II.
SPHERICAL HARMONICS.
ARTICLE 18.]
of the
ft
tb
where
V2
If u be a homogeneous function 2 o, degree in as, y, and 2, satisfying the condition V u represents the operation
Definition.
then u
is
said to be a spherical harmonic function of the z
ft
th
degree
in #, ^, and z. If % be any function of x, y,
satisfying
the condition
of
u,
V2 u =
o,
then
>
every partial
differential
coefficient
as
will also satisfy the condition

y..
^^
+
dx*dydz
follows that
~ -Q
is indifferent, it
For since the order of partial differentiation
***
dM^
= 0.
be taken as origin of rectangular coordinates, and let the coordinates of
19.] Let any point
function of #, y,
be any Let OH be any axis drawn from and designated by Ji, and let Q be any point in this axis, and let OQ = p. Ije ^ f> *7j C b e the coordinates of P
x, y, z.
(#, y, z)
z.
be
Let $
referred
parallel to the axes
to
as
origin,
with axes
of
through
0.
Then the limiting value
the ratio
9.]
DEFINITION.
21
by
as p is indefinitely diminished, is denoted
IJ#fe*;4
It is clear that
^<MW),
is itself
or
w
d(j>
generally a function of x,y z\ and therefore

9
if
another
axis OH', denoted
by
h',
be drawn from 0, we
may
find
by a
similar process
and so on
for
any number of axes.

of #, y,
z
If u be any function
satisfying
the condition
V2 u
0,
and
if
h^ ^2
...
denote any number of axes drawn
from the origin, and the expression
A.A, '" JL.

dl\ dh 2
dh{
be found according to the preceding definition, then
WU
^\'''~dhi
For
let 119
>
m lt
% be the direction cosines of the axis h v

du
,
Then
by
definition
du dx
du ~
i l
n\ 1
du
~J~
dy
u
dz
But by hypothesis
Therefore
V
vi*!, dx
=
2
0.
v -,
dy
dz
are severally equal to zero.
Therefore
and therefore by successive steps
v *^_*
J*
o.
22
20.]
SPHERICAL HAEMONICS.
If
[20.
is
a spherical harmonic function of degree
d
For
,l
(
*1
(I)
-_.! 1 !* +
5
Similarly
(-)
=-
-^
1
+ -^2
d*
and whence
^ *-"* 3z
3
"
W+^+ ^
*
J
d!
cte
2'
1_ "
r
3(s
r5
r3
"*
_ " __ 3
r
""
"*"
__
r3
,
"
21.]
Whatever be the
directions of the i-axes k lt ^ 2
... /^,
the
function
JL
where
degree
~dh^""dh^ \ r
is
any constant,
1).
is
a spherical harmonic function of
(i+
it is
For
evidently a homogeneous function of that degree,
and since
it
follows that
If of
of
we
write this function in the form

1
-^ Y is a function
>
sphere from the centre of which are drawn in arbitrarily given directions the ^-axes ... H^ Then OHi, Off2 ...OHi cutting the sphere l9 2,
r.
,
M, the direction cosines of the axes To fix the ideas we may conceive a
fi
l}
&2
.*h it and those
mff
if
1^.
OQ
be any radius, at every point on OQ or OQ produced has a definite numerical value, being a function of the di-
rection cosines of
Offly
,
...
or
OP.
If h lt / 2
...
hi
OH^ and of OQ, and independent of r be the fixed axes of any harmonic, P any
22.]
variable point,
23
at
is
spoken of as the harmonic at

its
with
axes
h-fr
^2
%i-
Since each axis requires for the determination of
direction
two independent quantities, Yi will be a function of the two variable magnitudes determining the direction of r and the 2i
arbitrary constant magnitudes determining the directions of the 2- axes. also be expressed in terms of the ^-cosines t may
fjiiy
H2
2
...
fa of the angles
made by
r with the 2-axes
and the
other,
- cosines of
the angles
for
made by the axes with each

form
and an expression
in this
may
be found without
much
difficulty.
22.] If
be a spherical harmonic function of degree

r 2i+l
(i+
I),
and if r = \/ 2 +^ 2 + ^ 2 , then monic function of degree i. For by differentiation
will be a spherical har-
= (2 * + 1) r '- x V + r"+1
2 1 i
Similar expressions hold for
Adding
these expressions, and remembering that
we obtain
(r**
V)
t
(2i+
1) (2
+ 2) r
2 *'- 1
4
-t\
24
[23.
and
Therefore
5+^-5 =-+>". =
V V
2
i
0.
=
and
r*
is
0,
i+ ^
and
a homogeneous function of as, y, z of degree therefore a spherical harmonic function of degree i.

Fi is
i:
We
Y.
have seen that -~j , as above defined,

(i
is
a spherical har-
monic function of degree

It follows then that
1).
or ri Y.
is
a spherical harmonic function of degree
i.
23.] Every possible spherical harmonic function of integral positive degree, i, can be expressed in the form r Yi if suitable
i
directions be given to the axes
For
if
-
fi ^ 2 ... & t determining Yt l9 be a homogeneous function of the i ih degree Hi

. ,
it
contains
arbitrary constants.
of the degree
2 contains
*-
Therefore
V 2 /^
being
arbitrary constants.
all values of #, y, and z, must be separately zero.
In order that
V 2 ^ may
be zero for
the coefficient of each term in
This involves
'-
V 2^
- relations between the constants in
H^
leaving
-^- -2
L2
or
2i+l
of
them independent.
Therefore every possible harmonic function of degree i is to be found by attributing proper values to these 2i-f 1 constants. But the directions of the ^-axes ^2 ... ^ involve 2 i arbitrary
constants,
making with the constant M, 2 i -f
in
,
all.
,
It is
li
i
therefore always possible to choose the e-axes the constant M, so as to make

....
h2
. . .
and
d d d TnT'Twr -:/* r dfi2 dhi dh^
M
'
or
24-]
25
equal to any given spherical harmonic function of degree i. Therefore ri i is a perfectly general form of the spherical har-
monic function of positive integral degree i. Again, every possible spherical harmonic function of negative
integral degree
(i+l) can be expressed in the form -j~
For
if
V
it
(i+l),
follows
be any spherical harmonic function of degree follows from Art. 22 that r 2i+l 7i is a spherical
i. Hence, i being integral, it this proposition that r 2i+l 7i can
harmonic function of degree
by the former part of
i i always be expressed in the form r Y by suitably choosing the axes of Yit and therefore that Vi may be expressed in the form
Therefore ri Y and -~^ are the most general forms of the i

spherical
(i +
1 )
harmonic functions of the integral degrees

respectively.
and
is
defined as the surface spherical harmonic of the order

is
i,
where
always positive and integral; r

i.
'Y-
and
-^
are called
the solid harmonics of the order

24.] If J^ and
with the same origin

axes,
Yj be any two surface spherical harmonics 0, and referred to the same or different
i
and of orders
and j
respectively,
and
if
/ /
Y Yj dS
i
be
found over the surface of any sphere with centre 0, then
YjdS=
i
0,
unless
= j.
Let H. and Hj be the solid spherical harmonics of degrees and j respectively corresponding to the surface harmonics Yi and J,, so that = r*Yit ffj = rJYj. t
Make U and
U' equal to fft and Hj respectively in the equation of Green's theorem taken for the space bounded by the aforesaid
spherical surface, then
26
ZONAL SPHEKICAL HARMONICS.
[25.
rrH
JJJ
(
^'
dx
dx
_Ei ^d
dy
dy
dffjd dz d
because
sphere
;
V 2^
and
ffj are
each zero at every point within the
and
similarly,
being the radius of the sphere
that
is
or
(i
j)
therefore either
i=j,
or
The points in which the axes h^ h^...h i 25.] Definition. drawn from any origin meet the spherical surface of radius unity
round
When
all
as centre are called the poles of the axes h^ ^2 ... h it these poles coincide, the corresponding spherical har,
monics are called zonal spherical harmonics solid and superficial respectively, referred to the common axis, and the surface spherical
harmonic of order
ju
i is
in this case written
>
be the cosine of the angle between r and the common axis in the case of the surface zonal harmonic Q t of order i, then
If
Qi
is
the coefficient of
in the expansion of
in ascending powers of
e.
25.]
ZONAL SPHERICAL HARMONICS.
27
Let
OA
0.
be the
common
axis,
and
let
OP
POA
In
be r and the angle
be
OA
take a point
M
it
at the
distance p from 0. Then if be i the solid zonal harmonic of degree

(i
1)
corresponding to the sur-
harmonic from definition that

face zonal
Q i}
follows
F-/*vJL
i
~dp PM
Fi e-3.
when
is
Let p
Then
<
= er and let cos =

F<
made equal
to zero after differentiation.

ju.
= ()*
is
=L==
;
with
0.
But
ap
and
r
constant
therefore
whene
0.
But
if
1
e
1
be expanded in ascending powers of
e.
the coefficient of
in the expansion
1
.
.d*
(-J-) X *
is,
by Maclaurin's theorem,
when e=0.
>
Let
it
be denoted by
Therefore
= -Â4
But
Therefore
T'-pMii
Q
i
Hence Q
=^ =
1
and
=A = ^1 =
t
.
ju.
Also when
ju
and therefore each
coefficient
is
unity.
28
It
at
is
[26,
evident from definition that the zonal surface harmonic

to
referred
OQ
as
axis
is
equal to the zonal surface

at
harmonic
axis.
referred
to
OP
as
26.] Let a be the radius of a spherical surface 8 described round as centre.
Let
8.
be any point within or without
Let
on
OP =/.
the
6.
And,
E
let
point
Fig- 41
surface,
being any PE = D,
/.EOP
Then
7
i
Va? 7^1+
-;COS0
according
or
as/
>
or
<
a.
1~
or
according as /
>
or
<
a.
a
Therefore,
a1
if/
>
a,
But
2f
*
_
"
27.]
29
Therefore
and similarly iff <
a,
27.]
With
the same notation as before

/ /
we can prove
,
that
~=j
f
when
P is without
and
/ /
\j
=
J
when
P is within S,
the integrations being taken over the surface S. Let EOP 0, and let $ be the angle between the plane of EOP and a fixed plane through OP then
d(r
a2
Also
D =
2
-2a/cos^+/
2
;
/*
'
rô-
JJ
&~ ~TJ ~D*'

:
_ 27ra CdD
the limits on the right-hand side being
f
and
TAZo'
a and
af and
=:
f+a when P is external, +/ when P is internal

;
2wa
5 77 s
T" i/r -7?^ I

1
when
when
p
P
1S
externa1 '
is
internal
or
in the respective cases.
Hence
and
-^[-i~if-
f[
30
for external

and internal positions of
[28.
respectively,
and
for
both
cases
I
ltf=aj
da-
= 4â.
of
28.] In the last case let F(E) be any function of the position on the surface which does not vanish at the point in which OP cuts the surface, nor become infinite at any other point on
of order i, the surface, let Q be the surface zonal harmonic at be made to approach the the common axis being OP, then, if
surface, ultimately shall
For with the notation of the
last Article let
=//
then when P approaches the
equal to
a,
is
indefinitely nearly every element of the integral vanishes except when is In this case indefinitely small. ultimately on the
surface
and
/ is
and the integral has the same value as if F(E) were to F(P), its value at the point of S with which P ultiequal
surface,
mately coincides, or
(P)-
da-
= F(P)
-dff
when/= a
ultimately.
Therefore
>naF(P) by the
last Article.
#,
Suppose that/ is originally greater than
then
&
i i
da;
and
2Q.]
31
And, by Art. 25,
i=f{&+<?.f +<?,+*}
Performing the differentiations and substituting,
we get
29.]
If
be any surface spherical harmonic of the order
i,
and
if
be the zonal surface harmonic of the same order and
origin referred to any axis OP, and if da- be an element of a as spherical surface of radius a described round the origin
centre, then
where (7^ is the value of t at the pole of Q { tions being over the spherical surface dS. Substitute i for F{E) in the last proposition.
the integra-
Then F(P)
is
the value of
at
>
(at
P)
And, by Art.
24, each double integral vanishes except
or
(7^) denote the value of
if
at P.
By
putting
Y =
t
Qi we obtain
since,
by Art.
25,
at the pole,
32
30.] If

F(E) be a
spherical surface harmonic, i.e. be on the surface or outside of it,
[30.
F(N)
Y^
then, whether
F.or
by Arts. 24 and 26,
where
the value of (1^) denotes

is,
at the
common axis
of the zonal
harmonics, that
Therefore
along OP.
a
;?>
f+i
rr-pinZ
mcalled the Legendre's
31.] Considered as a function of
//,
derived by the expansion of

is
the zonal harmonic Q*

i,
coefficient
of order
and
We can prove the

(a)
frequently written { following properties of the coefficients P.

is
.
As proved
above, if
1,
l-e
Hence,
if p =
1,
P =
t
for all values of

1
if
IJL
1,
Hence,
If u
if
^
1
=
'
1,
P =+
i
or
is
according as
finite,
i is
even or odd.
<
==
1
always
is
and
is finite if e
Hence the
series
P + P2 +...
a convergent
series.
It is evident from the formation of P^ as the coefficient of (V) i e in the expansion of
but can contain no than //, and no powers of which the index higher powers of differs from i by an odd number. Hence if i be even, Pi has the
that
t
must contain
jut
/u% ju*~
jut*"
&c.,
31.]

p,
33
same value
for -f /x as for
and
if i
be odd the same value
with opposite sign. Hence also // can be expressed in terms of

1
P P_
it
f
&c
(c)
Jf i
p Pj d =
i
fJ
ifi=j,
=
For since ^
Also
= cos 0,
dfji
2t+l
if i
?.
sm0d0.
p,
and P^ are both functions of
and therefore of
0.
Hence
J-i
Fpi Pj sm0d0 PP< Pj dp =Jo
over the surface of a sphere of radius a
by Art.
24, unless
|a/ if = And /,
i
ri
(d)
J-i
PipSdp
tf i
>j, or
if
i is
odd.
is
For expanding
into a
^
is
in terms of the P's, the integral
resolved
number of
i
integrals of the form /
^-i
Pj dp,
in each of
which
(e)
=/, and
therefore zero.
/
To
find the value of
ô
integral or fractional *. a i
/x'P^, where
K is
any
positive
number
Let
P =
Then
K
, '
., ., if i be even.
r- , '
if i
be odd.
34, 35.
* See Todhunter's Functions of Laplace,
Lam^, and Bessel, Art.
VOL.
I.
34
Let
i

be even.
[31.
i
or zero, the left-hand ri

/ Jo
Then if K has any member

I
of the values
2,
4,
&c.,
pftpf *fft
and therefore
K=
^T
= i/ ^ *J-i = 0,
2K
4...K
i
ri
0.
It follows that
= A.K.K
+ 2.
;
Also A
is
the coefficient of the highest power of K
therefore
i (fji)
when
fj.
=
Hence,
if i
1.
be even,
K.K
be odd,
i
...
Similarly, if
/
Jo
du,=
when reduced
-l
If K be either an integer or a fraction whose denominator to its lowest terms is odd, then
JO
= 0,
Hence any
if ju*
does not change sign with
/u,
if /x"P<
does change sign with
/x.
function, f(^)^ which can be expanded in a series of positive powers of ju,, whether integral or fractional, can be expanded in a series of the form
For we have
2i+T- *
or
32.]
35
which determines
if
/(/n)
is
known
in
terms of positive
powers of JJL. It is perhaps necessary to
show that the
series
converges, if /(ju) can be expanded in a converging series of ascending powers of ju.
For
let cK
term in
be any term in the expansion of f(^). derived from this term in ^ is

fji
Then the
and the corresponding term in

2
Ai+2
is
from which
it is
easily seen
from the expressions
for /
{
.
^-i
above obtained that, if i be large enough, A i+2 Now the series Pl + P2 ~f P3 converges.
. .
< A
Hence
AQ + A P
1
-{-
A 2 P2 -f &c.
converges.
have hitherto regarded the coefficients 32.] functions of /x derived from the expansion of
We
or
as
Vl
however take for with the common coinciding
We may
initial
axis,
radius any line OC not and the direction of the
common
axis
OH
of the zonal harmonics
may
be defined with
reference to this line
by the usual angular coordinates, namely, and a 6' and $' the angle between the plane Z.HOC, fixed plane through OC. In this case the angular coordinates
HOC
0,
defining the direction of OP or r will be cosine of the angle will be
and
and the
HOP
cos 6 cos tf
sin
sin 0' cos (0
<f>').
Now Q
is,
as
we have
cos 6'
seen, a function of cos
HOP, and
is
therefore a function of
cos
sin
sin 0' cos
(<
<//).
It is evidently symmetrical
with regard to
the
and
0'.
the value of
at P,
when O// is
D 2
common
axis, is the
So that same
36
[33.
as the value of
Q
t
at H,
when
OP
is
the
common
axis, see Art. 25.
In this form
33.]
is
called a Laplace's coefficient.
Of
the differential equation which a spherical surface
harmonic
satisfies.
By
definition
any spherical harmonic u
satisfies
the equation
If
r, 6,
we change
</>,
the variables to the usual spherical coordinates
where
= r sin 6 cos
2
(f> t
= r sin 6 sin
I
<f>,
r cos
Q,
the equation becomes
dzu
~d^
Let u
=
i
+ rd^ + 7
-r^j
1),
du
dz u
^d
Then u
dz u
2
cot# du
r2
sin 6
dfi
^~ 5^ ~
is
a spherical harmonic function of
degree ~(i-t-
and
u,
r,
satisfies
Now Y =
i+l
where
the above differential equation. i+l u is independent of r, therefore r i
is
independent of
whence
and
(+ l)^'" ^ + 2 (i+ 1) r
1
dr
ri+1
dr*
0,
and
d*u
-
du
ii
becomes
Hence the
difierential equation
1
2
d u
cos#, and
Let us now change the variable from

cos 9
to
let
y.
Then
d
.
du
Substituting in the differential equation,
we
obtain
34-]
37
or restoring
-^
for &,
This
is
for the zonal
true for any spherical surface harmonic harmonic Q t as a particular case.
Y^ and
therefore
In the case of the zonal harmonic, if the common axis be taken for the initial line from which is measured, Qi * S as above
J
mentioned, written
satisfies
if
and
is
independent of
</>.
Hence
the equation
we
34.] If we differentiate equation (4) of last Article k times, obtain the equation
From
(4)
and
(5)
above
it
appears that
and
-~* respectively
satisfy the differential equations
We may also
(6)
prove that
and
p.
are the only solutions of
both
finite
and integral in
For
if in
the former of equations (6)
we
write
P^
for y,
we
obtain a differential equation in
u which gives on integration
where
and
are arbitrary constants

;
and the integral com-
mences from some fixed limit
If A'
0,
= AP
an integral
finite solution in
38
[35.
If ^'=^0, the expression fory contains the term
A.,P-
T
I
d^
3
and therefore can be neither finite nor integral. Hence Pt or A P. is the only finite integral solution in /u of the former of equations (6). And in the same way it may be d k P*
.
proved that
is
(I
JU.
the only
finite integral solution in
p.
of the
second of equations
35.]
(6).
of equation (5) of the last Article the proposition of Art. 24 by proving that generalise
By means
we may
T-l)
For
(1
if
2
/m )*,
...
(i-k+l) when i =j.

34 by
we multiply the
it
left-hand
side
of (5) of Art.
may
be written
and changing
Jc
into k
this
becomes
But integrating by
parts,
we get
since the integrated terms vanish
and therefore
and therefore by successive reductions,
+!
/1
<1
-i
36.]
EXPANSION OF ZONAL SPHERICAL HARMONICS.

31,
39
and therefore by Art.

/-7&
~p
r^
'
Jlc ~p
/+!
d ju
~~
if i
~T^*
36.]
To expand Q*
in a series
of cosines
of multiples
of
(*-*')
Since
{
Q
1
is
the coefficient of
cos 0'
in the expansion of
<'))
2e (cos
sin
f
sin 0' cos (0
+e
}"*,
((/>
it
follows that the term in

fc
Q which
involves cos
<')
must
contain (sin 0) as a factor, or in other words, that the required expansion of Q t must be of the form
g
+q
cos
(<#>
</>')
+ &c. + q k cos k ($
<f>')
+ &c.,
where q k = (sin 0) k f (cos 0), and the function denoted by f is rational and integral. If we perform the requisite differentiations on Q iy substitute in (6) of last Article and equate to zero the coefficients of
cos
(</>
$'),
we
obtain the equation
where y
cos
0.
And
since
/ is
a finite integral function of
y, it
follows from
Art. 34 that
where
A k is independent of y or of 0. Now Qf is a symmetrical function

6'
of
denote cos
by
y' it will follow
that
Ak
and if therefore we must be of the form

,
where
that
ft
is
the same function of y that
is
of
y,
and therefore
a P,
P/+ a
sin
sin 0'
^ ^.
cos (0
k
<J>')
+ &c.
(<
-h
a^ sin
0^"
sin
/*
^/tp d
-j-^
---
-=-7^-
cos k
^>')
+ &c.
40
EXPANSION OF ZONAL SPHERICAL HARMONICS.
[37.
For most of the applications of

numerical coefficients a
,
the actual values of the
a l5 a2 are not required,
they
may
however be determined without much

37.]
difficulty as follows.
To prove that
2
For
it
p'
sin 0* sin 0'* cos
to Square both sides and integrate with respect to $ from 27T, remembering that the integrals of all terms containing
products of cosines of unequal multiples of <f> <$>' are zero, and that the integrals of all quantities of the form (cosm($
are equal to
TT
and the integral ofafPfPj*
is
27ra 2
P P/
2
i
2
;
Again, integrate both sides with regard to y from
to
+ 1,
remembering that
and we get
2
<p-/_;^
=
+&,
sin^f + & c.
;
(a)
But
if
0=0' and
<t>
<|>',
Q =
(
For in this case
^ becomes
The two expressions on the right-hand sides of (a) and (/3) cannot be equal for all values of 0' unless the corresponding terms are separately equal ;
39-]
EXPANSION OF ANY SPHEEICAL HAEMONIC.
41
'*
rfkp
/;
38:] If YI be any surface spherical then is a rational and integral {
harmonic of the
function
of cos
tb
order,
0,
sin
d,
cos
(b,
and
sin
<b,
for
.
...
dh.
\i_
dh^
dht
Also
if
I,
m, n be direction cosines of the

_ d d -rr =l-jah ax
axis
/i,
+m
?
d
ay
+^3-; dz
\<r f
'
d d '~'''l
fl\P f
where where
But
also
I?
means the product of

o-
p,
Ts, and so of
m" and nT and

,
+ +T =
"
a
p
^.
cty
dz
(-) r'
cos
2
i/
r2 "
,*
A
where
</>,
r cos
^>,
r sin
sin
=
d)
v
r cos
^
A sin
cos 0^ cos
sin
71
rf)
therefore J^ is of the form stated above. 39.1 Y, is of the form
2*
where
a, K
a cos ^() +
dkP
3
sin
A;()
sin
7i:
and
^,. tC
'
are numerical constants.
It is clear that
sin/t(/)
we may assume
in
to be
Ak
and
where
the coefficients of cosk<p and J and A are functions of

ft
6 to be determined.
Also we
v to
may assume A k
a A sin
v,
where a k
is
constant and
be determined.
42
But
EXPANSION OF ANY SPHERICAL HAEMONIC.

Y.
[39.
and therefore the

satisfies
coefficient of the cosine
and sine of
;
every multiple of $
the second of equations (6) of Art. 34
Now
\/l
y
vsinflfc is to
2
,
be a rational and integral function of y and
which clearly cannot be attained so long as the second
term in v remains;
= a, sin
Similarly
^ r k dy
where a k and p, are numerical constants

.'.
Y.
= 2 ac
(3 k
the constants a^ and

a'-axes.
depending upon the directions
of
the
It has already been proved, Art. 24, that

ri
/ J
i
./
rzn
/
YiYj
unless i =/, aad we may now see that the same result follows from the general form of the function Y{ or Yjt
For
and
If
Y =
t
S^c
7
Yj
= 2 (a/ cos k $ + ft
sin
k <j>) sin 0*
multiply Yi by J} and integrate with regard to to 2 TT, all the terms will vanish except those in which the multiples of are the same, and the result therefore will be
now we
<
from
<
of the form
^XLIFOR^
39.] If
EXPANSION OF ANY SPHERICAL HARMONIC.

we again
integrate with regard to y from
1
43
to
+1, the
result will be of the
form
and by Art. 24 each of these terms

It does not follow that
is
zero unless
=/.*
rz*
/ii
is
/ Jo
Y.Yj
always
finite,
inasmuch as the values of the ^'s may be such

is finite,
that although each term in the integral be equal to zero. The values of the
inclinations of the
their
sum may
Aa
9
two
sets of 2-axes of the
depend upon the Yi and J/, and
when
these axes are so related that
PS*
/i
is zero,
-i
Jo
Y.Yf
the two spherical harmonics are said to be conjugate. For example, take two spherical harmonics of the first order Yl and F/. If & and $' be the polar coordinates determining the axis of Ylt and 0" and <" those for the axis of 7/, then
Y may
l
be easily seen to be
cos 6 cos 'tf + sin
sin 0' cos ($
sin
$'),
and similarly 7/
is
cos
cos 0" -f sin
0" cos
(<$><$>"})
and
-l
[ "Y TfdydQ = JO
1
(cos 6' cos
0" + sin
tf sin
6" cos
<f>'
cos
<f>"
sin 0' sin
0" sin <'
sin
c/>")
if
^,
?#,
# be direction cosines of the axis of Y,
l' t
m'y n' those
of Y'.
*
In a similar manner the proposition of Art. 26
II-"
may be deduced from
the form of Yi proved in this article.
44
EXPANSION OF ANY SPHEEICAL HARMONIC.
[39.
If therefore these axes are at right angles to one another,
-i
or two spherical harmonics of the first order are conjugate their axes are perpendicular to each other.
when
For the second and higher orders there

geometrical relation.
is
no such simple
CHAPTEE
POTENTIAL.
III.
IF the forces acting on a material system he such that the work done by them upon the system in its motion
ARTICLE 40.]
from an
initial to a final position is,
whatever those positions
a function of the coordinates defining those positions only, and independent of the course taken between them, the system is said to be Conservative. The w6rk done by the forces
may
be,
on the system position which
ill
its
may
motion from any position S'to any given be chosen as a position of reference, is
r
j?
defined to be the potential energy or shortly the potential, of the system in the position S in relation to the forces in question. If we denote by U the potential, and by T the kinetic, energy
,
of the system, then, as

is
shown
constant throughout any If q be any one of the influence of the forces in question. generalised coordinates defining the position of the system, it
follows from definition that
forces -7- <>q is the
in treatises on dynamics, motion of the system under the
T+ U
work done by the

therefore the force
dq
on the system as q becomes q +

is
<),
and
j-
tending to increase the coordinate q
If the system be a material particle of unit mass, situated at the point P, we may without inaccuracy speak of the potential
as the potential of the forces at P. are in this chapter concerned only with 41.]
We
forces
of
attraction and repulsion to or from fixed centres, the force varying inversely as the square of the distance from the centre.
Now
if
distance,
the central force be any continuous function of the whether varying according to the law of the inverse
square or any other law, a potential exists.
46
For
let there
THE POTENTIAL.
be at
a particle of matter of mass
[4'.
which
mass m' with the force mm'f(r\ where repels any other particle of continuous function of r, the distance between' (r) represents any
m and m' ; then it can be shown that if be fixed, the work done by the force upon m' as m moves from a point at the distance r from 0, to another at the distance r2 from 0, is a function of r^ and r2 the initial and final values of r, and of these
,
quantities only, and is independent of the form of the curve described by m' between these initial and final positions, and of the
directions
in which the distances from For at any instant during the motion
and
r2 are
measured.
let
let
be at P, and
Q be a point in the course indefinitely near to P. Let PQ ds, the angle
OPQ =
4>,
OP =
r,
OQ = r + dr.
Q
be taken near
In the
limit,
if
enough to P, the force of repulsion may be considered constant, as m' moves

from P to Q, and equal to mm'f(r)._ Therefore the work done by the force in moving the repelled
particle
Fig.
5-
from
to
is
mm'f(r) eoaQds, or mm'f(r)dr, and
is
independent of c/> if dr be given. Therefore the whole work done
by the
is
force in the
motion
from distance
to distance r
from
mm'
,
f(r\dr,
and depends upon rx and r2 and these quantities only. We have for simplicity considered m fixed at 0, but the proof evidently holds if both m and m' be moveable, and move from a
distance r^ to a distance r2 apart under the influence of the mutual repulsive force mm'f(r). If the mutual force had been
attractive instead of repulsive, in other respects following the same law, the expression for the work done would be the same
as that for the repulsive force, but with reversed If in sign. case on effecting the integrations the expression for the any
work done prove
to be negative, this result must be interpreted as expressing the fact that positive work is done against, and not by, the force in the motion considered.
42.]
THE POTENTIAL.
case,
is
47
attractive,
In either
whether the force be repulsive or
proved to be a function of r- and r2 only, and independent of the course taken between the initial and final
positions of
the work done
m.
if
We have thus shown that
f(r) be any continuous function of
the distance between the two particles m and m', a potential exists. At present, as above stated, we are concerned only with the
case in
which f(r) =-g
In that case the work done by the
mutual force between
and
m', as their distance varies

1
from r
(*'2
^dr, that is
mm
and
if
'-#
1
}
J--
the force be attractive
mm,(1
<
42.] We shall now consider two kinds of matter, such that two particles, both of the same kind, repel one another with a mutual force varying directly as the masses of the particles, and inversely as the square of the distance between them, and two
particles of different kinds attract one another according to the
same law.
Then the work done by the mutual force between two particles m and m\ as they move from a distance r to a distance r2
apart,
is,
if
the masses be of the same kind, and therefore the

.
force repulsive,
mm' <
and
if
^
;
they be of different kinds, and the force attractive,
mm/u <
t*i
>
r*>
If
now we
agree to regard
positive,
and
particles of one kind of matter as all particles of the other kind as negative, we can
all
combine both results under one formula
mm
in
i"^r
either sign, expressing the
which
or m'
may have
work
48
THE POTENTIAL.
[43.
done by the mutual force between
m and
m' in the motion from
distance r to r2 apart. Finally, we will take for the position of reference to which the position in which the two particles potential is measured, are at an infinite distance apart, that is, in which r2 is infinite-
Then we shall arrive at the following definition. The potential of two material particles m and m\ distant r from each other, is the work done by the force of mutual repulsion as
r
/
when
r2
is
zl ~2 dr, r
infinite,
that
is
and
is
positive or negative
according as
m and m' are of the same or different kinds of matter. In physics a body which is within the range of the action of another body is said to be in the field of that other body, and when it is so distant from that other body as to be sensibly out
of the range of its action
it is said
is
to be out of the field.
therefore equivalent to the one above The potential of two material particles distant r apart adopted. is the work done by their mutual repulsion as they move from the
definition distance r apart to such a distance as to be out of the field of one another's action^ attraction being included as negative repulsion.
4MU
The following
Taking
1,
we
define
--
to be the potential of
at a
point distant r from m.

potential at any point of any mass occupying a finite of space is evidently the sum of the potentials at portion that point of all the particles of which the mass is composed.
43.]
The
If
be any particle of this mass, and r the distance of
from P,
the potential of the mass at
is
2
T
where the summation
extends throughout the mass, or at #, y, z, the potential is
if p
be the density of the mass
rrr
Let
this potential be denoted
by
F.
of a mass at resolved in 44.] The repulsion at direction is the rate of diminution of the potential of the
any mass
45-]
THE POTENTIAL.
49
This is a particular case per unit of length in that direction. of the general theorem proved above, that the force tending to clV increase any coordinate a is
If
dq be the potential of the particle m, and ds the given
direction,
_dV_ ~
ds
__dV dr
dr
ds
dr
=
And
mass
is
the repulsion resolved in ds.
this proposition being true of every particle of
which the
composed
if
Hence,
V
be
evidently true of the whole mass. be the potential at of any mass

is
M, the
=-
re-
pulsion of the mass in the direction indicated

45.] If
by ds
is
ds
any closed surface,
dS an
element of
its area,
N the
repulsive force at
dS
resolved along the normal to
dS
measured
outwards arising from a particle of matter of mass m placed at the point 0, then if the integration extend over the whole surface
and Let a
line
ff NdS = 47rm, if m be within S; ffNdS = 0, if m be without S.

drawn from
in
any direction cut the surface S at
the point distant r from 0, and let this line with the surface 8 at P.
make the angle $
as axis, cutting off
Let a small cone with solid angle da> be described about from 8 in the neighbourhood of P the
OP
ele-
mentary surface dS.
The area of dS
from
is
equal to
m
is
,
Bm *
at
also the repulsion at
P
is
and the resolved part
N
c/>,
of this repulsion in
the direction of the normal to
P
in
drawn outwards from S
+
according as without
;
in
sm
(f>
or
sm
OP
is
passing out of
S from
or
within, or into
8 from
NdS = +mco>,
cases respectively.
mdco
in the
two
I.
VOL.
50
But
it,
THE POTENTIAL.
if
[46.
as above
be within S, the line drawn from it in any direction must emerge from S one time more than it enters
all
and therefore the sum of
the values of
NdS
for this line
Taking the corresponding sum for all get the integral yy^V^-tf, and therefore
since the
lines
drawn from
we
sum
If
be without
must meet S
of the solid angles about is 4 TT. S the line drawn from it in any direction in an even number of points, and therefore the
sum
of all the values of
NdS
for every such line
must be zero
therefore in this case
This proposition
respectively.
is
true for any particle within or without
any quantity of matter of mass manner within a closed surface S, and any if be the repulsive force of that matter at any point on S resolved in the direction of the normal at that point drawn
Therefore
it
follows that if
M be distributed
N
outwards, then
in
And,
similarly, that if
M be without
8,
then
and writing
-j- for
N, by Art. 44 we have
in the
cases respectively. It follows from Art. 45, that if p, the density of matter, 46.] be finite in any portion of space, the first differential coefficients
two
of
be discontinuous in that portion of space. For consider a cylinder whose axis is parallel to x and of
V cannot
length I. Let the proposition be applied to this cylinder. If I be very small compared with the dimensions of the base, we may neglect that portion of the surface integral which relates to the
curved surface, and the proposition becomes
Jj ~fa
dydz
=-
47-]
EQUATIONS OF LAPLACE AND POISSON.
51
in which the surface integral is taken over the ends of the cylinder, and the triple integral throughout the interior space.
Also in the surface integral
dV
-7
is
the rate of increase of
with
the normal measured outwards from the enclosed space, in the case of both ends of the cylinder. If it be measured in the same
direction in space for both ends, the surface integral
may
be
written
Now if p
be
finite,
the triple integral ultimately vanishes when

space,
I,
and therefore the enclosed

therefore the left-hand
differ
become
infinitely small;
and
member
also vanishes,
777
,
JTT
or
-=
and (-j-) cannot V
by any
finite
quantity from (-7-)
continuous.
Therefore also
^#'2 dx V cannot be discontinuous.
#'l cannot be dis-
Equations of Poisson and Laplace.

47.] In the equation of Green's theorem let Fbe the potential any distribution of matter of which the density p is everyfinite,
of
where
and therefore such that

closed surface,
tinuous, let
8 be any
,
and -7- are conj -7 -7 dz dx ay and let u'= unity. Since

?
du
-7
du'
,
dx
-7
>
and
du'
-=
dy
dz
are zero, the equation
becomes
But
dV
dv
7
is
the repulsive force of the
matter referred to
the surface element
resolved in the normal to

dS.
8 outwards from
And
therefore by Art. 45
-dS~\
Therefore also
**?***,.
=
j
E 2
52
[48.
it
Since this equation holde for every possible closed surface,

follows that
v F+47ip =
2
This is called Poisson's equation. at every point. At a point in free space p 0, and the equation
=
2
becomes
V F=0.
This
is
called Laplace's equation.
It follows as a corollary from Poisson's equation that if the potential of any material system at #, y, z,
V be
where
r2
x -x'y + (y-yj + (z-zj*
and the integral
throughout all space. equation can be deduced by direct differentiation 48.] Laplace's of For if the density of matter at #', /, / is p, the potential
is
at #, y, z is
r/r JJJ y(^Z
(z-zj
=
Now
rrr
be any point not within the mass, the
if 0, or x, y, z,
limits of the integration are not altered by any infinitely small 2 change of position of 0. Hence we may place the symbol V
under the integral sign, and obtain
VT =
But
if
2 /YT/> V i dx'dy'dz'
= 0.
be within the mass,
we
integral for F, include in integration the point
cannot, in forming the triple at which the

It is necessary in this
all
element function - becomes
infinite.
* It may be proved by Green's theorem to be identically true for F) vanishing at infinity that
functions
the integration being extended over all space, and r being the distance from the point at which V is estimated to the element dxdydz; and this proposition may, of course, be made the foundation of an independent proof of Poisson's equation
0.
49-]
53
case to take for the limits of integration some surface inclosing and infinitely near to it, and to form 7^ as the sum of two separate
integrals, one
on each side of that
surface.
Hence any
infinitely
small change of position of the limits of integration, and

to insert
involves in this case a change in we are not at liberty in forming V^V
under the sign of integration. This is the reason Laplace's equation fails at a point occupied by matter. why have hitherto supposed the matter with 49.] Definition.
V2
We
which we have been concerned to be distributed in such a manner that the density p is finite, or in other words that the mass vanishes with the volume of the space in which it is
contained.
According to this conception the mass of a small
volume dv of density p, is pdv, i. e. p is the limiting ratio of the mass to the containing volume when that volume is indefinitely diminished. At all parts of space for which this condition is
satisfied
we have obtained the equation
if
be the potential of any distribution at the point at which

is p.
the density
It may, however, happen that p becomes indefinitely great at The distribution may be such that although the certain points.
volume becomes remain finite.
infinitely small the
mass comprised in
it
may
certain surface $, so that the
Suppose such a state of things to hold at all the points on a mass of matter comprised between any
portion of this surface, an adjacent surface S' infinitely near to it, and a cylindrical surface whose generating lines are the normals
to
S along
S,
its
taken to
bounding curve, remains finite however close S' is then if the mass vanishes with the area of S, inclosed
by
bounding curve, we call the distribution superficial in distinction from the volume distribution hitherto considered. In this conception of superficial distribution we disregard the distance between S and S' altogether, and we say that the mass corresponding to an element of surface dS is crdS, where a- is the
this
superficial density,
ratio of the
obeing in other words defined as the limiting mass corresponding to, or as we say on, the surface
dS to
the area of dS,
when dS
is indefinitely small.
54
[50.
be points for which not only p, but nalso, is infinite, and such that if a line I be drawn through these points, the mass of the superficially distributed matter
Still further there
may
comprised between this line

parallel line
finite,
I',
and perpendiculars to
I'
however near
is I
an adjacent indefinitely near and I at its extremities remains be taken to I. In such cases the distri/,
',
and neglecting as before the distance that the quantity of matter corresponding ^, say to, or on the element ds of I is \ds, where A. is the linear density
bution
said to be linear
between
and
we
at ds.
50.]
On
the modification
of Poisson's equation at points of
superficial distribution
of matter.
Let dS be an element of the surface,, and let us form on dS a cylindrical surface like that mentioned in the definition of the
last article.
Let
p be the
surface.
its bases,
If
dS1
uniform density of matter within that cylindrical denote any element of that surface, including
Art. 45
we have by
In the
limit,
when
near each other, the right-hand
the bases of that cylinder become infinitely member of this equation becomes
if
47T// vdS.
either side of
And
t
dv, dv' be elements of the normal on
8 measured
in each case from $, the left-hand
member becomes
CCdV
dV
"//*>//''
dV
or
dv
- + 4770dv
dV
= 0*.
* The cases of finite and infinite p have been considered separately, with the view to their physical interpretations. There is no exception in any case to the
equation
v F + 47rp =
2
0,
because,
v2 F
becomes
infinite
whenever
dx
-, &c. are
discontinuous,
i.e.
when
p is infinite.
51.]
51.]
THEOREMS CONCERNING THE POTENTIAL.
55
The mean value over the surface of any sphere of the potential due to any matter entirely without the sphere is equal to
the potential at the centre.
let a be the radius of the sphere, r the distance of any in space from the centre, a 2 do) an element of the surface. point Then denoting by V the mean value of over the sphere, we
For
have
=
~
JL^
4-7T
47T</
/y
t
m
but
dv
i = --
rr^F, rrdv,
da>
47rJJ dr
n n JTT
5 / / -jivtpJJ dr
rrd rrdv
45.
-=-a2 d<o
=Q
by Art.
independent -jthe centre. sphere, and therefore equal to the potential at The potential of any matter uniformly distributed Corollary.
Hence
or
is
of the radius of the
over the surface of a sphere, at any point outside of the sphere, is Hence the same as if such matter were collected at the centre. also the potential of a uniform solid sphere at any point outside of it is the same as if its mass were collected at the centre.
The mean value over the surface of any sphere of the within the sphere, is the same potential, due to any matter entirely
51
a.~\
as if such matter were collected at the centre. the For using the same notation as before, and denoting by in question, we have in this case algebraic sum of the matter
df dr
rrdv ,
,
.
/ / -T-du 47TJJ dr
=
.
rrdv
; / / -jIncPJ J dr
by Art. 45,
56
and
[52.
V=
no constant being required, since
V vanishes when
r is infinite.
52.]
The mean
potential over the surface of an infinite cylinder
due to a uniform distribution of matter along an infinite straight line parallel to the axis and outside of the cylinder is equal to
the potential on the axis. the For let a be the radius of the cylinder, I its length, between a radius of the cylinder and a fixed plane through angle Let V be the axis, r the distance of any point from the axis.
the potential, a function of
V its
only.
mean
value.
Evidently
7
,
if r
be given,
is
Then we have
F=
dV__ "
dr
2irla
0,
by Art. 45
because that part of the normal attraction which relates to the ends of the cylinder may be neglected.
It follows that 7 is independent of r, and is therefore equal to the potential on the axis. It follows also that the potential at any point outside of a cylinder of a uniform distribution of matter over the surface of
the cylinder, or throughout
its interior, is
the same as
if all
the matter were uniformly distributed along the axis, and therefore that the potential of such a uniform distribution at any
/QO
J
point outside of
.
it
and distant r from the axis
is
where p Adx is the quantity of matter corresponding to a length dx of the cylinder. That is, pA (C 2 log r), where C is constant.
.
53.]
The
be a
pied
to
maximum
potential of any distribution of matter can never or minimum at any point in a region not occu-
be a
by any portion of that matter. maximum at any point
0,
For suppose the potential and describe a small
53-]

as centre.
57
sphere about
Then
dV
,
dv
per
unit of length of the normal to the sphere measured outwards, if the sphere be small be negative at every point of must, enough,
the surface.
Therefore
-T-
dS
is
negative
therefore
dxdydz
is
positive
or there
is
true for
centre,
positive matter within the sphere, and as this as any sphere, however small, described about there must be positive matter at 0. Similarly, if Fbe
at 0, there
must be
minimum
must be negative matter
at 0.
can
therefore never have a
value except at a point situated in positive matter, and never have a minimum value except at a point situated in negative matter.
maximum
constant throughout any finite region free from attracting matter, it has the same constant value at every point of space which can be reached from that region without passing
a.]
53
If
V be
through attracting matter. For let the whole of space in which V is constant which can be so reached from the given region be comprised within the
closed surface S.
Then on S, V either increases or diminishes continuously outwards. Let a small closed surface tf be described lying partly within S, and partly outside of it, and in the parts where V increases outwards from
surface
is
S.
The normal
integral
-7- dS' applied to such
not zero, and therefore the interior space must be But there is no matter in the portion of occupied by matter. the small closed surface within S, therefore there must be
matter in the closed surface immediately outside of S. 53 $.] If two systems of matter have the same potential
throughout any finite portion of space bounded by a surface S, they have the same potential at all points in space which can be
reached from that portion without passing through any matter
of either system.
58
For
THEOREMS CONCEENING THE POTENTIAL.

let
[54.
so that
V and
V=V throughout the space enclosed

greater than
V be the potentials of the two systems,

by
8.
V in some region
S',
If possible let
V be
contiguous to 8.
Then we may
describe a closed surface
partly within and partly without S,
such that on the part without
dV
8, -=- is
everywhere greater than
dT* ^jdv
It follows that for such surface
But
unless there be attracting matter belonging to either system within 8' both these quantities are zero, and they cannot therefore be unequal.
54.] The propositions of the last article can also be extended to the case where is given equal to 7' not throughout any finite portion of space, but only at all points in a finite straight
line,
provided that both
and
be symmetrical about that
line as axis.
For we must suppose that there exists some space about the We given line which contains no matter of either system.
may describe wholly within that space about the given line as axis a right cylinder of very small section. For that cylinder
both
the
dS and II ~r
~T- dS must be
axis
zero,
differ
and therefore by
from
symmetry about the
cannot
at
any
And being proved equal point upon, or within, the cylinder. to at all points within the cylinder, the case is reduced to
that of Art. 533.

55.]
Let
7, instead of
solid harmonic,
and
let
8
6
denoting a potential, be any spherical be any closed surface not enclosing the
origin.
Then by Art.
the integrals being taken over and throughout 8 respectively. V 2 7, we obtain the result of Art. 4 5 as a Writing 4 irp for
Hence the propositions particular case of the general theorem. of Arts. 53 and 54 may be extended to the case in which For 7',
57-]
THEOEEMS CONCERNING THE POTENTIAL.
59
instead of being a potential, is any spherical solid harmonic. If, for instance, the potential of a given mass be proved equal to a
certain spherical solid harmonic at all points within a certain region, as the finite space S, or the given length of the axis of a
it can be shewn that the potential is equal points which can be reached from the given region of equality without passing through any matter of the system. Further, U, instead of being a single spherical solid harmonic,
symmetrical system,
to
U at
all
may
will still be true for all space
be an infinite series of such harmonics, and the proposition which can be reached from the
given region of equality without passing through any matter of the system, or through any point where the series U ceases to be
convergent. 56.] If the potential due to any distribution of matter on a closed surface S be constant at all points on S, the superficial
1
density,
o-,
is
equal to
dV
dv
47T
at each point
on
S,
the normal
being measured from 8 on the outside of it. For since the potential V is constant at each point on S, and 2 at all points within S, it has by Art. 7 the satisfies V F
same constant value at all points within S. dV superficial equation =-; = 0, and therefore
d>
Hence
in Poisson's
dV
-,
dv
4 TT o-
= 0,
or
or
dV
dv
or not, the algebraic
477
But whether the potential be constant sum of the distribution over S is

dv
dS, by Art. 45.
and only one, distribution 57.] It is always possible to form one, of matter over a closed surface 8, the potential of which shall have any arbitrarily given value at each point of that surface.
For, as we have proved in Art. 7, there exists one determinate function u which has the given value at each point of S, and 2 satisfies V &=0 at each point in the infinite external space, and
vanishes at an infinite distance.
And
there exists one determinate function u' which has the
60
THEOKEMS CONCERNING THE POTENTIAL.

t
[57.
at each
given value at each point of S and point within S.
satisfies
V #'=
2
Then a
distribution over S, whose density

1
(
is
47T
du dv
du'
)
\
dv'
the normals being measured from S, dv on the inside, and dv on the outside of the surface, is the required distribution. For let a small sphere S' be described about any external
point, Q, as centre.
Let
- where
r is the distance of
any
point from Q.
Then, applying Green's theorem to the space outside of S and S', we have with the given meaning of dv,
ds
*r
Now V% =
the triple
and V 2 integral, and
V=
at all points within the limits of
if
denote the value of u at O.
Also
JJ
Therefore the equation becomes
\\V -^-dS dv
vanishes.
Again, applying Green's theorem to the space within have with the given meaning of dv
S,
we
ff
or since both
V 2 F=
and
V 2 u'
'
everywhere within
S,
Now ---
if
-j-y
be not actually on
S,
however near
to
58.]

be,
61
from
S it may we have
and u
u on
S.
Hence, subtracting
But
if
be any point on
S,
V at P =
du
Therefore
._
member
is
Now
the right-hand
the potential at
is
of the
supposed distribution
whose density
J_5^
4:17
**M/
]
\dv
dv
outside of
is
It follows that this potential is equal to UQ at every point S, however near to S ; and therefore, since the potential
a continuous function, has the value of

Similarly, if
or the given value,
at each point on S.
be an internal, instead of an external, point,

/S
we
can prove that the distribution over

_l_(du_
whose -density
is
~4*t<fr
'
<&/)
57)
has u' for potential at Q. And the functions u and u being both determinate, their
differential coefficients -=-
dv
and
-7-7-
dv
are determinate
and of single
and only
satisfies
value.
58.] If $!
. . .
Sn be any
closed surfaces, there exists one
one distribution of matter over them whose potential u the following conditions, viz.
u u
= =
&c., &c.
Cl} constant, but C2 constant, but And

,
arbitrary at all points on arbitrary at all points on
Slf
S2
;
"du
//dv
//;dv
dS*
e,
over
dS<>
=e
over
$,
and so on, and u vanishes at an
infinite distance.
62
[59.
For we have proved in Art. 10 that there exists one determinate function u satisfying the above conditions. It follows
that
-=-
has a single and determinate value at each point of each
of the surfaces.
Then
-
if
we
take for density of the distribution at

exactly as before that the
each point
4 7T -jUV
we can prove
potential of the distribution so formed at any point external to the surface is u, and therefore satisfies all the conditions.
of Art. 57 may be extended to an unclosed 59.] The proposition surface thus. Let S be an unclosed surface, S' a similar and equal
shall be very near to the corresponding point on 8. If we now connect the boundaries Let a of S and S' by a diaphragm we obtain a closed surface.
surface so placed as that each point on
'
distribution be formed on this closed surface having potential on S, and at each point on S' the same potential as at the corredistribution
sponding point on S. Let <r and or' be the densities of this f on S and S respectively. Then ultimately, if S' be
made
to coincide
with
S,
we
obtain cr-ft/ as the density of a
has potential V at each point on S. If two systems of matter, both within a closed surface 60.] have the same potential at each point on S, then
distribution on
S which
S,
(a)
For
let
Then 7
2
- V on S, V V = and V V =
2
they have the same potential throughout all external space. T 7' be the potentials of the two systems respectively.
9
V are both of lower degree than V cannot differ from V at any point in the Hence, by Art.
V and
\. 9,
at all points in the external space,
external space.
(6)
The
algebraic
sum
to that of the other.
of the matter of either system is equal For the algebraic sum of the matter
is
within S whose potential
is
-;r // dv 47TJJ
the normal being measured outwards on the outside of at all points external to S, Art. 45. Now, since 7-=.
S,
by
V dV_dT
dv
dv
6O.]
63
and therefore
(c)
The two systems have the same centre of

for the plane of y, z
inertia.
For
taking Green's theorem to the

enclosing S,
space
any arbitrary plane, within any closed surface
and applying
we have
and since on S'
V= V,
and
-=-
dv
= -5 =
dv
f ff
two
And
therefore if m, m' be the quantities of matter of the systems respectively within the element of volume dxdydz,
mxdxdydz
which, as the direction of
(d)
a?
/ / /
m'xdxdydz,
is
The two systems have the same
arbitrary, proves the proposition. For principal axes.
and therefore
/ / /
xymdxdydz
/ /
xym'dxdydz;
it
the axis of z be a principal axis of one system, principal axis of the other system.
and
if
is
(e)
If A, B,
C
of
system,
C' =.
those
be the principal moments of inertia of one A K, ' It K, the other are A'
C-K.
For
-ffflVdxdydz,
61
[6
1.
and therefore
ffftfmdxdydz
Similarly
fffxz m'dxdydz +
f ff (V-V'}dxdydz.
\ll ifmdxdydz
Therefore
Similarly,
y m'dxdydz
jjhv-V^dxdydz.
Definition.
= (7-4 fff(V~ V'}dxdydz = C-K. B' = B-K, A' -A-K. A body which has the same potential at all
C'
as if its
points
outside of
it, is
itself,
It follows
its
a centrobaric body, from (c) that
mass were collected at a point its centre. and

if
within
a body be centrobaric,
its
centre
is
centre of inertia.
61.] It follows from Art.
59 that a distribution of matter
always exists over a surface

potential at each
S which has any given
constant
point of S;
and therefore that any given
quantity of matter can be distributed over S in such a way as to have constant potential at each point of S. Such a distribution
is
defined to be an equipotential distribution. If be the algebraic sum of a distribution of Definition.
matter over a closed surface whose potential has the constant

value
V at
each point of that surface, -^

of a sphere
is
the capacity of the
surface.
The capacity
is
equal to
its radius.
For the sphere

1
being charged to potential F, the potential, being constant over the surface, must have the same constant value at the centre.
But
if
be the algebraic
is
>
sum
is
of the distribution, the potential
at the centre
where a
the radius.
or
-
We
have then
F,
= a.
*
t
63.]
If
V ^

$ be an
equipotential surface to a system of matter wholly be the potential of the system on S, the capacity
within
of 8
is
M
-=
it,
and
j
where Jf
is
the algebraic
sum
of the matter of the
is also the enclosed system. For, by Art. 60, algebraic sum of a distribution over S which has potential at every point on it.
62.] If V be the potential of any distribution of matter over a closed surface S, and if <r be the density of a distribution of
matter over
S which has
the same potential at each point on S
as that of unit of matter placed at
any point
0,
then
is
jrf'tr'dS
the potential at
of the
first distribution.
For
0.
let
or
be the density of the

8,
first
distribution,
7'
the
potential of the </ distribution, r the distance of any point from
Then on
(dV
+ dV)
_
dv
= the potential at
63.]
of the first distribution.
If S be a closed equipotential surface in any material f system, and if p, p denote densities of the matter of the system inside and outside of S respectively, and if R le the force due
to the whole system at any point on S in the direction of the normal measured outwards, then the potential at any external point due to the internal portion is equal to that of a disT>
tribution of matter over

tial
S whose
density is
to
and
the potendiffers
at
any internal point due

I.
the
external portion
VOL.
66

7?
[63.
from
that
of a distribution over
S whose
density is
---
by
For if we take for origin any point the potential of the surface. be the potential of the entire system, we outside of 8 and if have by applying Green's theorem to the space inside of S, with
9
V>
and
u'
>
where
is
the constant value of
on
S,
= 0,
and
since
T--&8-**9 Jby Art.

9
45,
V2 -
is
zero at all points within S.

therefore becomes
The equation
But
=-8,
and
which proves the

Secondly,
if
first
we take
part of the proposition. for origin a point
inside
of S, and
apply Green's theorem to the external space, with
V and -
for
u and
u',
we
obtain
snce
64.]
SPHERICAL HARMONICS APPLIED TO POTENTIAL. 67

and as before
in this case,
V2 - =
S,
0.
Also in this
case, the nor-
mal
is
measured inwards from
and therefore
dV
Hence the
T>
-r=R, dv
also
V F=-47rp'.
2
potential at
any
internal point of the distribution
over
differs
by
a constant quantity from that of the
external portion M', and therefore the force due to the distribution
--JP
over
is
4lT
equal to that due to the external portion
Hence
it
follows that the force at
any external point due
to the
-n
internal portion is equal to that due to the distribution
4?r
over 8, and the force at any internal point due to the external
portion
is
equal to that of the distribution
-73
of any distribution 64.] To express the potential at any point of matter in a series of spherical solid harmonics.
Take as origin any point 0. Let OP = f. Let be any point in the distribution. referred to OP as axis, be r, 0, <, Let the coordinates of cos 0. Then sin Odd = dp, where is the angle POM. Let \L = is and an element of volume in the neighbourhood of
r^dyidfydr.
this
If p be the density of the given distribution in

its
element of volume,
_
potential at
_
P is
r
pr*dfJLd(bdr -
-yrjjp
or
,, = pr*dnd<f>dr
C 1
.
j-
+
,
..
Q^
+ Qz
r*
)
...
if
</,
The
potential at
rzir
of the whole distribution
is
then
rf r
/
iJo /i
ri
jo
I
p-j-dudtidr
yi
I
rzv r>
I
I
J-iJo
prdftdtydr
r<
Jj
rzir
rs
I
^
/
J-iJo
QiP-^du.d<hdr+
Jo
J-l.'o
r^ ill
ri
Jf
+ &c.,
68
APPLICATION OF SPHERICAL HARMONICS
[65.
and since
f
Q
/
/"27r
/I -i
du
depends on p only, this r>2ir ^2 //

d<f> /
may be put
/*
drp
Jf
r2ir
/
in the form
drp
J
rzir
d<j>
d<j)
(Jo
Jo
Jo
rf
Jo
r*
2
(Jo /i d/iCil/
.1
drp~ +/ 3*/ Jo / //
known
,
+ &C.,
in which the quantities within brackets are
distribution
is
if
the given
known.
these quantities
If
we denote
by A
1 1
A^ A 2
&c.,
9
we have
7= rdp{A +Q J-i
in
A + Q,A 9 +...}
//.
which the A's are generally functions of
find the density of a distribution of matter over a 65.] spherical surface, whose potential at any point on that surface shall be equal and opposite to that of a mass e, placed at an
To
external point. Let be the centre of the sphere, a its radius, outside of it, OC=f.
the point
Let
It
a-
is
be the required density. evident that the density of this distribution on the
sphere must be symmetrical about OC, and must therefore be

expressible in a series of zonal harmonics with
this be
OC as
axis.
Let
Let E be any point on the surface, any other point. Let us denote by Qf the zonal harmonic of order i referred to
OE as
axis.
Then
-
And
the potential at
E due to the distribution

Q<>
is
VE
HA
"
SS
Qt ds + Ai
/
'
'
ffQi Qi
ds+ &c
i
'
because every term of the form that is,
IQ Qj'dS, where
i
=j,
is zero;
being the value of Q+ at E.
66.]
TO THE POTENTIAL.
69
But by hypothesis the potential at E of the distribution is to be the same as that of the mass e at C with reversed sign;
that
is,
We
have therefore
and equating
coefficients of
2t+l
and
<T
2A Q
t
_?, where
-L/
= CJE"
(by Art. 26).
of matter over a 66.] If the density of any distribution a spherical surface spherical surface be equal to fj, where 7i is harmonic of order i, the potential at any point within or without
the sphere due to this distribution sponding spherical solid harmonic.
is
correproportional to the
For
let
be the centre of the sphere, a
ternal or internal point, Then at
OP =
r,
and
M a point on the
its radius,
any exsurface.
T Qj dS,
Q. dS,
if
P be P
internal,
= /T 7. 2
But
if
be external.
II
Y QjdS =
i
0, unless i
= j,
and therefore
V=
-^
/TV, ft ^,
if
be internal,
= -r
Qi
ds
>
if
P be
external.
70
APPLICATION OF SPHERICAL HAEMONICS
[67.
But
Jf
Y
{
where
is
the value of
at the point where OP, produced if
necessary, cuts the sphere.
_
Y
And
therefore ri
is
or
~Y *
<+ t
,
according as
is
internal or
external,
the spherical solid harmonic at

this
If
we denote
by H
corresponding to
it
we have
in the
two cases respectively.

this,
The following proposition may

it
easily be deduced from
but we prefer to prove
independ-
ently thus.
material system wholly within a 67.] If the potential of any S be given at each point of that surface in spherical surface
a series of spherical surface harmonics, then the potential of the same system at any point on the outside of the surface is found by substituting for each surface harmonic the corre-
sponding solid harmonic. For let the given potential be 2

of the superficial distribution of S is equal to 2 i Y^
A i Y^ and let p be the density on S whose potential at every point
Let
of 4.
be any point distant
/ from
the centre on the outside
Then the potential at of the given system of the surface distribution.
is
equal to that
But, as shewn in Art. 62, if p' be the density of a distribution over S whose potential at any point of S is equal to that of unit
of matter situated at P, then
is is
the potential at of the superficial distribution whose potential 2AiI i9 and therefore of the given system.
Now
P
68.]
TO THE POTENTIAL.
is
71
where a
the radius of the sphere.
Therefore
where J^
is
the value of J^ at P.
is
The
potential of the given system
also equal to
A Y
i
for a certain distance
For
and
all
2(
within the given spherical surface S. a \ i+1 Ai i both satisfy Laplace's equation )
throughout
side of S.
external space, and are identical at all points outThey must therefore be identical throughout all space
which can be reached from S without passing through attracting

matter so long as
68.]
A J
i
is
a convergent
series.
harmonics the potential of any material system symmetrical about an axis. on the axis. Let / be the Let us take for origin any point
in zonal solid
To express
of any point in space. Then we can first shew that the potential at any point P on the axis, if more distant from the origin than any point in the
distance from
system, can be expressed in the form
2B
-r-y
>
and
if
less
distant from the origin than any part of the system can be and A expressed in the form C'+S-^r*, where the functions
are determinate if the given system pendent of r.
is
known, and are inde-
For
let
be the origin,
P the
point on the axis,
M any point
in space at
which there
is
matter belonging to the system of
density
p,
Then
since the system
is
take for an element of
its
symmetrical about the axis, we may volume the space between the two
cones whose vertices are at
cos" 1 (p + dp) and whose distance from
and semivertical angles cos" 1 ju and is between a and a + da.
72
APPLICATION OF SPHEKICAL HARMONICS

its
[68.
potential
If p be the density of matter within this element

at
Pis
2ira*pdtJ.da.
,
that
is,
2ira*pdu,da.-\ r
or
+ &- + r
} if r
)
>
<
a,
if
a?p
dfJi
da .
< 1
+Q
..
>
if
a.
Then
if
1}
a 2 be the greatest and least distances from

all
of
any matter between the two cones, the potential of matter between them is
the
I* ftp ./"*>.
\j+Q^
when
r
in which the
first
integral will be omitted

if r
<
is
2,
and the
second will be omitted
>
Finally, the potential at
of the whole system
found by
I to integrating the above expression according to ^ from p and p are generally func1, remembering that a^ and 2
fji
tions of
/u.
Let a\ and a\ denote the greatest and least values of r for any point in the system. Then the result, if the integrations can be effected, must appear in the form
and and
if
sn-Lif OP><, C+2A r* if OP<<;

t
>
a\
<
a\.
system at any point not in the axis and distant r from 0, by multiplying each term by the corresponding zonal harmonic referred to OP as axis.
We
can
now
find the potential of the
For instance, suppose r > a\. Let V be the potential and let
68-]
TO THE POTENTIAL.
since on the axis
73
Then
Q =
t
1,
and
equation at all points not occupied by matter belonging to the system. And therefore since they are identical throughout some finite length on the
axis,
V and V are identical throughout a finite Now both V and V satisfy Laplace's
length of the axis.
and are symmetrical about the axis, they must by Arts. 53 and 54 be identical at all points in space which can be reached from that part of the axis without passing either through the system, or
through any part of space where 2
ri
_^l
does not converge.
Similarly, the potential at any point R' in space distant r from It' can be reached from 0, where r < a 2', is f Q^*, provided
C+ 2^
is less than a withthe part of the axis whose distance from either through the system, or through any part of out passing, does not converge. space where "SA t
Q^
CHAPTEE
IV.
Electrification ly Friction,
ARTICLE 69.] EXPERIMENT I*.
Let a piece of glass and a piece

;
of resin be rubbed together and then separated each other.
they will attract
If a second piece of glass and a second piece of resin be similarly treated and suspended in the neighbourhood of the
former pieces of glass and resin,

(1) (2)
it
may
be observed that
The two
pieces of glass repel each other.
(3)
Each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin. The two pieces of resin repel each other.
trical
These phenomena of attraction and repulsion are called elecphenomena, and the bodies which exhibit them are said to
electrified or to
be
be charged with
electricity.
two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin, the glass attracts what the resin repels, and repels what the resin
electrical properties of the
The
attracts.
Bodies
friction.
may
be
electrified in
many
other ways as well as by
If a body electrified in any manner whatever behaves as the glass does in the experiment above described, that is, if it repels
trified,
the glass and attracts the resin, it is said to be vitreously elecand if it attracts the glass and repels the resin, it is said
to be resinously electrified. All electrified bodies are found to be either vitreously or resinously electrified. When the electrified state is produced by the friction of dis-
similar bodies, as above described, it

*
is
found that so long as the
The
description of these experiments
is
taken almost verbatim from Maxwell's
Electricity.
70.]
75
rubbed surfaces of the two excited bodies are in contact the combined mass does not exhibit electrical properties, but behaves
towards other bodies in
friction
its
neighbourhood precisely as
if
no
had taken
place.
The exactly opposite properties of bodies vitreously and resinously electrified respectively, and the fact that they neutralise each other, has given rise to the terms 'positive' and 'negative* electrification, the term positive being by a perfectly arbitrary,
but
now
universal convention
among men
of science, applied
electri-
to the vitreous,
fication.
and the term negative to the resinous
Electric actions similar to those above described
may
be ob-
served between a body electrified in any manner and another body not previously electrified when brought into the neigh-
bourhood of the electrified body, but in all such cases it will be found that the body so acted upon itself exhibits evidence of the electrification. This electrification is said to be produced by
induction, a process
which will be
illustrated in the second ex-
periment.
No
force,
either of attraction or repulsion, can be observed

electrified
between an
body and a body manifesting no signs
of electrification.
Electrification by Induction.
70.]
EXPEBIMENT
II.
Let a hollow
vessel of metal, furnished
with a
close-fitting metal lid, be
and
let
suspended by white silk threads, a similar thread be attached to the lid, so that the vessel
it
;
may
be opened or closed without touching

lid are perfectly free
suppose also that
the vessel and
from
electrification.
Let the pieces of glass and resin of Experiment I be suspended in the same manner as the vessel and lid, and be electrified as
before.
If then the electrified piece of glass be
hung up within the
sus-
and the pended vessel by its thread, without touching the vessel, will be found to be vitreously lid closed, the outside of the vessel
electrified,
and
it
may
be shown that the
electrification outside
of the vessel, as indicated
by the
attractive or repulsive forces
on
76
[71.
electrified bodies in its
neighbourhood, is exactly the same in whatever part of the interior the glass be suspended. If the glass be now taken out of the vessel without touching
the electrification of the glass will be found to be the same as was put in, and that of the vessel will have disappeared.
vessel, which depends on the glass and which vanishes when the glass is removed,
it,
before it
This electrification of the
being within
it,
is called Electrification
by
Induction.
If the piece of electrified resin of Experiment I were substituted for the glass within the vessel, exactly opposite effects If both the pieces of glass and resin, would be produced.
after the friction of
vessel,
effects
Experiment I, were suspended within the whether in contact with each other or not, no electrical
whatever would be manifested.
Similar effects would be produced if the glass were suspended near the vessel on the outside, but in that case we should find an
electrification vitreous in
and resinous in another

mentioned,
outside
is
one part of the outside of the vessel Whereas, as has been just now part.
is
when
the glass
inside the vessel the whole of the
In this case, as in the case vitreously of internal suspension, the electrification disappears on removal of the exciting body.
electrified.
vessel there
Experiment proves that throughout the inside of the closed is an electrification of the opposite kind to that
is,
of the outside, that
when
the
electrified
piece
of glass
is
suspended within the vessel, and the latter is therefore vitreously electrified on the outside, as just now explained, the inside will be resinously electrified, and vice versa when the resin
is
substituted for the glass. Experiment proves also that the electrification on the outside
is
equal in quantity to that of the glass, and the electrification

glass.
on the inside equal and opposite to that of the

Electrification by Conduction.
71.] EXPERIMENT III. The metal vessel being electrified by induction, as in the last experiment, let a second metallic body be suspended by white silk threads near it, and let a metal wire
72.]
77
similarly suspended be brought so as to touch simultaneously the electrified vessel and the second body. The second body will now be found to be vitreously electrified
and the vitreous
electrification of the vessel will
have diminished.
is called
The
electrical condition has
been transferred from the vessel

wire.
to the second
body by means of the
The wire
is
a conductor of electricity, and the second body

electrified by conduction.
said to be
Conductors and Insulators.
If a glass rod, a stick of resin or gutta-percha, or a white silk thread had been used instead of the metal wire, no transfer of
electricity
would have taken
place.
Hence these
latter substances
are called non-conductors of electricity. non-conducting support or handle employed in electrical apparatus is called an Insulator, and the body thus supported is said to be insulated.
Thus the lid and vessel of Experiment II are insulated. The metals are good conductors ; air, glass, resins, guttabut all subpercha, vulcanite, paraffin, &c., are good insulators stances resist the passage of electricity, and all substances allow it to pass although in exceedingly different degrees. For the
;
present
we
shall, in
speaking of conductors or non-conductors,
imagine that the bodies spoken of possess these properties in perfection, a conception exactly similar to that of perfectly fluid
or perfectly rigid bodies, although such conceptions cannot be realised in nature.
In Experiment II an
electrified
body produced
electrifica-
tion in the metal vessel while separated from it by air, a nonconducting medium. Such a medium, considered as transmitting
these electrical effects without conduction,
is called
a Dielectric
as
medium, and the action which takes place through

has been said, Induction.
72.]
it is called,
EXPEEIMENT IV. In Experiment III the electrified vessel produced electrification in the second metallic body through the medium of the wire. Let us suppose the wire removed and the
electrified piece of glass
it
and removed
to a sufficient distance.
taken out of the vessel without touching The second body will
78
still
[74.
is
removed
exhibit vitreous electrification, but the vessel when the glass If we now bring will have resinous electrification.
the wire into contact with both bodies, conduction will take place along the wire, and all electrification will disappear from
both bodies, from which we infer that the electrification of the
two bodies was equal and opposite. 73.] EXPERIMENT V. In Experiment II
it
was shown that
if
a piece of glass, electrified by rubbing it with resin, is hung up in an insulated metal vessel, the electrification observed outside
does not depend upon the position of the glass.
If
we now
introduce the piece of resin with which the glass was rubbed into the same vessel without touching it or the vessel, it will
be found, as stated in Art. 70, that there

the outside of the vessel.
is
no
electrification
on
From
this
we conclude
that the
electrification of the resin is exactly equal
and opposite to that in any number of electrified bodies, of the glass. By putting some vitreous and others resinous, and taking account of the
amount of
algebraic
electrification of each,
we
shall find that the
whole
electrification of the outside of the vessel is that
due to the
sum
of the electrifications of all the inserted bodies,
the signs being used in accordance with the convention already described. have thus a practical method of adding the
We
electrical effects
trification of
of several bodies without altering the elecvessel
any of them.
74.]
EXPERIMENT VI. Let a second insulated metallic
be provided, and let the electrified piece of glass of Experiment I be placed in the first vessel A, and the electrified piece of resin in
the second vessel B.
Let the two vessels be then put in communication by the metal wire, as in Experiment III. All signs
of electrification will disappear. Next, let the wire be removed, and let the pieces of glass and resin be taken out of the vessels without touching them. It will
be found that
If
A is electrified resinously and vitreously. the glass and the vessel A be introduced together (the glass being no longer within A) into a larger insulated vessel <?, it will be found that there is no electrification on the outside of C.
now
This shows that the electrification of
is
exactly equal and
76.]
79
opposite to that of the piece of glass, and similarly that of may be shown to be equal and opposite to that of the piece of
resin.
has been charged with a quantity of elecand opposite to that of the electrified piece tricity exactly equal of glass without altering the electrification of the latter, and we
vessel
Thus the
may
in this
way charge any number
equal quantities of electricity of either kind which

as provisional units. 75.]
of vessels with exactly we may take
EXPERIMENT VII. Let the
vessel B, charged with a quan-
tity of positive electricity, which we shall call for the present unity, be introduced into the larger insulated vessel C without
touching
it.
outside of C.
It will produce a positive electrification on the let be made to touch the inside of C. No
Now
change of the external electrification of C will be observed. If be now taken out of C without again touching it and removed
to a sufficient distance, it will be found that
B is
completely dis-
charged, and that

electricity.
C has become
charged with a unit of positive
We
Let
into
have thus a method of transferring the charge of B to C. B be now recharged with a unit of electricity, introduced
already charged,
It will be
made
to touch the inside of
C and
removed.
found that
B is again completely discharged,

it
so that the charge of
C is
doubled.
will
If this process be repeated
be found that however
highly
is
previously charged,
and in whatever way
is
charged when it is first inclosed in (7, then made to touch and finally removed without touching C, the charge of B
completely transferred to C,
trification.
C,
is
and
is entirely free
from
elec-
This experiment indicates a method of charging a body with any number of units of electricity. The experiment is also an illustration of a general fact of great importance, namely, that no
charge whatever can be maintained in the interior of any conducting mass. In what has hitherto been said it has been assumed that
76.]
we
possess the
means of testing the nature and measuring the
80
[77.
amount of electrification on any body, or on any part of a body. This we can do with great accuracy by the aid of instruments called electroscopes or electrometers} whose modes of action will be
more easily understood when the theory of the subject has been somewhat developed ; and which are fully described in practical treatises on electricity for our present purpose it will suffice to
;
describe one of these instruments in its simplest form, called the
gold-leaf electroscope. strip of gold-leaf hangs between two bodies A and B, charged one positively and the other negatively. If the gold-leaf be placed in conducting contact with the body
whose
electrification is to
be investigated,
it will itself
become a
part of that body for all electrical purposes, and it will incline towards A or according as its electrification, and therefore the
electrification
of the
body under
investigation, is negative or
positive.
77.]
(1)
From
The
the foregoing experiments
we conclude that
electrifi-
total electrification of a
body or system of bodies
remains always the same except in so far as it receives cation from, or gives electrification to, other bodies.
In all electrical experiments the electrification of bodies is found to change, but it is always found that this change is due to want of perfect insulation, and that with improved insulation the change diminishes.
electrification of a
We may therefore
assert that the
body would remain perfectly constant.

(2)
placed in a perfectly insulating
medium
When
one body
electrification of the
electrifies another by conduction the total two bodies remains the same, that is, the
one loses as
much
positive, or gains as
much
negative
electrifica-
tion, as the other gains of positive or loses of negative electrifi-
cation.
For
if
the two bodies are enclosed in the same hollow conis
ducting vessel no change of the total electrification on their being connected by a wire.
(3)
observed
When
electrification
is
produced by friction or by any
other
known method,
equal quantities of positive and negative
electrification are produced.
78.]
electrification of the
81
be tested in
For the
whole system
may
the hollow vessel, or the process of electrification may be carried on within the vessel itself, and however intense the electrification of the parts of the system
may
be, the electrification of the
whole
is
invariably zero.
The electrification of a body is therefore a physical quantity capable of measurement, and two or more electrifications may be combined experimentally with a result of the same kind as when
two quantities are added algebraically. Let there be a needle suspended 78.] EXPERIMENT VIII. a fine vertical wire or fibre, so as to be capable of horizontally by vibrating horizontally about the vertical wire as an axis, and lefc a small pith ball A be attached to one end of the needle. Then the needle will rest in a certain position in which position, there are no forces at work in the neighbourhood of supposing
;
the apparatus except the force of gravity, the suspending wire Let or fibre will be perfectly free from any twist or torsion.
be situated at a certain point in the circumanother pith ball ference of the horizontal circle described by A.
Now let the pith balls A and be each charged with one unit of positive electrification. repulsive action will arise between A and so that A will after certain oscillations come
B A
to rest at a certain increased distance
from B, thus producing a
twist
in the suspending wire. The opposite untwisting tenof the wire thus called into play depends upon the dency torsional rigidity of the wire and the angle through which
the needle has been deflected, and can be estimated in any given apparatus with great accuracy. Hence the repulsive force
between
also
1
and B, assumed to act in the
line joining
be determined with corresponding

.
accuracy:
them, can let it be
called/
Suppose now that the same experiment is made with another with a susapparatus equal to the former in all respects, but wire of different torsional rigidity and suppose that in pending
;
this
is the position taken up by A with respect to observed to be exactly the same as in the former case when the
case
number
VOL.
of units of positive electrification of A
is e,
and of
B is
e'.
I.
82
[79.
It will be found that the repulsive force between

this case
ee'f.
and
is
in
Precisely the same positions would be taken

cases respectively, if
up
in the
two
and
B had been each negatively electrified,
and to the same degree as before. By suitable adjustments of the two cases with opposite electrifications upon A and B each of the same number of units as before, it may be proved that, if
the distances between
are the
and
B in their positions
of equilibrium
same as
before, the forces

ee'f in the
between them are attractive
and equal to /"and
Hence we
at
infer that the force
two cases respectively. between two electrified

all
particles
any given distance apart is in product of the two electrifications

to the signs of the electrifications,
by the them, regard being paid upon

respects represented
force being considered
and the
the above-mentioned product is positive. repulsive EXPERIMENT IX. In the experiment of the last Article 79.]
when
B in the second apparatus as be each one unit of positive electriwell as in the first apparatus It will be found that in the positions of equilibrium fication.
let
the electrifications of
and
the distances between
and
B are
not the same in one apparatus
and as they are in the other. If, however, the forces between in these positions be estimated as before, and if the distances
between
and
B in
the two cases be r and
r', it
will
be found
that there are repulsive forces between them which are to each other in the ratio of / 2 to r2 or inversely as the squares of the distances between them in the two cases.
,
Combining the
results of this
we
arrive at the following general
and the preceding experiment law of action between two
electrified particles, viz. that if
the
e'
number
of units of electrifi-
cation of the particles be e
and
respectively,
and the distance

that
between them be
r,
then there
is
ee
a force
'
'
F such
**?*
where/* is the repulsive force between two particles each charged with unit of elect rification, and at the distance unity apart, regard
being paid to the signs of e and /, and
-f
F being considered positive

and / have the same signs.
when the force
is
repulsive,
i.e.
when
8o.]
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
83
In conducting Experiments VIII and IX care must be taken that the dimensions of A and B are small as compared with the distance between them, so that they may be regarded
They must also be suspended in air and at a considerable distance from any other bodies on which they might induce electrification (Art. 70), inasmuch as this induced
as material points.
electrification
would
also
act
upon
and
and produce a
problem of great intricacy.

Electrical Theory.
80.]
is
The most important
researches into the laws of electrical
phenomena up
known
to the present time have been based upon what It is conceived that all bodies as the two fluid theory.
in nature, whether electrified or not, are charged with, or pervaded by, two fluids to which the names of positive and negative,
or vitreous and resinous, electricity are assigned. It is further supposed either that these fluids exist in all bodies in such quantities that no process yet discovered has ever de-
prived any body, however minute, of all the electricity of either kind, or that the changes in the proportion in which these fluids
are combined, required to produce electrical phenomena, are It is further supposed that in unelectrified indefinitely small.
bodies these fluids exist in exactly equal quantities, but that it is possible by friction, as in Experiment I, or by othef means, to
cause one body to give up to another part of its positive or negative electricity, thus causing in either body an excess of one or other kind of electricity.
When
the quantity of either fluid

is
is
in excess in
any body,
that body
negatively electrified according to the sign of the predominant fluid, and the amount of electrification is measured by the quantity by which this
fluid exceeds the other.
said
to
be positively
or
predominant
in
The
fluid of either
kind
any
electrified
body
in excess of that of the opposite kind is
called the Free Electricity of the body,
and the remaining
fluids
of the body, consisting of equal amounts of fluids of opposite kinds, together constitute what is called the Latent, Combined or
Fixed Electricity of the body.
2,
84
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
[80.
it,
In the simplest form of the theory, although not essential to every process of electrification is supposed to consist of a
transference of a certain quantity of one of the fluids from any body as A to another as B, together with the transference of
an equal amount of the opposite

total
fluid
from
to A, so that the
and latent (without regard to in every body and every particle of every body cannot be sign) changed by any process whatever. It is further supposed that these fluids are not acted upon by gravitation or any of the forces of ordinary mechanics, nor, so far as our present knowledge goes, by ordinary molecular or chemical forces but they are supposed to exercise forces upon themselves and each other which are conceived to be proportional to the
amount of
electricity free
quantities of the mutually acting fluids, thus giving rise to the conception of electrical mass. And it is further supposed that the
forces
between two particles of fluid of the same kind is repulsive, and proportional to the product of their masses directly, and to the square of the distance between them inversely, that between two particles of fluid of opposite kinds being attractive, but in
other respects following the same law. According to this hypothesis the latent or fixed electricity in any body, consisting of equal quantities of opposite kinds, exerts zero force
on
all
electricity.
The
forces
of
attraction
and
repulsion
above mentioned manifest themselves only between the free

electricities.
If
all
bodies be divided for the time into two classes, perfect
conductors and perfect insulators, it is conceived that either kind of electricity may pass with absolute and perfect freedom from point to point of the former, while the latter offer a complete and absolute bar to any such transference.
On
electrical
the hypothesis thus described we are able to explain many phenomena. It is of course merely an hypothesis, and
;
of value as supplying formally an explanation of facts in this respect being exactly on a par with the conception of the luminiferous ether in the undulatory theory of light. The general mathematical treatment of this hypothesis is principally due to
Poisson and Green.
8l.]
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
is
85
There
which
is
another hypothesis, known as the one-fluid theory, equally successful as a basis of investigation, but it has
not been adopted and developed to the same extent as the twofluid theory.
We
shall confine our investigation to the two-fluid theory in

is
the form which
above enunciated.
any further explanation that the two-fluid theory explains the qualitative results of Experiment I given above ; and we proceed now to shew that it also explains
81.] It is evident without
VIII and IX. two bodies A and B, either conductors or nonFor, suppose conductors, to contain m and m' units of mass of positive electricity respectively, and n and n' units of negative electricity. Suppose that they are situated in an insulating medium, as air, and that their dimensions are very small as compared with the distance between them which we shall call r.
the quantitative results of Experiments
of
Then, according to the two-fluid theory, the m positive units a repulsive force A exert upon the m' positive units of
which may be represented by
and the n and
n' units exert
a repulsive force upon each other, represented on the same scale
by
-3-
so that
on the whole there
is
a repulsive force between

'
the electrical fluids in
and
is
B represented by
force
In the same way there

electricities represented
an attractive mn' + m'n

^
between the two
by
is
Altogether therefore there

.
a repulsive force between the
electricities
^ that
4.
-u
is,
by
A and B represented (mn)(m'n'}

on
'-\
mm'+
by
nn'
2
mn'
m'n
>
But m
A, and
is
m'n'
the number of units of positive electrification on is the same for B, so that with the notation used
electricities
above the force between the

presented by
ee' -o-,
in
and
is
re-
and
is
repulsive
when
ee is positive.
86
The unit
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
of electricity in this measurement
is
[8
1.
such that the
repulsive force between two units of positive electricity at the distance unity apart is unit force.
It appears therefore that the two-fluid theory involves the
two charged the law which has been experirespects following mentally proved to be obeyed by the mechanical forces between the bodies themselves. But the bodies are either non-conductors
existence of a force between the electric fluids in
bodies in
all
conductors in an insulating medium, and on either hypothesis the fluids cannot move without the containing bodies
or
else
accompanying them. Whatever force therefore is proved to exist between the fluids becomes phenomenally a corresponding We thus see that the results of Exforce between the bodies. periments I, III, and IV, and of Experiments VIII and IX are explained qualitatively and quantitatively by the two-fluid
hypothesis.
The
application of the theory to the Induction Experiments II,
V, VI, and VII, is not so obvious, and can only be demonstrated after some further development.
CHAPTER
WE
V.
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
ARTICLE 82.] proceed now to develop the two-fluid theory as before enunciated, regarding for the present all substances as
divided into two classes, namely, (i) perfect insulators, called generally dielectrics, throughout which there is an absolute bar
to the motion of the fluids from one particle to another, and (2) perfect conductors, throughout which the fluids are free to move
is
with no resistance whatever from one particle to another. And it assumed for the present that the repulsion between two masses,
and /, of
ee'
electricity placed at distance r apart is
The
phenomena with which we have at present to deal are those of repulsion and attraction between particles at a distance according to the above law. The investigations of Chap. Ill are
therefore applicable. It will be understood that
we do not
assert the actual exist-
ence of the
fluids,
is
takes place. It of Electrostatics
or that direct action at a distance actually proposed merely to show how the phenomena
may
be explained on this hypothesis.
In
like
as divided into perfect conductors and perfect insulators, will have to be materially modified hereafter.
83.] It follows from the above definition of a conductor, that electricities are in equilibrium, the resultant force is zero For if there be any force, at each point within the conductor.
manner the conception of space
when the
must tend to move one kind of electricity at the point in one direction, and the other in the opposite direction, and therefore
it
to separate them. And since the substance of the conductor opposes no resistance to their motion, such separation will in fact take place until equilibrium is attained ; that is, until the
88
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
[84.
mutual attraction of the separated electricities, tending to reunite them, becomes equal and opposite to the force which tends to separate them, and so the resultant force becomes zero.
Now dV
,
it
follows from the reasoning- of Chap. Ill that in a field
of electric fluid distribution a potential function
V exists
such that
dV
?
dV
are the
dm
of
a?,
y,
dz dy and z at any point.
component
iorces parallel to the axes
And
since the resultant force is
zero, each of these components is zero at every point within the conductor, and therefore V has some constant value throughout
the substance of the conductor.
This
is
true whatever the law
of force, provided there be a potential. further from the law of the inverse square, that 84.] It follows be no free electricity within the substance of the conthere can
ductor.
it,
For whatever closed surface be described wholly within at every point of that surface is zero. the normal force
Therefore
/ /
Nds
over the surface.
That
is,
by Art.
45, the
algebraic sum of all the free electricity within the surface is zero, and this being true for every closed surface that can be described within the substance of the conductor, it follows that there
can be no free
electricity, of either
volume or
superficial density,
within the substance of the conductor.

out the conductor, it points on the surface.
it
It follows that, in order to insure the constancy of throughis sufficient to make it constant at all
For we have seen that
if
is
V be
constant
at all points on a closed surface, within
which
no attracting
matter,
85.]
Whatever
has the same constant value throughout the interior. free electricity is formed by the separation of
the two kinds of electricity within the conductor, since it cannot exist within the substance of the conductor, and cannot penetrate the surrounding dielectric, must be found upon the surface in the form of a superficial distribution. And such superficial distribution must be in the aggregate zero for the whole surface because since the two kinds of
;
electricity are
supposed to exist in equal quantities at
all points,
for every quantity of positive electricity resulting
from their
87.]
separation, there
tricity,
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
must be an equal quantity of negative and each must be found somewhere on the surface.
89
elec-
it is possible to place upon the conductor from external sources a quantity of electricity of either This also, for sign. the same reason, can only exist in the form of a superficial
But
distribution.
It follows then that

electrification is
all
if
wholly on the
a conductor be in equilibrium its surface, and the algebraic sum of
the superficial distribution upon it is equal to that of the electricity placed upon it from external sources.
The algebraic sum of all the electricity on 86.] Definition. the surface of a conductor is called the charge on the conductor.
If
o-
be the density of the superficial distribution at any point,
dV
-j
V per
unit of length of the normal
measured outwards in
tribution,
direction,
immediately outside of the disdirection,
-^7 the same thing measured inwards in dv
immediately inside of the distribution, Poisson's equation gives
dV ---h dV ,
dv dv
47TO-.
But
ductor,
--j,}
dv
is
being the force within the substance of the con-
in this case zero.
We
have therefore at every point
of the surface
dv and the charge upon the conductor or
have seen that when an electrical system is in equi87.] librium, the potential must have a constant value throughout each
Conversely, if the potential have a constant value each conductor, the electricity on fixed conductors is throughout in equilibrium. For the potential being constant throughout the
conductor.
conductor, there can be no tangential or other force to move the superficial distribution along the surface or through the substance
We
90
of the conductor.
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
[88.
And
since
by the hypothesis
nature of the dielectric

tricity in the
rest.
is
medium
concerning- the there can be no motion of elec-
medium, all the electricity in the field must be at The constancy of the potential throughout each conductor
thus the sufficient and necessary condition of equilibrium. Hence can be established the following principle.
The Principle of Superposition.

88.] If
or
be the density of the superficial distribution on a con-
in equilibrium in presence of any electrified system which may include a charge on the conductor itself, and if </ be the density on the conductor when in equilibrium in presence
ductor
E,
when
of the system E', then if

will be in equilibrium
E and W both be
present, the conductor
the density is <r + </. For if every conductor of the system had placed upon an instant the distribution whose density is cr-j-o-', we
when
it for
know
that the potential at any point is the sum of the two potentials, and density <r, the other due to the one due to the system E' and density <r '. But both of these potentials are system
constant for each conductor.
Therefore their
sum
is
constant,
in equi-
and therefore the supposed instantaneous distribution librium and is permanent.

It
is
follows
that
if
all
the volume,
or
superficial
or linear
densities of electricity, in a
in
any given
ratio,
system in equilibrium be increased the system will remain in equilibrium, and
the potential at any point will be increased in the same ratio as the densities.
89.] Let us consider the simple case of a single conductor, and a outside of it having a fixed charge of positive electricity m. point
There will form on the surface of the conductor an induced
whose algebraic sum is zero, and of which the negative part is on the side of the conductor nearest to 0, and the positive part on the opposite side. The tendency of the charge at is to make the potential higher on the side of
distribution of electricity
the conductor nearest to
than on the other
side.
The
surface
distribution has the opposite tendency. And the surface distribution must be such that these two tendencies shall exactly
90.]
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
same at
91
all
neutralize one another, and the potential be the points of the conductor.
The
tion of a function
actual solution of this problem consists in the determinathe potential of the system, to satisfy the
conditions
(1)
(2)
2
F is
constant over
0,
C;
:r-dS=
taken over the surface of
at all points in space external to (7, except where V (3) 2 the given external electricity is situated, and there 4-Trw.
F=
F=
We
F,
have seen in Art. 10 that one determinate function

If
it
V,
always exists satisfying these conditions.
were determined,
and therefore
dV
-=
,
would be known at each point on or out-
side of C,
and a distribution over

the conditions.
whose density
dV
dv
^~
is
47T
satisfies all
If the external charge were at another point 0' instead of 0, the superficial distribution would assume a different form. If
there be a charge both at
and
at (/, then,
by the
principle of
superposition above proved, the density of the distribution at any point on the conductor in this case is the sum of the
densities due to the charges at and at 0' separately, and so on for any electrified system outside the conductor. In like manner
there be a charge on the conductor itself, that charge will so distribute itself as to give constant potential at all points on the conductor, and the density of this equipotential distribution
if
together with that due to any external electrification will be the

actual superficial density. inside of 90.] The case in which an electrified system is placed a closed conducting shell is of special importance. It will be
found that in this case we have two systems, separated by the shell, each of which would be in equilibrium separately if the
other were removed.
For
let
system within
be any such shell, and let there be any electrified outside of it. it, and any other electrified system
as before that the electrification of
The general reasoning shows
92
the conductor
case, partly
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
[91.
is wholly on the surface, that is to say, in this on the inner and partly on the outer surface of the
"We can then prove that the algebraic sum of the distrishell. bution on the inner surface, together with that of the enclosed For let a closed surface S be described system, is always zero.
wholly within the substance of the conductor, and entirely The potential V is dividing the inner from the outer surface.
constant at
therefore
-j
all
points within the substance of the shell, and

zero, at every point of S,
dV
is
and
//;dv
rr,
But where
is
is
the algebraic
It follows that
is zero.
sum of all the free electricity within S. But the only free electricity within 8
the distribution on the inner surface of the conductor C, and
If therefore the algebraic sum of that of the enclosed system. the electricity of the enclosed system be e, that of the distribution on the inner surface is
e.
It follows, that unless there be a charge on the conductor, the algebraic sum of the induced distribution on the outer surface is
since the whole surface distribution
on the conductor
is zero.
the following proposition. If a hollow conducting shell be in electrical equilibrium 91.] under the influence of any enclosed electrified system, and of any
external electrified system, then the potential of the enclosed and of the induced distribution on the inner surface will system
We can next prove
be zero at
all
the potential
V of the external electrification and of the induced

closed surface within the substance of the
points on or outside of the inner surface
and
distribution on the outer surface will be constant at all points on or inside of the outer surface of the shell.
For
let
S be any
is
shell entirely
Then 8
dividing the inner from the outer surface. an equipotential surface, and separates the enclosed
system with the induced distribution on the inner surface of the shell from the external system, and the induced distribution on
TJNIV38RSITY
92.]
the outer surface.
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
Therefore (by Art. 63) the enclosed system and the induced distribution on the inner surface have, at all points outside of S, the same potential as a distribution over S whose
T>
density
is
4-7T
where
;
R
that
is
the normal force on
S due
to the
whole
electrification
is
Hence the enclosed system and the
zero potential, because on >$'. distribution on the inner
R=
surface have together zero potential at all points outside of S. Similarly the external system and induced distribution on the
outer surface have together constant potential at all points inside of S and since S may be made to coincide with either the
',
inner or the outer surface of the

It
follows that
if
shell, this proves the proposition. the enclosed system, together with the distribution on the inner surface, were both removed, or allowed
to
communicate and neutralise each
other, the distribution
on
the outer surface would remain in equilibrium. Its density is therefore independent of the position of the enclosed distribution
within the shell. It follows further that any charge placed on the conductor will assume a position of equilibrium on the outer surface without causing any electrification on the inner surface.
Again,
if
the external electrification and the distribution on
the outer surface were removed, that on the inner surface and the enclosed system would remain in equilibrium.
The agreement with experiment
of the
above proposition,
that a charge of electricity upon a hollow conducting shell causes no electrification on its inner surface or on a conductor
placed within it, has been employed, as we shall hereafter see, to establish the most conclusive proof of the law of the inverse
square in electric action.
In Chap. IV it was shown that the qualitative results of Experiment I, and the qualitative and quantitative results of Experiments I, III, IV, VIII and IX, were completely explained by the two-fluid theory of electricity. We are now in a position to do the same with reference to the results of Experiments II, V, VI, and VII. For it has been proved (Art. 84), that there can be no free
92.]
electricity
within the substance of conducting bodies, but that
94
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
[93.
in the case of such bodies the charges, if any, are entirely superficial.
It has been also proved (in Arts. 90, 91) that in the case of the electrical equilibrium of a hollow conducting shell in the presence of any given electrical distributions, whether internal
or external,
a superficial electrical distribution on the inner surface of the shell equal in amount, but of opposite algebraic
(1)
There
is
sign
the algebraic sum of the given internal system. That the given internal system, with the last-mentioned a system superficial electrification of the inner surface, constitute
to,
(2)
producing electrical equilibrium throughout the surface of the and that the given external shell and the whole of external space with any superficial electrification on the outer surface of system,
;
the shell, constitute a system producing electrical equilibrium throughout the shell and the whole of the internal space.
It follows therefore that in the case of the closed insulated
metal vessel of Experiment

glass as therein described,
II,
containing an electrified piece of
(1) There will be a superficial electrification on the inner surface, the total amount of which will be resinous, and equal to
the vitreous electricity of the glass, but the intensity of which at different points will depend upon the position of the glass.
(2)
That inasmuch as the vessel

and as
all
is
insulated,
and the
total
charge
the electrification must be superficial, there will zero, be a superficial distribution on the external surface equal in amount to, and of the same sign as, the vitreous electricity of the glass.
Since however the external and internal distributions are in

equilibrium separately by Art. 91, it follows that ttte intensity of the external superficial electrification at any point, unlike that
of the corresponding internal electrification, will be entirely independent of the position of the glass, and will be determined by the given distributions in the field external to the vessel and
the shape of the vessel.

93.] vessels
In Experiment VI the external electrifications of the and B are equal and opposite before the introduction
of the wire.
When
the two vessels are connected by the wire,
95-]
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
95
the two equal and opposite distributions coalesce, producing evidently by that means external equilibrium. The effect on either
vessel is the
it
same as if, there being- no introduction of the wire, received an independent charge equal in amount to, and of the same sign as, that of the glass or resin in the other vessel, and
These charges remain when the wire, and afterwards the and resin, are removed, as the experiment shows.
'
therefore equal and opposite to that of the resin or glass within

itself.
glass
94.]
The
result of
the same reasoning.

to that of
Experiment VII also follows at once from For the external superficial charge on C is the
same in whatever part of its interior IB be situated, and is equal B in magnitude and of the same sign. If therefore B
be made to touch
C,
the external electrification of the latter will
after contact may be not be affected, but inasmuch as C and as constituting one conducting body, the vessel C with regarded in contact constitutes a metallic shell with a given internal
distribution zero.
Hence the
internal superficial electrification
must be
zero,
conductor
95.]
C and
and there is no free electricity within the compound B, and therefore the whole of B is discharged.
We
which certain conductors have given charges.
have hitherto considered cases of equilibrium in It is sometimes
required to determine the density of the induced distribution on a conductor or system of conductors placed in a known field of force ; as, for instance, when the force before the introduction of
the conductors
is
uniform throughout the
field,
such as
may
be
conceived to be due to an infinite quantity of electricity placed at an infinite distance from the conductors.
of problems certain conductors are given.
class
Another
is
found when the potentials of

shapes are joined together by
When two
conductors of
known
any conducting connection, the conductors with their connection of course form one compound conductor, and must be treated as such. In the particular case however of the connection between them being a very thin wire, the total amount of elecmust be very small, and tricity on the surface of the wire
generally
is
As
far therefore as the electricity
inappreciable in its effect upon the field. on the connection
is
con-
96
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
[96.
may be regarded as two separate and conductors of known form. the existence however independent of the connection will ensure that they are of the same potential.
cerned, such conductors
;
If in the case last mentioned, of two conducting- bodies joined by a thin wire, one of them be removed to a great distance from the
field,
cease to exercise
If,
the charge upon the one so removed will at length any appreciable effect, and may be neglected.
at the
same time, the potential of this removed conductor
be maintained at any given value, we may by this contrivance regard the remaining conductor as an insulated conductor at
a given potential. In order to effect this object the charge upon In fact, the distant the conductor must be capable of variation. or some other body connected with it, must be a conductor,
reservoir containing infinite quantities of either kind of electricity,
and
so large that the
withdrawal of electricity necessary
to maintain the given conductor at the required potential has
no appreciable
effect
upon
it.
an arrangement occurs when one more of the conductors of the field are connected by a thin wire with the earth, for this latter is an infinite conductor always at the same potential*, which is taken as zero, the potentials of all bodies being measured by their excess or defect above or
case of such
A very
common
or
below that of the earth.

is
conductor connected with the earth
said to be uninsulated.
98.]
It follows
from what has gone before that the most
general problem of electrical equilibrium, in such a dielectric medium as we have described, is reduced to that of given electrical distributions in the presence of given insulated conductors with given charges, or at given potentials, in a dielectric medium of infinite extent.
The solution of any such problem, that is, the determination of the electric density and potential at any point, involves the determination of a function F, the potential of the system, to satisfy the following conditions
:
* The earth for any distances within the limits of any experiment is at the same But there may be differences in the potential of the earth between potential. distant points, as England and America.
97-]
(1)
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
97
V has
S
the surfaces
...
some (not given) constant values over each of Sn bounding the conductors on which the
charges are given.

(
2)
J/Jj
dsi
taken over
=\
&c.;
i
(3)
F"
$/.
S'm
has given constant value over each of the surfaces bounding the conductors on which the potentials are
at any point where there is fixed elecand of course, if such fixed electricity be superficial, this may be put in the form
given.
(4)
V 2 F-f 4?rp =
is
tricity of density p.
what
called
dV __ _ + dV +4 ^=:0.
(5)
It
Y vanishes at an infinite distance. was proved in Art. 1 that one such function always
be
exists,
and
if it
a distribution of electricity over the surfaces of
density
JLÊ
4-7T
dv
satisfies all
the conditions of the problem.
Then the equation
dV
dv
+47TO-=
determines the density of electricity at any point of the surface of any conductor, and the problem is completely solved. 97.] It was stated in Art. 91 that the fact of a charge of
on a hollow conducting shell causing no electrification on a conductor placed within it furnishes the most conclusive
electricity
proof of the law of the inverse square in electric action. By hypothesis there is internal equilibrium when a distribution
itself in
equilibrium is placed on the outer surface of the shell. Let the outer surface be a sphere. Then by symmetry this Let us take a- for the superficial distribution must be uniform.
VOL.
i.
98
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
must be a potential
[98.
function,
elec-
density at any point, and since there

let it
be
T'
at the distance r
from a
r
tricity.
particle of unit
any point within the shell at the distance p from the be the Let the radius of the shell be a, and let to any point Q on between OP and the line drawn from angle Let dS be an elementary area of that the surface of the shell.
Let
centre 0.
surface in the neighbourhood of Q,
P be
and
let
V be
the potential of
the whole charge at P.
Then
r^f/V/W
= 2wf*
Jo o
Also
= a 2 ap cos +> rdr = apsm6d9;

r2
2
2
,
ra+p
=2TT<rf(r)dr. pJa-p
But, by hypothesis,
Therefore, multiplying
is
to be constant for all values of p.

differentiating,
>
by p and
F=
.'.
2'ncra\f(a+p)+f(a-p)}'
0=f(a+p)-f(a-p)',
and the force
= -- - =
dr
r2
Hence the
inverse square
must be the law
of force necessary
to satisfy the experimental data. 98.] It may be of interest to enquire within
what degrees of
accuracy the experiments which have been upon.
made may be depended
Let there be an insulated conducting spherical shell within and concentric with the given spherical shell, and of radius I. If the law of force were that mentioned, the charge on the
98.]
ELECTRICAL THEORY.
99
smaller sphere would be accurately zero, even with the two spheres in conducting communication ; and, conversely, if the
charge were accurately zero, the law of force must be that of

the inverse square. If, however, the law of force differed slightly from that of the inverse square, there might be a small charge on the inner shell,
and we propose to investigate the amount of this charge with any assumed small deviation from the above-mentioned law. Let the metallic communication between the surface of the inner sphere and the external surface of the outer sphere be made
by a very thin wire, then the electricity on this wire may be neglected, and therefore, by symmetry, the charges on the two And if the shells be spheres must be uniformly distributed.
very thin, we may, whatever be the law of force, regard the
charges as superficial. Let be that on the outer sphere, and
W that on the
i.e.
inner.
Lety(r)
force be
C+m$(r)
where
is
small;
let
the law of
where
is
At any
small compared with C. the potential from the two charges will be point
f(r)dr
J f(r)dr,
and
this
must be the same at the two ends of the
wire.
Therefore
That
is,
But
100
LINES OF FORCE.
1
[99.
Therefore, substituting
and neglecting the products of the small

a+b
magnitudes E' and m, we get
For example, suppose the law of force to be -g+^, where q

small.
is
Then
and
/
>
rr7-H^ logr
m=
Therefore
C=
$ (r)
= log
r.
Substituting in the expression for E', and remembering that

/
logrdr
= rlogr
r,
we get
This
is the theoretical basis of the experiment by which Cavendish demonstrated the law of the inverse square. The experiment is given in great detail in the second edition
of Maxwell's Electricity and Magnetism, appears, from what is there stated, that
pp.
76-82
and
it
it
we may
regard
as
absolutely demonstrated that the arithmetical value of q cannot
Lines of Force.
99.]
The
state of the electric field
under any given distribution
of charges and arrangement of conductors is completely known when the value of the potential at each point of the field has
been determined. It
is
obvious however that the direct subject of
experimental investigation in any case must be the magnitude and direction of the force at any point of the field, and hence has
* See Senate
House
Questions, 1877.
99-]
LINES OF FORCE.
101
and fluxes of force, originally and developed by subsequent writers. suggested by Faraday Line of Force. Suppose a sphere of indefinitely small radius to be charged with unit mass of positive electricity and placed with its centre at any given point P in an electric field, and
arisen the conception of lines, tubes>
unaffected
suppose the electrical distribution of the rest of the field to be by the presence of this charged sphere, and suppose further the inertia of the sphere to be always neglected, then
the centre of the small sphere would move through the field under the action of the electric forces of the field in a definite line,
generally curved, this line field through P. tf
*/
is
defined as the line of force in the
the electricity of the field consists of an electrified mass and therefore all of very small volume, inclosing a point situated at the point 0, the lines of force are clearly sensibly
if the charge at be positive, and straight lines radiating from if the charge at be negative. terminating in
When
If the point
at
moved
field,
off to
an
infinite distance,
were
infinitely increased, the field
called a
uniform
and the
lines
and the charge would become what is of force would be parallel
straight lines.
an infinite plane with a of uniform density over its surface, the lines of force would charge be parallel straight lines normal to the plane and proceeding from or towards that plane, according as the density thereon was
So
also if the distribution consisted of
positive or negative. If the distribution were that of uniform density on the surface of an infinite circular cylinder, the lines of force would be in
parallel planes perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, radiating
from or converging to the point in which that axis met each of these planes according as the electrification of the cylinder was
positive or negative. For less simple cases of distribution the lines of force are not
are generally capable of any such immediate determination ; they curved lines, their direction at every point coinciding with the
normal to the equipotential surface through that point and prothat ceeding towards the region of lower potential. It follows
102
no
line of force can
TUBES OF FORCE.
[lOO.
tial,
and that
all lines
be drawn between points at the same potenof force in the immediate neighbourhood
of an electrical particle, i. e. a very small volume with a charge of infinite density, must radiate from or to the point with which that
coincides, according as the density of the charge is positive or negative, because the potential in the immediate of such point is positive or negative infinity in the
volume sensibly
neighbourhood
100.]
respective cases.
Tubes
of Force.
A
is
region
of space
in
the
field
bounded
described,
6.
laterally
by
lines of force, as
above
See
called
tube
of force.
Fig.
When
is indefinitely
the transverse section of the region small it is called an elementary
tube offorce.
Flux
section
of Force. Suppose any transverse dS made through any point P in
the surface of an elementary tube of force, as in the figure, the angle between the normal to dS and the bounding lines of force
being
If the intensity of the force at dS be i. and the area of the orthogonal section of
the tube at the point

perpendicular to
be
a,
the force resolved

i,
dS
will be .Fcos
and
if this
be denoted by
equal to
Fig.
7.
Fn
the product
or Fa,
Fn dS
will
be
FdScosi,
and
will be the
same
for every transverse section of the tube
in the
neighbourhood of dS. This product, from its analogy to the flux of a fluid flowing through a small tube with velocity M=F, is called the flux of force
across dS; the limiting value of the ratio of the flax offeree across any elementary area to the area is the intensity of the force in
the
field at
When
particle;
that elementary area and perpendicular to it. the distribution arises from a so-called charged particle,
surfaces limited laterally
the tubes of force are conical surfaces with their vertex at the
when in a uniform field they are
by
parallel straight lines, and so forth. 101.] Let a charge of electricity of either kind, and with mass
01.]
FLUX OF FOKCE.
103
numerically equal to m, be situated at a given point 0. Let a as centre. Then the sphere of any radius be described about
fluxes of force across all equal elementary areas of the sphere's surface will be equal to one another, and will take place from
within outwards, or from without inwards, according as the is positive or electricity at negative, the total flux over the
whole sphere being
4 irm.
Faraday regarded the charge at
as a source from which, or a
sink towards which, lines of force proceed symmetrically in all directions, and he further regarded the density of these lines of
number contained in each unit of solid angle at 0, as The number of lines of force therefore, which, proportional to m. in this view, traverse any surface, corresponds to the flux of force
force, or the
across that surface,
and the force in any given direction at a point the limiting value of the ratio which the number of lines traversing a small plane at perpendicular to the given
in the field
is
bears to the area of that plane indefinitely diminished.

direction
when
the latter
is
If the point were eccentric, the equality of flux over all equal areas would no longer be maintained, but the flux elementary
over the whole surface would, as we know from Art. 45, or as would result at once from the equality of flux over every transverse section at any point of an elementary tube of force,
proved in Art. 100, still remain equal to lirm. We know also from Art. 45, or we might prove at once from Art. 100, that the total flux across a closed surface of any form surrounding would be 4 urn. If there were any number of sources or sinks within the closed from each surface, the traversing flux across the whole surface
such source or sink would be 4irm, where m is the numerical value of the charge at such source or sink, and the flux is outwards or
inwards according to the sign.
The
be
total flux in this case across the inclosing surface
<**> 4-7T Zn), where Sjt? (2jt? of the sources and sinks respectively,
and 2n
are the
would sums of the charges and would be outwards or

field
inwards according as 2/? was greater or less than 2#. If there were any number of sources or sinks in the
104
FLUX OF FORCE.
[lO2.
external to the aforesaid surface, their existence would not affect the value of the total flux across the whole surface.
any
that a tube of force, elementary or otherwise, in 102.] Suppose electric field, is limited by transverse surfaces S and S'} and
it
that
contains electrical distributions, such that the difference

is
of the sums of the masses of the positive and negative charges
m, then the flux offeree across the whole surface of the tube thus closed from within outwards will exceed that from without in-
wards by the quantity Ivm if the preponderating included flux will fall short of the electricity be positive, and the former
latter
by 4?m
if
the preponderating electricity be negative. But the flux of force across that portion
of the tube's surface which contains the
lines
of force
is
zero.
If therefore the
direction of the lines of force be

to
from S
f (see Fig. 8), the flux of force across S' will exceed or fall short of that across
the quantity 4irm, according to the sign of the preponderating included electricity. and F' be the forces normal to S and If at any points in
S by
&
them
respectively,
and
if
be
now taken
braical
sum
of the included electricity,
to represent the algethese statements are
expressed by the equation

/ /
FdS
an
= 4:7rm.
The portions of any the same tube of force
electric field intercepted by are called corresponding surfaces, and therefore in proceeding along any tube of force, finite or elementary, the fluxes across corresponding surfaces are continually increased
surfaces in
by the quantity 4
tricities
irm, where m is the algebraic sum of the elecincluded in the tube in its passage from any one surface to any other, such increase being a numerical decrease when m is And if there is no such included electricity, or if its negative.
algebraic sum is zero, then the fluxes across the corresponding surfaces are all equal to one another. 103.] Suppose that there is in the field a surface 8 charged
with
electricity, the density at
any point
being
a.
03-]
FLUX OF FORCE.
105
Let dS be an element of 8 about the point P, and conceive a

small cylinder to be drawn with
1
its
generating lines passing through the contour of dS and perpendicular to that element.
The total flux across this cylinder must be equal to the included electricity, i.e. to
Fig. 9.
adS.
Also, if the length of the cylinder's axis be indefinitely diminished, the flux across the curved surface will become infinitely
less
these fluxes therefore
than either of the fluxes across the bounding planes, and must ultimately differ from one another by
4770-^$, so that if
and N' be the forces in the field normal to dS and on opposite sides of it, we have N'dS-NdS=4.Tt<rdS or N'-N = 47r<r. Hence the force normal to an electrified surface changes
t
suddenly in value by the quantity 4 TTO- in passing from one side of the surface to the other and we may also prove that the
;
normal force upon the

arithmetic
electrified
element of the surface
itself is
the
mean
placed
of the normal forces which would act on that

first
element
surface.
if
on one side and then on the other of the
For, considering the elementary cylinder above mentioned, it is clear that the force arising from all the electricity in the field, besides that on the element dS, must be continuous
throughout the cylinder, inasmuch as all the electricity from which it arises is without the cylinder, and therefore the normal
force throughout the cylinder arising from that external electricity But the will be ultimately the same as it is at the surface.
normal
from the charge on the included element vdS on points at any equal small distances from the surface and on opposite sides must be equal and opposite, and therefore the sum of the total normal forces on either side of the surface must
force arising
be equal to twice the normal force of the external electricity
throughout the cylinder
or the normal force of the external elec-
mean of the total tricity at the surface must be the arithmetic normal forces on opposite sides of the surface ; and therefore the normal force on the elementary charge <rdS is the arithmetic
106
mean
of
FLUX OF FORCE.
[104.
what the normal forces on the same charge would be if placed on each of the two sides of the surface respectively, for the charge ad/S can exert no force upon itself. It is clear also that the charge crdScan exert no tangential force in one direction rather than another, and therefore the force resolved tangentially must be the same on either side of the If therefore F and F' be the forces on opposite sides of surface. the surface, and if i and i' be the angles between the lines of force
and the surface normal, we have
F' cos i
f
F' sin
and therefore
tan
i
i'
F cos + 4 = F sine;
e
i'
7T0-,
= tan
(1
.)
;..
or the lines of force on traversing a surface with superficial electric density a are deflected towards or
from the normal according as

tive or negative
;
o-
is
posi-
see Fig. 10.
It appears also from the foregoing that the force exerted by an element
dS
of a surface of superficial density
a-
at points very close to dS is a normal force 27TO-, and repulsive or attractive
according as a
jîg. I0-
is
or
may now trace the possible 104.] course of an elementary tube of force
We
through an
electric field in equilibrium. axis of such a tube in passing through any point Pmust towards regions of continually diminishing poproceed from
The
tential.
It
may
it
then pass on to an infinite distance

traverse a charged surface, in
if it
encounters no
free electricity.
Or
may
which
case, if the
transit be oblique, it will be bent through a finite angle at the surface in the manner above explained.
If this charged surface be that of a conductor, the line, or rather elementary tube, of force will proceed no further, but it will be, so
I04-]
to speak,
FLUX OF FORCE.
107
quenched in the sink afforded by the negative density of the surface at the point or element in which it meets it. Or it may traverse a region of finite volume density, in which case it suffers no abrupt refraction, and if the density of the region
be positive the tube emerges therefrom with augmented flux, if the density be negative the tube may be, as in the case of the conductor, quenched in the sink thus afforded and proceed no
further.
finite, has emerged from a positively surface and is quenched, as above described, charged conducting in another conducting surface without traversing any region of
If the tube, elementary or
then the positive charge on that portion of the surface of emersion contained within the tube must be equal in
electric charge,
magnitude to the negative charge on the corresponding surface of the surface of reception; or, in the language of Faraday, the number of lines of force emanating from the source is equal to
those quenched in the sink. In other words, the number of lines of force emanating from or converging to an elementary area of any conducting surface is
a measure of the positive or negative density of the electrification of that surface.
CHAPTEE
ARTICLE 105.] IT
VI.
APPLICATION TO PARTICULAR CASES.

is proved above that whatever be the given on a system of conductors, combined with any charges or potentials
fixed distribution of electricity in space, there exists always one,
and only one, mode of distribution upon the conductors consistent

with equilibrium.
that
actual solution of the problem, the determination, of the actual density of electricity at a point of any given conductor, is one of great difficulty, and has only been achieved in a few simple and comparatively easy cases.
is,
But the
Case of an infinite conducting plane and an electrified point. Let there be an infinite conducting plane, and a unit of positive above it. It is required to find electricity fixed at a point
the density at any point in the plane in order that the potential of the plane may be everywhere zero.
The
plane,
be equal and opposite to that of the unit at
potential of the required distribution on the plane must at all points on the
and therefore also at all points in space on the opposite side of the plane to 0, by Art. 60. If a unit of negative electricity were placed at 0', the optical
image of
0, formed with respect to the plane as a mirror, its at any point of the plane would be equal and opposite potential to that of the unit at 0, and therefore equal to that of the
It would therefore also be equal to that required distribution. of the required distribution at all points in space on the same side of the plane as 0.
Let
V be
the potential of the required distribution, and of the
unit at 0.
tribution at
Then, by Poisson's equation, the density of the
dis-
any point
in the plane is
1
,dV
106.]
PARTICULAR CASES.
is
109
where dv
an element of the normal to the plane measured from the plane on the same side of the plane as 0, and dv the same thing on the same side as (/.
Now
plane as
the value of
is
at
any point
JL_
1
on the same side of the
OP
and on the opposite
O'P*
side of the plane V is constant because it is constant over the plane, and there is no electrification on that side of the plane.
JTT
Therefore
dv
-7-=
-=-,
-,
0.
Also on the plane
=
d
and
dV
-di>
I
OP
I
therefore
d ,=___._;
and
if
k be the distance of
in the plane
point
from the plane, r the distance of a from the intersection of 0(7 with the plane,
~
J_
2irdh
1
27T
OP3
at
'
which determines the density
any point in the plane.
of Fmay be deter106.] In certain very simple cases the value mined by the integration of Laplace's equation. For instance Let the Two infinite conducting planes at given potentials.
planes be parallel to the plane of xy.
Then, since the density

is in this case
is
uniform throughout each plane,
a function of
d2 V
z only, and Laplace's equation becomes
-^
0,
from which
can be found with two arbitrary constants, and the constants are to be determined by the given conditions on the planes.
110
(1)
PARTICULAR CASES.
Two
like
infinite
[107.
coaxal cylinders.
if
In
manner,
we have two
infinite coaxal
conducting
the density is uniform throughout cylinders at given potentials, is a function of r, the distance of each cylinder, and the surface from the axis. Laplace's equation is in this case
IdV _
~dr*+~r~dr"
which admits of integration.
(2)
Two
concentric spheres.
Again,
sphere,
if
potentials, the density
there be two concentric conducting spheres at given is uniform throughout the surface of each
and
is
a function of
r,
the distance from the centre.
Laplace's equation becomes in this case
dW + 2^T_ =
dr*
r dr
which admits of integration. In this problem, as in the
which enter into

or spheres.
last, the two arbitrary constants in solving the differential equation must be determined with reference to the given conditions on the cylinders
107.] Case of an insulated Conducting Sphere in a Field of Uniform Force.
Let us take the direction of the force

the
for axis of #.
Let
X be
V
a the radius of the sphere, must satisfy the conditions,

force,
V the
potential.
Then
(1)
(2) (3)
(4)
F is constant and = C on the surface of the sphere V 2 F = at all points outside of it ^r== Xx + C at a sufficiently great distance from the sphere
; j
The
total electrification
on the sphere
is
zero.
The function
where
/ is the distance of
any point from the
centre, satisfies all
these conditions.
I08.]
PARTICULAR CASES.
is
Ill
t
is, '
The density on the sphere

It
is easily
4?r
^-, that dr
4-na
seen that
108.] Case of an uninsulated Conducting Sphere and another Sphere outside of it uniformly filled with electricity of density p.
This
is
We give
Let C
a the
the same problem as that treated in Chap. Ill, Art. 65.
another method of solution. be the centre,

of the
radius,
let
conducting sphere ; and be the centre, b
the radius, of the other

sphere.
Let
OC=f.
Let
Fig.
be the potential of the whole system.
n.
It is required to find the density of the induced distribution on the conducting sphere which gives zero potential on that sphere, and the general value of V in this case.
has to satisfy the conditions,

(1) (2) (3)
7
2
at all points
on the conducting sphere
Take
Let Let
e
V 7= at all points external to both spheres V F+ 4-7T/) = within the non-conducting sphere. az a point E in CO such that EC = -^
;
t/
OP =
V Q
any point. be the potential of the charged sphere at P.

r,
3
EP =
/, where
P is
Then
if
p,
or the total charge of electricity in the charged
sphere, the function
satisfies all
the conditions, and must therefore be the required
potential.
112
PARTICULAR CASES.
[108.
For outside of the ch charged sphere

above equation becomes
F =
and therefore the
r*j _-(.
Now
on
by a known property of the
sphere, if the point
be
its surface,
EP _
r'
OP~
_a
r ""/"
Therefore for a point on the conducting sphere Also for a point outside of both spheres
F=
0.
V
therefore
and
4=
V F=
2
0.
For a point inside of the charged sphere
V
The density
at
F+4irp
= V -^ + 47r/3 = 0.
2
any point on the conducting sphere
is
In dv
Also
r
z
fr'
=f* + v*-2fvcos0,
6,
where the angle from C\ also
PCO =
and v denotes the distance of a point
and
in the expression for
cr,
differentiation.
We
have therefore
___ ==
dr dv
afcoa0
,
r
a?
v is to be
made
equal to a after
dv
e
-^{
Therefore
(afcosO
a --
cos 6
/
a
-P&
"
but
<r
-Q - ^
47T
ar3
j2
,
as already found. J
IO9-]
PARTICULAR CASES.
the form of the potential function
113
From
F=fr
it
fr'
follows that the potential of the induced electricity on the conducting- sphere in the presence of the charge e at the external
is
point
the same as that of the charge
ae
at the point E.
The point
109.] Case
is
called the electrical image of
in the con-
ducting sphere.
infinitely long Conducting Cylinder and a uniform distribution of Electricity throughout the substance of another infinitely long cylinder outside of the former one, and whose
,
of an
axis is parallel to that of the former one.
In
this
problem
2
V has to
satisfy the following conditions, viz.

cylinder
;
(1)
(2)
(3)
V = on the surface of the conducting V F = outside of both cylinders V F+4-n-p = inside of the charged
;
cylinder, p being the
density of the distribution within
it.
Let a plane perpendicular to the axis cut the axis of the

conducting cylinder in C, that of the charged cylinder in 0.
(See Fig.
1
of last example.)
a E such that fiC=~distance of any point P from
2
Let
In
OC =/.
a point
the axis of the
OC take
Let r be the
cylinder through 0,
axis
its
distance from a line parallel to the
through E.
Then
=^
for every point in the section
made by the plane with the conducting

Let
cylinder.
be the quantity of electricity contained in unit length Then the potential of the charged of the charged cylinder.
cylinder at any point outside of
It will be found that
it is
ro =C-2Elogr.
ar
VOL,
I.
114:
ELECTRICAL IMAGES.
[l IO.
the conditions, and is therefore the potential. in this case r is independent of z, and therefore
satisfies all
For
Now
d2
Similarly
whence
_log r=s -j^:^, V log r = 0.

2
On
the conducting cylinder r
/; and therefore
Outside of both cylinders
VF =
2
0,
and
V
2
log
^L
ar
=o
therefore
V V=
2
and within the charged cylinder
V
The density
from
<r
F+47r^
= V'F + 47r/> = 0.
is
at
any point on the conducting, cylinder c I d = + R < -j- log r d log r >, 27T ( dv dv )
r2
found
where
=/ + v -2fv cos
to
(9,
and
i;
is
to be
made equal
"~
a after differentiation.
The
result is
/2_ a2
Ow
Electric Images.
110.]
We
have seen in Art. 108 that
if
a sphere be at zero potential under the influence of a charged point outside of it, the induced distribution has at all external
points the same potential as that due to a certain charge placed at a point within the sphere, and the last-mentioned charged point
is defined to
be the image of the influencing point in the sphere.
An infinite plane is for this purpose a particular case of the sphere.
III.]
ELECTRICAL IMAGES.
115
Every electrical system outside of a sphere, inasmuch as it may be regarded as consisting of a number of charged points, is represented by a series of images in the sphere, and these together may be said to form the image of the external system. In like
if the sphere be at zero potential under the influence of a charged point within it, the induced distribution has the same potential at all internal points as that due to a certain charge at
manner,
a certain point without the sphere.

the image of the internal point.
The external point

electrified
is
called
Every
system within
the sphere has its image outside of the sphere. It can easily be shewn that no closed surface except a sphere
or infinite plane generally gives rise to an image. For let 8 be any uninsulated closed surface, and let
be an
external point at which a charge e is placed. If the induced distribution on S have at all points on S the same potential as that of a charge / at a point .F within S that is, if be an image
9
of
E within
S,
we must have
EP _e FP ~?'
being any point on
8.
Thus the locus of
is
a sphere, that
a sphere. is, 111.] By the method of electric images many problems relating to the distribution of electricity on spherical or plane
is
surfaces can be solved.
The case of two spheres cutting each other orthogonally (Maxwell's Electricity and Magnetism, p. 168). Let Clt C2 be the centres, a l} a 2 the
radii of the spheres.
AB section, E
Let
CL C2
and
represent the circle of interthe point in which the line intersects the plane of that circle.
are right angles,
Then CÂC^ C^BC^
f=a +
>
1
Also
116
or
ELECTRICAL IMAGES.
the image of
[l
2.
E is
C2
in the sphere
C1 and
,
the image of
at
(7j
in
the sphere
C2
,
If therefore
we
place at
Cl
a quantity of electricity a^
(?2
quantity a2
and at
Ea
quantity
if
the potential at any point on either sphere will be unity, because the point be, for instance, on the sphere <?2 the two charges,
,
^ at
Ci
and
Va*+a*
at E,
have together zero potential at each point on that sphere, while the charge a 2 at C2 has potential unity. 112.] Now let us consider the conductor FAGB, formed by
the two external segments of the spheres.
distribution
The aggregate of a
all
upon
its surface,
which gives unit potential at
points on
it, is
equal to
This then
is
the capacity of the conductor.'
Again, since the potential of that distribution is the all external points as that of the three at Clt C
charges
its
same at z , and E,
density
is
_
4-7T
dv
But
1
if
P be on
the sphere
"-d+ C ^
a
is
Art ^
108
and therefore the density
By symmetry
the density at a point on the sphere

(,
.'
Cl
is
I13-]
ELECTRICAL IMAGES.
117
may
Instead of the figure formed by the two external segments, we take the lens formed by the two internal segments, or the
meniscus formed by one internal and one external segment, and calculate the superficial density in the same way. We shall
consider this problem further Inversion.
113.]
when we come
is
to the Theory of
Another interesting example

:
afforded
by the
follow-
ing question
An
centre
uninsulated conductor
ADEFB
consists of an infinite plane
with a hemispherical projection DEF, the
plane
AB.
of the hemisphere being in the is mass of electricity
situated at the point m, in the radius
CE
perpendicular to and m{ be the plane. Then if the points taken on opposite sides of C such that
is
produced, where
CE
%
'
MI
,,__ ""
CE*
^Cm
and if m be taken onmC produced such that Cm' = Cm, the effect of the induced charge
on the conductor under the influence of the
mass
at
m may
m
joint effect of
be represented by the m 1 at m1 -f the masses

,
at MI and
at m'\
where
m =
L
-^,m^.
Fig. 13.
For
let
and and
let
be any point on the same side of the conductor as the distances of P from m, m l mf, and m be r, r
, ,
respectively.
._
Wt
~^ +
x
Wlj.
Tfli-t
771
<~~7"
we have
Then
at all points on the hemispherical surface

m,
m
r
m
/
.*
m
rt
i
'
'
and therefore
*
V=
over that surface.
in other words, the induced charge on the composite conductor is equivalent image mi of the charge m at the electrical image of m in the hemisphere together with the image of m and TOJ in the plane.
Or
to the
118
Similarly at
all
SUCCESSIVE IMAGES.
points of the plane's surface
r
[114.
=/
and
^ = r^,
and therefore
T=
over that surface.
AgaiD
no
vi = vS = v
v=0
at all points
on the same side of the plane as m, where there is electrical density is zero, and at m electricity, or where p the
where p
is
Therefore at
the density within the small volume of m at m. all points on the aforesaid side of the plane
Therefore the function

ficial
taken as above
satisfies
and
solid conditions of the potential of
at m,
the superand the
induced charge on the conductor, and must therefore be the potential of m and that induced charge.
the side of
In other words, the induced charge produces at all points on m the same effect as the charges m 1) m l and m at m 1 mf and m' respectively. the points
,
From
the equation
4.7TO-+
dv =0,
-
we
is
easily find that the superficial density a- of the induced charge everywhere negative, except at the circle of intersection of the
hemisphere and plane, where it is zero, and that at any point on the hemisphere <r is proportional to
1
1
m'P3
and at any point proportional to
on the plane outside of the hemisphere
o-
is
Cm3
^P
114.]
m^
CE
On
Systems of Successive Images.
If we have given any two conducting spheres, including in that designation an infinite plane, at zero potential under the influence of an electrified point, the electrical distribution on
114,]
SUCCESSIVE IMAGES.
119
infinite
either sphere will be found to be equivalent in its effects to two series of images, the magnitudes or values of which
converge.
Hence the density of the
actual
distribution
on
either sphere generally admits of being calculated approximately. For instance, let us consider a sphere and infinite plane not
and an influencing point in the perpendicular from the centre of the sphere on the plane, between the centre and the plane.
intersecting,
Let
be the centre of the sphere, c
its radius,
the influ-
encing point at which the
charge
e is placed,
B and
the points in which AEAf cuts the sphere and
plane respectively.
HA'= Vtf-c\
produces on the sphere a certain distribution,
The charge
at
Fig.
i4.
which we may
call
all
the primary distribution on

points outside of the sphere
the sphere, the effect of which at

is
the same as that of a charge
-ê
placed at a pointjbe-
tween
from
and E> whose distance from

Ji
is
-7^, and
its
distance
is
-j^
That produces on the plane a distribution
whose density we may denote by

bution over the plane at
is
and the
effect of this distri-
all
points on the
left side
of the plane
rt
the same as that of
its
image, namely, a charge

to the right of the plane.
r-=;
placed
at a point distant k
^
i
Let
"
*~A;
we
derive in the
to a
From
this distribution, or its equivalent image,
same way a second distribution on the sphere equivalent

charge
c
c
'
~~AE'
120
at a point distant
SUCCESSIVE IMAGES.
c
-7
- from A, and from

on the plane.
this again a second
n-\- X-^
distribution of density p 2
series of images to the right of the whose distances from IT are #15 #2 &c. And plane,
We
shall
then have a
and generally
It
is
n?
w+1
=h
>
#n
,
-t
n-rx n
&c.
a?
easily seen
2
>
that # n+1
and every
is
less
than
_C
ip ne
The charges
c
at these
_
successi ve images continually approach A'. images are successively
AE
and
the
AE \+*C AE
between
c _
_
c
ratio
two successive
charges
continually
approaches
A.A.
-T-J>
Again, the charge at

tribution
which
is
induces on the plane a primary disequivalent to the image of E in the plane.

is
This original image

the distances from
H of the derived images are
at a point distant from
os\
HE, and
&c., &c.
which continually approach HA'. The charges at these images are successively e at the first image,
h + x^
=
at the second image,
and
so on.
Hence the density of the induced

on the plane, where
distribution at
HM = r
any point
is
"50
e
SUCCESSIVE IMAGES.
c
f
121
yX
QGn
+ &C.
Each
differ
series
converges rapidly, and the terms soon cease to

series
sensibly from those of a geometric

/>
-,
whose common
ratio is
A.A.
Hence the actual density

the
at
M can be calculated
of both series of
is
to
The
any required degree of accuracy. integral charge on the plane
is
sum
images irrespective of their position.
That
AE
-e\l +
115.] Another very interesting case is that of two concentric spheres and an electrified point placed between them, treated in
Maxwell's
Electricity.
In that case the distances of the images from the common centre
are in geometrical progression. Also the charges are
in geometrical progression,
and their sum can be accurately determined.
Let
be the
common
centre, a the radius of the
inner sphere, b the radius the of the outer sphere,
point where the charge

is
Fig.
15-.
placed,
OE =
k\
all
the images are in the line
OE produced.
We have then
an image at an image at
lt
where
where where
where
OP =
1
T
'
Qlt
OQj_
= -^p = -TT
-^TJ
an image at
an image at
OPZ =
002
Qt
= -^ = UJTn
Tj-A.
122
SUCCESSIVE IMAGES.
see
[1-16.
We
then that the distances from
of the successive images
derived from the primary distribution on the outer sphere are
and the charges at those images are o a* a e' e' &c

b
Again,
if
we
start
with the primary distribution on the inner

-7
fa
sphere, represented
by
a^ Qi,
are
we
obtain a second series of
images whose distances from
a
b*h
in
and whose values are

a3
Hence the
total charge
it, is
f
on the inner sphere, or the sum of the

~
images within
VT b
or
~"
b
ab
zTTi
~\
e>
h(b
a)
h
h
b-a
'
and that on the outer sphere is a
hb
h
ba
is
ha
h
ba
e.
116.] Another class of cases
that in which the
number
of
images
is finite.
For instance, let us consider two infinite conducting planes at

right angles to each other, in presence of an electrified point.
Let the projections

X'
of
the
^
o,
X planes on the plane

'
of the paper
let
be
XEX\ YET,
and
Ol
f
be
an
electrified point.
Y'
Fig. 16.
The image of Ol in XEX is Q. The image of (7X in YEY' is 2 The image of 2 in XEX' is C2 The image of <72 in YEY' is
. .
7.]
SUCCESSIVE IMAGES.
123
The two planes
+e
for
at
<?!
Ol and
and
2
2,
and
are at zero potential under the influence of e at If we now substitute and C2
the distributions on
XEX
which have the same
effect
with them on the lower side of the plane XEX', and for
C2
still
the distribution representing it in YEY', the potential will be zero on the plane YEY' and on the part of the
EX
plane XEX'.
117.]
In
like
manner instead
of two planes intersecting at

f
right angles,
we may have n
planes intersecting at angles
(Maxwell's Electricity, p. 165). Taking an electrified point Ol3 and forming successive images in the planes, we shall have a series of positive points Olt 2 ... On and a series of negative points C1
, , ,
C2 ,... Cn placed symmetrically round E, the projection

of the
common
is
f
section on the plane of the paper.
The
If
potential
zero on every plane.
YEY
and SES' be the two planes between
which the point Ol lies, we may substitute for all the points on the left of YEY' their corresponding distribution on YEY', and for all the remaining
points except bution on SES'.
itself their
Fig. 17.
corresponding
zero.
distri-
Then the
potential on the portion
Y'ES
of
the system
is
unaffected,
and remains
CHAPTEE
VII.
THE THEORY OF INVERSION AS APPLIED TO

ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS.
ARTICLE 118.]
THE
solution
of
some
electrical
problems
involving spherical surfaces, or portions of spherical surfaces inoluding planes, can be effected by the method of inversion.
This application of
inversion
is
due
originally
to
Sir
W.
Thomson.
Taking for origin any point 0, and for coordinates the usual spherical coordinates r, d, <, let us suppose we have found the solution of a given electrical problem, that is, we have found
the single function, P, of
r, 0,
$,
which
is
constant within each
conductor of the system, and
satisfies
the characteristic equations
at all external points, and vanishes at an infinite distance, and hence we have found the density at every point on any conductor.
For then invert the geometrical system as follows we will take a point any point P of the system distant r from
"We
will
P' in the
line
OP, and distant
from
0,
where
/=
K2
and
K is a
constant line called the

is
Q
.
_
P'Q'~
radius of inversion, and
called
the centre of inversion. If P and Q be any two points f in the original system, and
Q
them
the points corresponding to
in the inverted system, the triangles similar, and therefore
POQ, Q'QF
are
_
1
_ OP.OQ
2L
__
1
K2
PQ
19.]
INVERSION
if
GENERAL THEORY.
if
125
Again,
be very near P, and
OP =
r,
Therefore any linear element of length dv in the original

K2
system acquires the length

follows that
K4
dv in the inverted system.
It
any element of area
dA
in the original system be-
comes
-j-
dA
in the inverted system ; and the element of volume
dv in the original system becomes
$ dv in the inverted system.
119.] Every sphere in the original system becomes another sphere in the inverted system. be taken in the line joining with For let the point
the centre
C of the
sphere, such that
a2
where a
is
the radius.
is
Let
OC =f.
Then,
if
be a point on
the sphere, -~~

Therefore
if
constant, and
Q,'
E' and
be the points in the inverted system

Q,
corresponding to
E and
according as the centre of inversion

original sphere, and in either case the centre of a new sphere.
is
is
without or within the

Therefore
constant.
is
If the centre of inversion be without the sphere, and
if
**=f-a\
the sphere
is
unchanged
in position.
For in that
case,
That is, the centre of the new sphere coincides with <?, the point which was the centre of the original sphere, and the radius of
..
the
new
a
=,
sphere,
-^
= a.
126
INVERSION
GENERAL THEORY.
[l2O.
Again, a plane in the original system whose perpendicular distance from the centre of inversion is p } becomes a sphere of
diameter
centre
is
passing through the centre of inversion, and whose

in p.
Again, a sphere of radius a in the original system passing through the centre of inversion becomes when inverted an infinite
plane at right angles to the diameter through the centre of inK2
version,
and distant
from that centre. Again, since two inter-
secting spheres becomes spheres when inverted, their common Hence every circle on the original section becomes a circle* sphere becomes a circle on the inverted sphere.
Again, since the triangles

angle made by the
POQ, Q'OP'
are similar, if
be the
radius r with any elementary line at its the corresponding angle in the new system is TT 0. extremity, Every point which in the original system is within any closed
surface S, not enclosing the centre of inversion, will in the inverted system be within the corresponding closed surface S'. And every point without S will in the inverted system be
without
S'.
But
if
enclose the centre, all points within
correspond to points without /S", and vice versa. Evidently every conductor in the given electrical system will be represented in the inverted system by a certain closed surface.
120.]
electrical
We
will
now
construct upon the inverted system a

2
new
system as follows, viz.
If
pr sin0d0d<l>dr
be the quantity of electricity in the space-element

of the original system, we will place in the corresponding space element of the inverted system the quantity
r
Since as
we have
seen the element of volume dv in the original

K
6
system becomes
dv in the inverted system,
it
follows that
.
the volume density in the J
new system J
r
is
5 6
K5 r
5
o.
122.]
INVERSION
GENERAL THEORY.
127
if <rdA be the quantity of electricity on the d A of the original system, we will place on the corresponding element d A- of the inverted system the quantity
In like manner
surface element
/c
This gives a surface density
ag-
in the
new
system.
thus constructed a new electrical system, in which conductor S> of the original system is represented geoevery metrically by a surface S' in the new system, and every quantity of electricity in the original system is represented by a corre-
We have
sponding quantity in the new system.

121.]
at
We now proceed to find the relation between the potential
any point Q of the original system and that at the corresponding point Q'j due to the electricity which we have supposed placed on the inverted system. Let s denote an element of volume at P in the original system,
ps the quantity of electricity in
the element
is
it.
Then the
potential at
of
s\
In the inverted system, ps at

its
becomes
s -^p P
potential at Q'
is-
v
1
=
_ =
OP.
but
P'Q'
whence
v
,
~^"
OQ
PQ
^- ps = OQ -77= OQ K K fty
and P', it holds As this is independent of the position of true for the whole potential of the original system at Q, and denote the That is, if 7 and of the inverted system at Q'.
potentials at
and
Q',
conductor whose bound122.] It follows that if Tbe zero for any 7' is zero throughout the ing surface is S in the original system,
128
INVERSION
GENERAL THEORY.
[l22.
corresponding surface S' in the inverted system. Therefore if the space S' be occupied by a conductor, the assumed distribution
of electricity throughout the inverted system will, as regards such conductor, be in equilibrium with zero potential. And
if
any
electrical
system consists of conductors
all at
zero poten-
in presence of fixed charges of electricity, the inverted system will also be in equilibrium with all its conductors at zero potial
tential.
Again, let the original system be one in which the potential of a distribution over a closed surface S is equal at each point on S to that of any electrification enclosed within S. Then if
invert with respect to an external point, and S becomes S', the potential of the corresponding surface distribution over S'
we
will be equal at each point of S' to that of the corresponding enclosed electrification. If, for instance, the distribution on S
have the same potential in all external space as if it were collected at a point C within S, that is, if the original system be a centrobaric shell, the surface distribution over S' will have the
same potential in
all space outside of &, as if the point corresponding to C that is, the (f, a centrobaric shell too.
;
it
were collected at
will be
new system
is not If in any system V be not zero for the conductor S, generally constant over ', and the inverted system will not be
in equilibrium with
&
for
a conductor.
F' =
But, as
we have
seen,
If therefore we place at the centre of inversion a charge * F, the potential of this charge, together with that of the inverted system, will be zero at each point on &. If therefore
we have given a conductor
S,
and know the
density at every point on its surface of an equipotential distribution giving potential F, we can, by inverting the conductor
so electrified with
any point
for centre
and
K for radius of
inversion, find the density of the distribution over S' required to K at ; namely, if give zero potential in presence of a charge
a be the density at
any point
on the original conductor, the
>
124.]
INVERSION
PARTICULAR CASES.
density at the corresponding point J? of the distribution giving

zero potential
is
<r,
where
/= OP'.
conducting sphere of radius a, uniformly 123.] Example. coated with electricity of density o-, has constant potential
47r#<r
at
each
respect to a point 0, distant
Let us invert it with point of the surface. from the centre, with K for radius
of inversion.
K2
The sphere becomes another sphere

K2
t> e
of radius
-^
a2
>
if C>
external, or
a^
-^-
a if
be internal.
And
according to the general result above proved, the distribution on the new sphere will be such as together with a charge K V> or will give zero potential at each point of the liTKaa, at
inverted sphere. But if dA be an elementary area of the original sphere distant r from 0, ad A is the charge upon it in the
original system.
The charge upon the corresponding
area in
the
new
sphere will be
adA
and
dA
becomes -^dA. There-
fore the density at the corresponding point of the new sphere is r3 K3 adA or -^- o-dA, that is, it varies inversely as the cube of
K*
7*
the distance from 0.

2 2 a2 being without the original sphere, let Again, then the sphere does not change its position. Let the charge
/c
=f
at 0, or
TT
Kaa
e,
or
o-
.-
47TKa
Then the density
for zero potential is
7T
6
^2 __
ft
'*
or
already found by different methods. of the original sphere there be 124.] Again, if at the centre 477& 2 <r, and on the surface the placed a quantity of electricity
as
we have
uniform distribution of density

the surface or in external space VOL. i.
a-,
the potential at any point on
is zero.
130
If
INVERSION
we
PARTICULAR CASES.
[125.
invert the system with respect to an external point
2 a 2 for radius of inversion, distant/" from the centre, with \/f the sphere is unaltered in position, but the original centre C
upon which the charge

a?
47r# 2 o- was placed becomes a point

line
C",
distant
4tna?(T
from the centre in the

K
OC, and the charge
becomes
-.
47r<Z' a-
at 6
and the distribution on the inverted sphere whose density

^3
-7-3
is
a gives,, in conjunction with that charge at
(?,
zero potential
at each point on the inverted sphere and in external space, without there being any charge at 0. That which was a centrobaric shell with centre of gravity ' shell with centre of gravity C
.
has become a centrobaric

use of the converse proall
125.] Again, we can sometimes position to that of Art. 122.

If,
make
namely, we have given any system in which
the con-
ductors are at zero potential under certain electrifications, and if part of the given electrification consist of an electrified point at which a given charge is placed, we can, by inverting the
system with
for centre* obtain a
new
electrified
system in
which the conductors have unit potential. K be the charge at 0. For let Let us take for centre of inversion a point distant x from 0, and K for radius of inversion. Then all the conductors when inverted remain at zero potential,
and the charge

K
2
K at
becomes a charge
K
-
- at a
os
point distant
from the centre of inversion.
Now
let
x be
indefinitely diminished.
If
all
the conductors,
K2
when
inverted, are of finite magnitude,

K2
will,
iC
the infinite charge

diminished, that
is,
at distance
when x is
indefinitely
when
is
taken for centre of inversion,
have potential
maining have potential
at each point on the conductors. The reelectrification of the inverted system will therefore
1
-f 1
throughout the conductors.
126.]
126.]
INVERSION
As an example
XEX', YEY'
PARTICULAR CASES.
131
of this process, let us take two infinite
planes
right angles to each other, and four C19 2 , C2 as in the points 19

,
at
figure,
forming a rectangle whose

*
X*-
diameters intersect in E.
Ol and
K,
having charges, each
and
Cl9 C2 having
each
+ K,
charges, the potential is zero at
each point on either plane. Let y be the distance irrespective of sign of any one of pig. I9> the four points from the plane XEX', x the distance of any one of them from the plane YEY'.
If
we
invert the system with
Ox
for centre
and
K for radius,
the two infinite planes become two orthogonally intersecting The common section of the planes becomes the circle spheres. of intersection of the spheres and passes through Olt The
plane
XEX' becomes
a sphere whose centre

radius
is
is
/, the point
-
corresponding to
C and whose
2
a2
%/
YEY C2 and whose radius is a =

Similarly the plane
'
becomes a sphere whose centre

K
is
The portion XEY' of the two infinite planes becomes on inversion the figure formed of the two outer segments of the spheres.
Similarly X'EY becomes the lens formed of the two inner segments, and XEY, or X'EY', becomes a meniscus formed of the outer segment of one and the inner segment of the other sphere.
(See Fig. 19.)
The charge
,
K2
at <7/
is
/
or a^
2
and the charge at C{
is
or
a2 and the charge at
is
that
is,
132
INVERSION
PARTICULAR CASES.
[127.
We
obtain therefore the system already treated in Art. 112. Further, if before inversion we substitute
for the charges at C^
and
lent
distributions
for
on
their equiva2 the plane XEX',
and
C2 its equivalent distributions on these densities on XEX' and YEY' YEY',

system give unit poon XEY' and are the same which we
',
will in the inverted

.Fig. 20.
tential
found by a different method in Art. 112. Again, instead of two infinite planes, let there be 2n 127.] infinite planes, having a common section E and making with
each other the angle
Let there be n negative points : ... O n each having charge K, and n positive points C ... Cn each having charge -+-K, all at the same distance from E and placed alternately, so that
negative point is the image of the next positive point Then all the planes are at zero in the plane between them.
each
potential.
Let YEY' and SES' be two adjacent planes. Let the n points on the left of YEY' be replaced by the corresponding distributions on YEY, and the points on the right of YEY', that
n\
Fig. 21.
Fig. 22.
is, all
the points on that side except be replaced by their 1 corresponding distribution on SES'. Then the portions STEY
,
are at zero potential.
When we
invert the system with respect to
Olt KEY' becomes
I2Q.]
INVERSION
PARTICULAR CASES.
133
the figure formed by the outer segments of two spheres intersecting at the angle
The density
at P',
any point on the outer segment of the
sphere corresponding to YEY',

or
OP
C P3
is,
is
-^-30-, that >
is
the density at P, the corresponding point
^K f to P
o-,
where
of the
distribution on
difficulty.
YEY', which can be determined without much
128.] Returning to the conductor XET'O of Art. 126, with its surface distribution above determined in Art. 112, let us invert
the system, taking for centre of inversion a point on the internal segment of the sphere Cr
The sphere C2 becomes then another

C-L
sphere,
and the sphere
orthogonally, a diametral plane, and the external segment OXE becomes the portion of that infinite plane which lies within the
an
infinite plane cutting
the inverted sphere
C2
that
is,
new sphere C2 So that the figure XEY'O becomes on inversion the closed surface formed by a hemisphere and its diametral
.
point on the outer segment of the sphere C19 P' the point on the diametral plane which corresponds to P. And o- being the density above found for P, namely
plane.
Let
P be a
7 the density at P required to give zero potential under the within the hemisphere is influence of a charge unity at a point
2
(T.
OP* 3
129.]
The construction
for finding
o-
in
terms of known
the
quantities on the hemisphere Let C be the centre of the hemisphere, a its radius,
will be as follows.
point where the unit charge
is
placed.
Then by inverting the
system with respect to

of
0,
we
shall reconstruct the original figure
which by its inversion of the hemisphere and plane. gave rise to the existing system referred to the existing sphere. Let <?2 be the image of
two orthogonally intersecting
spheres,
134
INVERSION
PARTICULAR CASES.
to
[130.
Then the point corresponding
C2
becomes on inversion the
Inasmuch as the centre of one of the two original spheres. absolute value of K affects only the scale,
v^
^ ^
---
and not the proportions, of the inverted

figure,
we may take OC2 = K. Then C2 becomes the actual centre of
the
new
sphere.
Its radius
is
PC,*
The
radius of the other orthogonally intersecting sphere, that namely into which the
infinite plane is converted, is
Let P' be a point on the diametral plane, and on inversion become P on the sphere. Then
let
OP*
Then
C,P
all
C,P'\
<r,
Thus
the quantities in the expression for
namely
4'7ra 1
are
known
in terms of given dimensions in the hemisphere,
and
therefore the density at
P is
known.
In like manner we might find the density of the same distribution at a point on the hemispherical surface. 130.] By inversion of the system of sphere and infinite plane,
or two concentric spheres, Arts. 114, 115, with the point at which the charge is placed for centre of inversion, we obtain two spheres
external to each other at unit potential, and the density at any point on either sphere required to produce this result can be
calculated approximately.
well's Electricity,
The
subject is fully treated in
Max-
Chap.
XL
one more example of the method
131.]
We
shall here give only
taken from Sir
W.
Thomson's papers.
131.]
INVERSION
in
PAKTICULAR CASES.
on attraction that an
concentric,
135
ellipsoidal
It is proved
shell
treatises
between two
if its
similar,
ellipsoids has constant potential at all
and similarly situated points on its surface, and
that
equation be
**
a2
*
"?
the external equipotential surfaces are the confocal ellipsoids
whose equation
is
cide
shell when the ellipsoids nearly coinproportional to p, the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent plane at the point considered. It follows that the density of electricity on the surface of a conducting ellipsoid
The thickness of such a

is
which gives constant potential at all points on that surface, in the absence of any other electrification, is proportional to p. If the axes a and b of the ellipsoid are equal, and if c be diminished without limit, the ellipsoid becomes ultimately a flat
therefore the density of the equipotential distribution of electricity at any point on the surface of such a
circular disc.
disc is proportional to the limiting value of p for that point.
And
Now
generally
1
a?
7 7
==
tf
"
y
h
2
"
z*
6
*
7
zz
r
and the limiting value of p
is
therefore proportional to
1
Let
C be
the centre of the disc,

(7
any point on
it.
Let
Then
the density at
is
A.
-/a
where X
is
a constant.
136
INVERSION
A,
PARTICULAR CASES.
at the centre
32
To determine
we note that the potential r \dr = ^ = 7T2 A, 2lT

Jo
is
W-r
=
and
if
the potential be unity X
The density of the
distri-
bution which gives unit potential

1
is
therefore
and the whole charge on the disc
is
in this case
2a
Therefore -
is
the capacity of the disc.
(a)
the disc so charged at any point 132.] The potential of for which its axis of figure, ^, is
in
CM =
~~
2irrdr
__ "~
an
_x a
/3 be the angle A, where A is a point in the circumference of the
if
CM
disc.
C
Fig. 24.
Again, the equipotential surfaces to the disc are the confocal ellipsoids
whose equation
is
and since the potential of the disc at the point in the axis of z distant h from the is origin
TT
k
is
it
follows that the potential of the disc at the point #, y, z a 2, 1 -
tan-
ir
where h
is
the positive root of
I33-]
INVERSION
PARTICULAR CASES.
any point
137
To find the potential at distant r from the centre

potential at
P
z
in the plane of the disc
we make
0,
and therefore the

(c)
is
-tan- 1
JT
--^,. vV a
2
in 133.] Let us now invert the disc with respect to a point the axis with K for radius of inversion. The infinite plane now becomes a sphere passing through 0, and the disc a spherical
bowl, whose rim is a circle at right angles to the axis. The colatitude of that rim measured from the point where the axis cuts the bowl is the vertical angle of the cone at 0. Let it be a.
is
method of inversion, that which would be assumed by the bowl as a conductor in
The density on the bowl, according
to the
And we K at 0. presence of a charge in can find the potential at any point
the axis due to a spherical bowl under influence of a charge at the extremity
of the diameter thus
:
For
simplicity
let
K,
the
radius
of
to OA, the distance from inversion, the rim of the bowl. Then the rim of
the bowl coincides with the circumference
of the disc which the bowl was before
Find M', the point in the uninverted system corresponding to If, that
inversion.
is,
let
OM- OM'
The
potential at
= OA
2
.
M'
due to the disc was
8 -
where
2/8 is the
the disc at M'. angle of the cone subtended by

potential at
And
the
is
OA
23
Now
ft
the triangles
if
AOM and
M'OA
are similar.
it
Therefore
0AM,
OM<
the diameter, or
0AM
if
OM > the
(d)
diameter, and the potential at is of a charge OA at QA
M due to the disc under the influence

2
/Q
_r,
138
INVERSION
PARTICULAR CASES.
[134.
Again, the potential of the bowl so influenced at any point on the remaining segment of the sphere whose colatitude is 9
P
is
OA
F,
where
its
is
the potential of the uninverted disc at the
point in
plane which on inversion becomes P.
And
7=
IT
-tan
NA
2~
134.]
tan
We
circular disc,
have thus dealt with the case of a conducting which may be regarded as part of an infinite plane
of which the infinite external part is non-conducting. will now take the converse problem, namely, that of a
We
circular non-conducting disc of radius a, the infinite external
Let it be portion of the plane of the disc being a conductor. to find the density at a point on the conducting plane required when that plane is at zero potential under the influence of a charge at a point in the non-conducting disc. In order to solve
problem we will invert the conducting disc when at unit in itself potential as before determined, with respect to a point
this
and with Va 2 f 2 for radius of inThe disc then becomes the infinite external plane, and version. the infinite plane becomes a disc, the boundary between the two
distant /from
Cihe
centre,
after inversion
a,
being a
circle of radius
from
and whose centre Cf is distant f on the opposite side to C. Let P be a point in the plane
of the
outside
new
circle,
the
Fig. 26.
point within the original conducting disc which on inversion becomes P.

is
at P, when the infinite plane K at 0, is under the influence of a charge potential
Then the density
at zero
K*
Let
C'P
- r,
LPG'O
0.
I3S-]
INVERSION
a
PARTICULAR CASES.
139
Then
^
is
and the density at
a 2 -/ 2
1
'
The density
1
at
P due
' t
to a uniform ring of electricity of density
in the plane of the disc distant 2
from
2
C',
/.../-f df
is
>/^7*
V*
_f.df
2
(*"
d0
r2
yV-a Vo
+/ -2r/cos0
>/a2 -/ 2
/rff
_ 2
The aggregate of the

electricity
m in
distribution over the plane due to any the disc distant /"from the centre is
.
m
135.]
T 00
2-nrdr
:
m.
(h)
If the whole non-conducting disc

1,
be covered with
electricity of density
plane
when
the density at in the surrounding at zero potential under that influence is

2
TT
vV-a
C
2 or
a
2
(./ r2_ a 2
Now let the entire plane, including the non-conducting disc, be covered with a uniform stratum of density + 1 There will then be zero density on the non-conducting disc, which may
.
therefore be regarded as a circular aperture,
plane will
upon
it
and the conducting have constant potential, and the density at any point distant r from the centre of the disc is
This
differs
from the constant density + 2 f a a
by
j
- tan
it
~^^r
conducting plane with a circular the total^charge that must be placed upon the plane in aperture,
If therefore
infinite
we have an
140
INVERSION
PARTICULAK CASES.
3^-
order to bring it to the same potential as a complete plane would have when coated with density -f 1, is / C> ardr a 4 ^tan-1 2 2 â2 4 (t) /-, / j a yrz a 2 ^/a Vr a
^~
== =
or the
plane so coated in the act of
same quantity which would be removed from the infinite making the aperture. We will now proceed to Sir W. Thomson's problem, to 136.]
find the density of electricity
sphere cut off
by a
circle,
on a spherical bowl, or portion of a when at unit potential under the

influence of its
alone.
own charge
In order most easily
to effect this, let us recur

to the non-conducting disc
and
infinite external con-
ducting plane, and instead

of the density of electricity
on the
let
disc
being uniform,
the density at
P be
Ji
>
where
is
a point in the axis
of the disc distant
the disc distant
from the centre, and from the centre. Then

1
any point within
at any point in the conducting plane, when at zero under the influence of this distribution, is potential
The density
2
TI
W
Vr
a
2
,
Let
/ = h cot
>
= K cot
-7T
1/1
r
=
(
Ti
cot
77
_-" "2*
integral then becomes
cot
(3
2~2'
Q
2
_^ 2~2
r respectively.
are the angles subtended at
by/,
-
#,
and
The
cosec
A/
c t
2
cot 2
cot
^)
cosec
13 7.]
INVERSION
PARTICULAR CASES.
141
This
may
be put in the form

2
T
*""
sin a A/COS
/3
cos a
sm
2
cos
cos a
Let
cos
(3 /3
cos
= x, =x sin a da =
cos a cos a
z
,
Then when a =?r,
a;
\/cos
/3
+ 1,
Then
sm A/COS ^ - cos ^ _ [da.

J/3
and when a = +1 f
g
cos 6
cos a
Jo
(3,
= 0. ^
cosft
.
cos0
+ x*
_ 7S
cos ^
cos
?'
^3 J
Hence the density

2
8 sm 3
.
is
-JA
/ / cos/3+1
tan" 1
/ A /
cos
+1
>
(j)
137.] Let us now again invert the system, taking Q for centre of inversion, and k for radius. The infinite plane becomes a
The infinite conducting sphere whose diameter is Q(7, or h. outside of the disc becomes a spherical bowl, cut off by a plane
circle at right
angles to QC, and whose colatitude measured from

/3.
the pole
is
(See Fig. 27.)

sphere,
The density on the remaining segment of the

before inversion was
7,2
which
</*+*)
on the
disc, is constant,
:
and equal
to
-7
The
it
potential of the
is
bowl remains zero

,
and the density upon
at colatitude 6
where p
is
the density at the corresponding point of the
Sin
plane.
on a spherical bowl, Hence the density at colatitude makes the potential zero in presence of a uniform charge which
of density
-7
on the remaining portion of the sphere,

cos/3+1
_!
is
cos/3+1
142
138.]
INVERSION
PARTICULAR CASES.
[138.
Let us now place round the sphere a concentric and
nearly equal sphere with a uniform density of electricity +-7
upon it. When the two spheres ultimately coincide, the potential The at any point on the bowl, which was zero, is now 2ir.
density upon
it is
a-
+j w
and the density on the remaining segT h,
ment
of the sphere
is
-7
fi
>
or zero.
Therefore
<r+-f is the density at colatitude
of the distribu77
tion on a spherical bowl which gives potential 2
in the absence
\-
of any other electrification, and therefore
-- --r
27T
is
the
density which gives unit potential under the like circumstances. 139.] The capacity of the bowl is therefore
^W
=
sphere
is
re 2
(
/
/ COS/3+T
Y'
~4jo
h
27T
(/3
7rA(
cos
cos
k^
\/
/
T
cos/3+1
cos
r>p
\
cos /3)
+ + sin/3).
h
sin0d50
The capacity of the bowl formed by the other segment of the
Hence we see that if a sphere be divided by a plane into any two parts, the sum of the capacities of the two parts exceeds the
capacity of the sphere by the capacity of a circular disc coinciding with the intercepted plane.
If the bowl be hemispherical the capacity
is
>
a being
the radius, or the arithmetic mean between the capacities of the sphere and disc of the same radius.
140.] Recurring to Art. 138, let us next place at the centre
of the sphere of which the bowl forms part, a charge
will reduce the potential of the
.
This
bowl to
zero.
141.]
INVERSION
PARTICULAE CASES.
143
may now again invert the system so formed, taking for centre of inversion any point whether in the spherical surface from the centre. In that case, if or not, distant be not on
We
the surface, the sphere becomes a new sphere, and the bowl becomes a new bowl. In the particular case of being on the
original spherical surface the new sphere the new bowl a circular disc upon it.
is
an
infinite plane,
and
in
The
the
centre of the original sphere becomes (7, the image of
new
sphere; and the charge
at the centre becomes a
J)
-
charge
at the image.
2i
If r be the distance from of a point P on the new bowl, othe density of the equipotential distribution, as found above, at
K3
the corresponding point of the original bowl, then

density at
5-
a-
is
the
of the distribution on the

/
new bowl which
gives
zero potential in presence of
- at
K
(7.
can therefore give the following rule for finding the density at any point on a spherical bowl under the influence of
We
an
electrified point
not on the surface of the sphere.

in the sphere.
First,
find (7, the
image of
Secondly, suppose the
let
let
system inverted with respect to (7, and a new bowl so formed, and rim of the supposed new bowl, and /3 be the colatitude of the
be the colatitude of P', the point on the supposed bowl corresponding to P on the given bowl. Then we know cr, the
density at P' of the equipotential distribution on the supposed bowl, as a function of (5 and 6. And if r be the distance of
from
(7,
the density at
P is proportional to
in a spherical
141.]
On
the effect of malting a small hole

infinite plane conductor.
or
The above results enable us to estimate some of the effects of making a small circular aperture in a conductor otherwise
spherical.
144
INVERSION
PARTICULAR CASES.
[141.
The
>
For instance, let /3 = TT y, where y is a very small angle. spherical bowl becomes then a spherical conductor of radius
with a small aperture whose radius
Its capacity is
is
y.
-(/3 + sm/3),
that
is
h y y --.-.ZZ;
Ti
sin
The capacity of the complete sphere

the effect of
is
2t
We
see then that
making an
centre the small angle
y, is
aperture, whose radius subtends at the to diminish the capacity
by
h
'
sin
~^~
may
write, neglecting
If
be the area of the aperture, we

,
3 higher powers than y
A% y '- sin y = x -'
where A
2
'
Again, the conductor being charged to unit potential, the density at a point whose colatitude is (less than /3) is
COS /3
_t
COS0-COS/3
Now
=-
is
271%
the uniform density which would give unit
potential on the complete sphere.
The term
-7r
J_ 5 2 A(
cos/3+1
"
^
"V
cos/3+1
cos
cos^-cos^
^- cos /3)
expresses the density due to the existence of the aperture. The total quantity of the distribution due to the aperture on a
ring between the parallels of
and
-f
d&
is
g sm0d0
"
IV
cos/3+1
cos
_a
6- cos ft
TT,
cos
/3+1
cos0-cos/3f
Now
unless
be very nearly equal to
not only does
cos/3+1
cos cos
/3
141.]
itself
INVERSION
become very
PARTICULAR CASES.
it
145
small, but also

/
tends to vanish in a ratio of
equality with
tan" 1
A /
cos
^+
is,
cos
cos/3
Hence
if O l
be a value of
which
and
a value which
is
not, nearly equal to (3, it is easily seen that the quantity of the distribution due to the aperture on the ring between and 1
2
1
.
is
The
very small compared with that on the ring between /3 and distribution due to the aperture has therefore the same
all collected
effect as if it
were For instance

C*
J.
on the aperture.
W
C
cos/3
+1
- tan
COS0-COB/3
cos
+1
****
coBtf-eoB
and
is
independent of
0.
The system is therefore equivalent to a complete sphere charged to unit potential, that is, having a uniform density
on
2
7f
its surface,
together with the additional charge
h y
2
siny
TT
on the aperture.
This quantity h y siny
-2
shall
'
or
~ x A%
.
i?'
be called the abnormal charge, since it constitutes the difference between the capacities of the perfect and the im-
perfect sphere.
Let
sphere, and
tential at
be any external point distant r from the centre of the / from the centre of the aperture. Then the po-
of the charged sphere
is
1
siny
or
is
the potential of the perfect sphere, together with that of

Ti
the abnormal charge
siny
7T~~
~2
placed on the aperture. VOL. i.
146
INVERSION
PARTICULAK CASES.
[142.
142.] Let us now invert the charged conductor, taking for centre of inversion a point 0.
the imperfect sphere when charged to unit potential, such not being very near the aperture. The sphere becomes then point an infinite plane with a circular aperture, at zero potential under
On
And the potential at any the influence of unit charge at 0. on the opposite side of the plane to 0, instead of being point zero, is that due to a small positive charge upon the aperture.
These results, which are accurately true in the limit as the aperture vanishes, are approximately true for a sphere whenever the aperture subtends a very small angle at the influencing
point.
To
find the effect of a large aperture it
would be necessary to
any point due to a spherical bowl charged to unit potential, when /3 is not nearly equal to TT. This might be done approximately by the method of Art. 61, or otherwise.
find the potential at
CHAPTEE
IN
VIII.
CONJUGATE FUNCTIONS AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
TWO DIMENSIONS.
parallel to the axis
ARTICLE 143.] Let there be an infinite cylinder whose axis is of 2, and whose section is the element of
area
Let
p,
cutting the plane of xy in the point #, y. charged with electricity of uniform density so that p is independent of z, but is a function of as and y. In
das dy,
this cylinder be
like
manner we may conceive an

is
infinite cylindrical surface

a-
whose
axis
parallel to that of
z,
having
for surface density of
electricity,
so that
<r
constant along any infinite line parallel to the axis, is independent of z, and a function of x and y only.
of such cylinders, the potential, V, is evidently independent of z, and a function of x and y only. Poisson's equation then becomes at a point in the plane
If an electrical system be
made up
of
x,
and at a curve in the plane of xy coated with

as usual
electricity
we have
dV
}
dV
surface, is in the plane
and dv the element of the normal to the
such a system as in two dimensions only. In in the plane of xy the present chapter the charge at a point will be understood to mean a uniform distribution of electricity
We may treat
along an
infinite line or cylinder of small section
through
And axis of z. parallel to the on a line in the plane of point
in like manner, the density at a
xy means the density per unit area of a cylindrical surface parallel to the axis of z drawn in question. through an element of the line at the point L 2
148
In
like
CONJUGATE FUNCTIONS.
[144.
is
f(x, y)
manner, a conductor the equation to whose surface means an infinite cylindrical conductor whose axis
2,
is
parallel to the axis of
and whose section with the plane of
xy
is
/(#, y)
0.
in the plane of #, y, the potential at Q Q, be points due to a uniform distribution of electricity of density p along an infinite line parallel to z drawn through P } is evidently of the form
If
P and
\C-2logPQ},
be removed to an infinite distance.
and does not vanish
if
But
there be another parallel line through R, a point in the and Q, on which there is a distribution same plane of xy with
if
of density
/>,
the potential at
is
and vanishes
if
be removed to an infinite distance.
It will be
understood in this chapter that the potential does so vanish, and therefore that the algebraic sum of all the electricity in the
system of which we treat is zero. 144.] Let us suppose then that in such a system there are
certain conductors
whose equations are
/i (*, y)
0,
f2
(x, y)
=
;
0,
&c.,
and given charges are placed upon them and also certain fixed charges on given points or lines of the system. Let us further suppose that we have by any method obtained the solution of
this
electrical
function, V, of
that problem x and y, which

:
is,
we have found
constant within
the
all
single
is
the con-
ductors,
and
satisfies
Poisson's equations
at every point in free space,

t
and dv
dV dV -5 dv
H ~T~f
47TO-
at every curve charged with electricity;
and by consequence we have determined the density at any point on any of the conductors.
The
solution so found contains implicitly the solution of a
I45-]
class of
;
149
all those problems namely that can be formed from the given one by substituting f (oc,y) and *}(%, y] for x and y, and 77, being functions of x and (x,y) and 77 (x,y}> or shortly
y having
a certain property.
let
145.] For
f and
rj
be so chosen that
d
~T~
ax
~ drj ~T~
ay
'
dy
__. dx'
CONJUGATE TO x AND
y.
and
rj
are then defined to be
It follows immediately that
__
(Za?
dx
dy dy
By
we know
the ordinary formula for change of independent variables that
dx
d~ddrj
dx dy
__
dx
dv
dy_
_
dy dx
/ ^
?
dx
drj
__
~~
d
dy
dgdrj'
dr]
_
dr]
dy dx
d dy dx
-ir 7
dfdrj
= (-^--r1
dx
-^ dy dx
in this case,
Also
dy
=, and dx
and
=dy
ddr\
}j?dxdy.
Again,
if
be any given function of x and y,
we have by
ordinary differentiations,
d*V_d*V
d*V
dj[~
'
dtf~~~d'l( dx>
ddi}dxdx*
d*V ddri
^dj[d^ 3W *n**V_ ^!f,^^, dx* dx*

(
dif'^dx'
{
^df
dr)
d*V.d*
o*V
l
dr *' dy
fy.dV +
)
df df
d^ * dVd^n
d^
df
150
Therefore,
remembering that
cZf ofy
[146.
cZf
<Zr/
dx dx
and that
_o
?)'
&
^dx'
7
dy dy
+ <|fy ^dy'
d2 V
= $)' +
^dx'
cZ
= S,
dy'
F"
of
now take two planes, one in which the position as P, is determined by the values of the rectangular any point, coordinates os and ^, and the other in which the position of a
146.] Let us
point P is determined by the values of the rectangular conductors of and y' ; and when x' and y are connected with x and y
by the equations
where k
to
is
such a power of the unit of length as
may be
required
make
-7
and
linear, let the point
P' in the second plane be
called the corresponding point to
in the first plane.
Then
to every curve in the first plane of the
form
in the second there will be a corresponding curve /(, 17) plane, and if the former curve be closed, so also will be the
latter,
/ (#, y) =
and if any point out the closed curve
P in
(x,
the former plane be within or with7 in 0, the corresponding point y)
the latter plane will also be within or without the closed curve
/(f,~o.
It follows from the equation
d_dri_
dx' dx'
+ d_
drj
__
~~
dij dy
that the curves f b in the second plane intersect each. 0, 17 other at right angles these curves may be regarded as a species of curvilinear coordinates, the case in which they are linear being
;
that in which the point is always so taken in the second plane that its coordinates referred to axes inclined to those of so', y' are
1
The quantity
Jc
cases,
fc will be omitted until we come to the application to special none of the general results obtained in the next few Articles being affected
by regarding
as unity.
151
respectively equal to the coordinates of the corresponding point P, viz. x and y in the first plane.
It follows also that
any two
curves, as
F(x,
y) = 0,
f(x, y)
= 0,
same angle
in the original plane intersect each other at the as the corresponding curves
F(,
in the
rj)
= 0,
/(,
TJ)
new
plane.
For the tangent of the angle which the tangent to F(x, y) = at any point P makes with the axis of x is
and
this is equal to
from the relations between
as
and
d_
f,
y and
rj.
But
-$
-r> in the curve
is
=
P
F(^
rj)
at the point
it
P corresponding
77
to
in the second plane,
i.e.
is
the tangent of the angle
between the curve

through
F(,
77)
=
77
at
P' and the curve

const.,,
const.
7
,
since the curves
f = const.,
intersect
everywhere at right angles. Also, if dA be any elementary area dxdy in the original plane, we have dA = dxdy = ddrj. from the last article But
and therefore
if
corresponding to
dA' be the elementary area in the second plane dA in the first plane, we have
dA
152
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN
in like
TWO DIMENSIONS.
[147.
And
manner the length of any elementary
line in the
second plane corresponding to the element dv in the first plane
may
be proved to be
we have any given electrical system 147.] Suppose now that of two dimensions in equilibrium in the original plane of oo, y^ with conductors whose bounding equations are given by closed
curves of the form
electricity
/ (x, y)
0,
the algebraic
sum
of all the
plane of #', y' a being and for every linear of corresponding curves /(, 77) 0, system or superficial charge in the original plane of #,y, place the same linear or superficial charge upon the corresponding lines and
zero.
Construct in the
new
new plane of of, y'\ then the electrical system so formed in the plane of x', y' will be a system of two dimensions in equilibrium with conductors bounded by the corresponding
areas in the
And closed curves to the original curves in the plane of os,y. in the old plane of as, y will be the potential V at any point
equal to the potential new plane of #', y'.
at the corresponding point
in the
For since the total charges on corresponding are the same, but the areas themselves are in the
it
superficial areas
ratio of
\j?
to
follows that if p be the surface density at any point in the old plane, and p' that at the corresponding point in the new plane,
then p
2
/u
/o,
and similarly
if
a-
and
</
be corresponding linear
densities </
= per.
of
Again,
andy.
let V be the same function Then from the equations
and
r?
that
V is
of x
it
follows
that since
is
constant over the
closed
curves
f (#, y} =
in the plane of at, y, closed curves /(, 17) sponding
is
constant over the correif.
in the plane of gft
dx*
dy*
if
p be the electrical density at
P in the
plane of
#,
148.]
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN TWO DIMENSIONS.
153
Therefore
= -4
MV
= -4./,
where
p' is
Again,
if
/(#, y)
in the plane of #,y, and and dn' be the elements of the normal at the corresponding point to the corresponding curve /(f, rj) in the plane of #',./, we have, since V =. and
c
the electrical density at P' in the plane of af, y'. dv and dv be elements of the normal to a curve, as
^ dv
by what
is
~~
^~
dn
1
/x'
proved above,
dT_ dV dn -^ dv'
But
if
o-
dT_
dri
~ M dV_
dS
=
0,
be the linear density at
on the curve/(#,y)
dV
dV' -dn
dV
<LV
\-
therefore
-j-?
cZn
4 77 wr
o-'
being the
,
17)
148.]
We
linear density at the point on the curve in the plane of af, /. see then that the function F'9 formed as above
stated, is constant over each of the conductors f(^rf)
in the
new plane, and
of that plane. point of the #, y system, the function tial at the corresponding point P' in the
the characteristic equations at each point If therefore the function V be the potential at any
satisfies
V=
V will be
and
17
the poten-
a?',
y' system
when
in
equilibrium, and we have only to eliminate
and express
y' to obtain a complete solution of the problem of an electrical system of two dimensions bounded by conductors
a?',
V in terms of
form/ (
of the
77)
0.
course the procedure might be reversed, and if we had x a function of # , y with conductors bounded by curves found
Of
17)
0,
F",
and take
we have only to express the same function of x and
in terms of
and
?;,
that
is
of f and
17,
to obtain the solution for conductors
bounded by the curves
f(*,y)
154

if
[149.
149.] Further,
and
ft
rj
be conjugate to two other functions
a and
ft,
then also a and
are conjugate to
x and
y, for
da
dx
R
da
d
__
d
dx
d
da
dr]
drj
dx
dr\
da
4.
__ d{3
da
da dx
d/3
_ dr\
d^
and therefore
M
= dft -f-.
dr]
dr] i
dy
dp + -^.-^=-^dy
dp d dg dy
dp
dx
f-
and similarly
If therefore
-,
da
dy
we take
on it point the points P, P' and
P"
a third plane of', y" and determine a and such that a (#", if') 17, f and p (of', y")
P" be called corresponding points on the three planes, the solution for a distribution of electricity for conductors bounded by the curves
/(*, y)
= 0,
/(
T?)
= 0,
/(a, 0)
= 0,
on any one of these planes respectively, leads at once to the corresponding distribution on the two others, and similarly for
any number of planes and systems of conductors. 150.] Further, as is easily seen, if the problem were to determine, not the potential due to given charges, but the charge on any conductor necessary to produce given potentials, the solutions for the several members of the class would be connected by the same law as in the case we have already considered. That is if obe the required density in the
in the
known problem,
the
jxor
is
the density
new
one.
151.]
We
proceed to illustrate
above
process
by an
example.
Let there be a conductor in the form of an infinite cylinder of and radius having its axis parallel to z and meeting the plane of a?, y in the point C. Let a charge e per unit of length be uniformly distributed along an infinite straight
circular section
, t
line passing
and parallel to the through an external point axis of the cylinder, then, as proved in Art. 109, the density at any point of the cylinder of the charge necessary to reduce the
151.]
TWO DIMENSIONS.
155
potential of the cylinder to a constant value in presence of the
charge on the line
is
,
p*
where /is the distance of the axis of the cylinder, p that of the Also the algebraic sum of this point in question, from 0.
distribution over the whole circle is
e.
proceed to transform this problem. conditions in polar coordinates log r and 6 with
We now
Expressing the for origin and
we have in the original system a conductor whose equation is log r a constant, and a charge e at the log point whose coordinates are
for fixed line,
,
CO
logr
= log/ = log a
and
=
r
Sin,
where
i is
Now
x
K
any integer. x and y are conjugate to log

to
a,
and
have
0.
Corresponding
infinite
therefore
log r
we
shall
the
line
log
where
K is unit of length.
And
corresponding to the
charge
e at
the point
logr
= log/, 0=
+
2iv,
series of points in the line
2-rrK,
we
x
shall
have a charge e at each of a /clog/ distant from each other

x.
a-
whereof one
is
in
the axis of
on the
line
of a distribution of electricity The density will give constant potential on K log a which
that line in presence of the infinite series of charged points on
the line x
=
o-
log/
is
found by substituting - for

is
in the ex-
pression for
found above, and

1
therefore
f-a*
remembered that to obtain the actual physical conditions we must understand by the infinite line x = K log a an infinite conducting plane whose equation is x = K log a, and
It will be
by any one of the
series of charged points a charge uniformly distributed along an infinite line through the point parallel to the axis of z.
156
TWO
DIMENSIONS.
[152.
152.] The general problem, the solution of which is derivable from the given problem by the substitution of x and y for log r
and
found by choosing for origin, instead of C, the centre of the circle, any point in the plane. Suppose we choose a point
0, is
such that
CD =
c,
and
LGDO =
a,
DO =p.
Va?
2
The equation
to the
circle referred to polar coordinates
log r and 6 with

2
D for origin
and
DC for fixed
line is
log r
= log \c cos B
sin 0}.
We
tricity
obtain then by the transformation the density of elec-
on the curve
x
K log
jc
cos^
A/ a
c sin
in presence of a charge on a series of points situated in the line K log p at equal distances 2 TT K apart, of which one is distant K a from the axis of x.
This includes
all
the problems the solution of which can be
derived from that of the given one by the use of the particular functions x and y as conjugate to log r and 0. But we may obtain others by the use of different functions.
For instance, x 2 y 2 and 2xy are conjugate to x and y, and therefore to log r and 0. If therefore, taking C again for origin,
/jj2
__
we write
shall
a?
~-
njii
O
fYt'JJ
for log
r,
and
|-
for
in the above problem,
we
obtain the
2
2 2
a?
y 2 y
= =
solution for the density on the hyperbola in presence of charges placed on the hyperbola loga K 2 log/ at the intersections of that hyperbola with the
K
2
hyperbolas xy
ir*
2
,
sey
TTK*,
&c.
It is of course understood that the hyperbolas represent infinite cylindrical surfaces parallel to z whose intersections with the
plane of xy are the hyperbolas in question. the points represent infinite straight lines.
And
in like
manner by
As
in the former case,
we can
generalise this solution
taking for origin any point in the plane of the circle. particular case of transformation by conjugate func153.]
tions is that of inversion in
two dimensions.
and
0.
Evidently log
and
are conjugate to log r
54.]
157
It follows therefore,
that
2
if
we transform a system
and
from the theory of conjugate functions, in equilibrium, and in which V
vanishes at an infinite distance, by substituting the coordinates

K
and
6 for r
0,
and placing on corresponding elements
the same charges, the transformed system will be in equilibrium. will now prove the same result by a method analo154.]
We
gous In
to that of Chap. VII. the plane of as, y let us take

let
for centre
and
K for radius of
inversion, and
P, Q Q' be corresponding points to
be any two points in the plane.
Then
if
P and
Q,
we have
In the present case the potential at P of a charge p at Q means the potential at P of a uniform distribution of linear density p along an infinite line drawn through Q parallel to the The potential is therefore axis of z.
v
= p\C-2logPQ\.
If in the inverted system there be the same quantity of matter placed at Q', according to the method of transformation used with conjugate functions, the potential at P' of the charge at Q'
is
=v
and
therefore, if F,
K 2/o log
OPOQ
potentials at
V denote the
and P' of the
whole system,
V=
7-2 ffp log OP'dxdy + 2 ffp log OQdxdy

l
= 7+2 log dxd + 2 OF/fp y ffp

Since we assume the potential we must have in this system
to vanish at
S OQdxdy.
infinite distance,
an
Hence
V = 7+ 2 Tjp log OQ dxdy,
158
that
is,
[154.
V by the potential at the origin of the that is, by a constant for all positions of P. original system, Therefore since 7 is constant over every conductor in the is constant over every conductor in the new original system,
exceeds
system. The new system is therefore in equilibrium. If the original system consist of a conductor
potential under the influence of an
electrified
at
zero
opposite side of
zero, that
is
point on the to the origin, the potential at the origin is
at every point of the new conductor. the original system be an infinite cylinder uniformly coated with electricity of density or, and if there be a distribution of density 2 TITO- along the axis, the potential
and therefore For instance,
if
is zero,
and we might by inverting the system with respect to

result obtained synthetically in
an external point obtain the Chap. VI, Art, 109.
CHAPTER
WE
IX.
ON SYSTEMS OF CONDUCTORS.
ARTICLE 155.] proceed to consider further the properties of a system of insulated conductors external to one another, and each charged in any manner. And we will suppose that there is no
electrification in the field except the charges
on the conductors.
el
Let
placed
Clf C2 ... Cn be the conductors. First let a charge on C19 the other conductors being uncharged,
T r*'
be
Let the potentials of the several conductors be denoted by

'
V1 ' 2 V
>
By the principle of superposition, if el were increased in any V would be increased in the same ratio. It ratio, T n lt V% follows that we may express Flt F2 V in terms of e1 in the n
. . . . . .
form
V
,
= An e
1,
= Aa e
lt
&Q.;
where A n , A 12 &c. are coefficients depending only on the forms and positions of the conductors. In like manner if C2 received a charge e2 all the others being uncharged, we should have
,
Y
'
<
A t> "*H e2'
V2 r
A
22
e2> 8ra *XlUt

t>
>
the coefficients being again dependent on the forms and position of the conductors.
By the principle of superposition, if at the same time Cl receive a charge elt and C2 a charge 2 the others remaining uncharged, we shall have
,
==
"*"
&c.=
'n ==
&c.,
-"in ei
"t"
-"
160
SYSTEMS OF CONDUCTOKS.
...
And, generally, if the conductors all receive charges e lt ez the potentials will be expressed by the linear equations
&c.=
A are called the coefficients of potential. Evidently there exist algebraic values of V corresponding 156.] to any assigned values of e lf e2 ... eni though we do not assert
The
coefficients
that
it is
practically possible to charge the conductors without
limit.
solving the above linear equations we should obtain a new set expressing the charges in terms of the potentials, namely,
By
&C.= &C, e n =B ln V + B, n V,+ ..+B nn Vn

l
"
>
-,
which the coefficients are functions depending only on the forms and positions of the conductors. Since the equations (B) must give possible and determinate
in
there
values of e for any assigned values of lt F" ... n it follows that 2 must exist a set of charges corresponding algebraically to
,
any assigned
set of values of the potentials.
capacity of a conductor in presence of any other conductors the charge upon it required to raise it to unit potential, when all the other conductors have potential zero. Thus, if F2 ... Vn
is
The
are all zero,
we have from
1, el
equation (B),
4-4*?,;
and
if Fj
= Bu
,
so that
22
,
Bn
is
the capacity of
<?,.
The
coefficients j# n
.Z?
&c., with repeated

coefficients
suffixes, are called

21
,
coefficients
of capacity.
The
B12
-Z?
&c., with dis-
tinct suffixes, are called coefficients of induction.
Properties of the Coefficients of Potential.
157.]
An
F!,
= An
For
let
V^
...
Tn
be the potentials of the
conductors,
158.]
SYSTEMS OF CONDUCTOKS.
l
161
when C has
the charge e and
all
the others are uncharged,
V the general value of the potential in this case. Then V^ Aê. Let U19 U2 ... Un be the potentials of the conductors, when (?2 has the charge e, and all the others are uncharged, U the Then U = A 2l general value of the potential in this case.
,
e.
By
all
Green's theorem applied to the infinite space external to
the conductors, in which
V 2 V and V 2 U
are everywhere zero,
we have
#*
7
dS
in
M~dS
so
which
cr
//
dSl denotes integration over C19 and

rr/JV
/ /
on
for the
other conductors.
But
is
is
dS
in the system
the charge on the conductor

T.
whose potential
Hence
and
all
the other integrals in the
first
member
vanish.
Similarly
dv
and
the other integrals in the second equation therefore becomes
all
member
vanish.
The
or
or
Ae* = A
lz
21
=A
Cl
lz
In other words, the potential of
due to unit charge on

<?
2
<?2
,
in
presence of any conductors, is equal to the potential of to unit charge on Ct under the same circumstances.
158.]
due
The
coefficients of potential are all positive,

suffixes, as
and no one
with
with distinct
or A rr . either suffix repeated, as as proved in Art. 53, the potential can never be a maxiFor,
J lr An
is
greater than the
coefficient
mum
at any point unoccupied by free electricity. be any positive potentials, the highest positive If therefore there or
minimum
VOL.
i.
162
potential
PROPERTIES OF THE COEFFICIENTS

;
[159.
and if there be any must be on some conductor must be on some conductor. If negative, the lowest negative
the potentials be all greater or all less than zero, then zero, the potential at an infinite distance, is the least, or the greatest, potential as the case may be.
tribution
If any conductor has zero charge, the density of the disupon it must be positive on some parts of its surface, on other parts. Where the density is positive the lines negative
of force proceed from the surface, and there must be some neighbouring part of space in which the potential is less than Where the density is negative, there that of the conductor.
must be some neighbouring part where

the conductor.
it is
greater than that of
field
Therefore, neither the greatest nor the least potential in the can be the potential of a conductor with zero charge,
it
neither can
be in free space.
Such greatest or least value must be that of a conductor having an actual charge, and the density on such conductor must be of the same sign throughout its surface, and must be
positive for the highest positive potential, negative for the lowest negative potential. Therefore, if all the conductors
be uncharged, and C-^ have positive charge el9 Flt i.e. the potential of C\, must be the greatest potential in the field,
C2 ...C'n
and zero must be the

distance.
least,
namely the potential
at
an
infinite
We have
Vi
then from equations
A
i.
= An e
between 7l and zero, and are therefore all positive. Hence also. A u is greater than A 12 ... or A ln and each of these latter is positive.
in which
is positive,
. .
.
71
F and 72
i>
= 4M
Vn
&c.;
lie
159.]
Properties of the Coefficients of Capacity
and Induction,
For
let
V denote
And
charged and has potential K, and

uninsulated.
let
the general value of the potential, when C^ is all the other conductors are
U denote
when C2
is
charged and has potential K, and
the general value of the potential all the other
162.]
OF CAPACITY AND INDUCTION.
163
conductors are uninsulated.
The equation of Art. 157 then
becomes
or
21
12
lt
.
In
to
Bn = B other words, the charge on C if uninsulated when C2 is raised unit potential is equal to the charge on C2 if uninsulated
or
when
CL is raised to unit potential, all the other conductors in either case uninsulated.
being
160.]
as to
Each of the
coefficients of capacity is positive.

it is
For as we have seen
make 72 ...7n each
zero.
possible so to charge the conductors Then l must be either the
greatest or least potential in the
field,
viz.
the greatest
if e l
be positive, the least if e-^ be negative. Therefore, we have in this case
% = J&u F,p
and since
If
e^
and F1 are of the same

are all zero
sign,
_Z?
is positive.
161.] Each
of the coefficients of induction
is
negative.
F2 ...7n
and
el
not zero, the density on each of
the conductors
C2
. .
Cn must
surface, viz. opposite to that of e1
be of the same sign throughout its for let e 1 be positive, then if

;
the density at any point on any other conductor were positive, there would be a less potential than zero, that is, less than that
of
any of the conductors, at some point
in free space.
But the charge on C2

and since V^
is
is
in this case
*2
=A
e%
^>
negative, I> 12 is negative. 162.] The sum of the coefficient of capacity and all the coefficients of induction relating to the same conductor is positive.
positive and
For
let
the conductors be so charged as to be
all
at the
same
potential V.
Then
Now
if
be positive,
e1
must be
positive, for if it
were
than negative, there would be a greater potential in free space.

Therefore
V somewhere
Bn + B^ +
. . .
-f
Bnl
is
positive.
164
PROPERTIES OF CAPACITY AND INDUCTION.

,
[163.
(7 <? be connected 163.] If two conductors 15 2 originally separate, a very thin wire so as to form one new conductor, together by
the capacity of the new conductor is less than the sum of the For let e 1 be the capacities of the two original conductors.
charge on C^ when
potential, that
is,
it
is
at unit,
and
all
.
the others at zero
el is
the capacity of
at
Let
all
C?t
/2
be the charge
on
C2
in this case.
Similarly,
when C2
and
e2
is
unit,
and
the others at zero
potential, let e\
be the charges on
and C2
respectively.
Then
e\ and e'2 are negative, ^ and e2 positive. If C^ have the charge e l + e\ and G the charge e2 -f e'2 and every other conductor have the sum of its charges in the two
, ,
cases, Ci and C2 will both be at unit, and all the other conductors at zero potential, and if the connexion between Ct and C2 be now made, no alteration takes place in the distribution of
electricity.
The charge upon the new conductor, that which is less than e l + e2 2 t -f a + e^ +
e?'
,
is,
its capacity, is
of potential, or induction, whether relating to that, or any other concapacity, ductor, are the same in either case, and are not affected by the introduction of any conductors whatever inside a hollow conductor.
164.] Any conductor of given bounding surface solid or a hollow shell, and all the coefficients
may
be either
For
if
let
Cr
be a hollow conductor.
Then, as proved in Art. 9 1
there be any electrification whatever the algebraic sum of which is zero within Crt that electrification together with the induced distribution on the inner face of Cr have zero potential
at each point in the substance
of,
or external to,
Cr9
and
may
be removed without affecting the distribution on the outer face of Cr or anywhere external to it. It follows that the potential
any other conductor due to a distribution on the outer surface C is unaffected by the presence or absence of such electrification within Cr and depends only on the forms and positions of the surfaces bounding Cr and the other conductors. Therefore the coefficients A, and therefore also the coefficients J3, depend only on these forms and positions.
of
of
r
,
165.]
SYSTEMS OF CONDUCTORS,
On
165
165.]
the Comparison of similar Electrified Systems.
Let there be given two electrical systems similar in all respects but of different linear dimensions. Let the linear dimensions be denoted by A, so that A has different values in the two systems respectively. If the quantity
of electricity per unit of volume be the same in both systems,
the potential will vary as X2
For
it is
of the form
/ / /
and in
this case p is
independent of
A,
and
dan
dy dz and
each
Evidently the force at corresponding points, proportional to A. being the variation of V per unit of length, varies in this case
as A.
on the other hand, the quantity of electricity in homologous portions of space, instead of in unit of volume, be given constant,
If,
p will vary as
and Fas - , and the force as
If the system consist entirely of conductors, and the superficial density, that is the quantity of electricity per unit of
surface, be constant,
will vary as
A,
and the force
will be
invariable.
If,
on the other hand, the quantity of
electricity
on homolo-
gous portions of surface be invariable, V will vary as -, and the A

i
force as
A
It follows
from these considerations that, as between similar

of different linear dimensions, the
coefficients
systems of conductors
efficients
co-
vary inversely, and the
directly, as
the linear dimensions.
CHAPTEE
ENERGY.
X.
On
the Intrinsic
Energy of an Electrical System.
ARTICLE 166.] If V be the potential of any electrified system, the work done in constructing the system against the repulsion of its own
parts
is
taken throughout the system, where e dxdydz is the quantity of free electricity that exists within the volume element dxdydz.
For we may suppose the charges in all the volume elements to be originally zero, and to be gradually increased, always preserving the same proportion to one another, till they attain
their values in the actual system. The potentials at any instant during this process will be proportional to the charges at that
instant.
Further,
we may suppose
the process to take place
uniformly throughout any time r. Then if t be the time that has elapsed since the beginning of the process, the charge in any element of volume may be represented by A t, and the potential
by pt where A and p are constants for the same element. The final values of e and Fwill be Ar and /ur. The charges which
t
will be
added in the small interval of time
dt,
or
-\-dt-
1,
will
be \dt, and the work done in bringing these charges to the then existing potentials, represented by //,, will be
fji\tdt
dxdydz.
to
The whole work done from beginning
end of the process
is
['/[fa
dt
dxdydz
Ifff^
by
E.
T* dxdydz
= i /TTve dxdydz.
We
This quantity
is called the intrinsic
energy of the system.
shall generally denote it
67.]
ENERGY OF AN ELECTRICAL SYSTEM.
167
If the system consist only of conductors on which the charges

are e lt
all
e.,
&c
we have
E=
\*2.Ve,
2 denoting summation
for
the conductors.
In like manner if there be two distinct electrical systems and the charges and potentials in one be denoted by e and T and in the other by e' and F', the work done in constructing the first
9
against the repulsion of the second, supposed existing independently, is

1 1
lY'edxdydz, and this must be equal to the work
done in constructing the second against the repulsion of the

first,
that
is
fffvedxdydz
or for a
f f f V'edxdydz,
system of conductors
sFy=sr,
167.] To prove that
the integral being taken throughout all space.
Let us consider an
the whole electric
infinitely distant closed surface
field.
8 enclosing Green's theorem to the space Applying
within
S,
we have
-//
in
'-
which the first double integral relates to the infinitely distant S, and the second to the surfaces $', if any, within S on which there is superficial electrification.
surface
and the two remaining terms on the right-hand side of the

equation are together equal to
/// 1-n.Vedxdydz.
Hence
168
It
[167.
class of
was proved in Art. 13 that if V be one of the functions which satisfy the following conditions, viz.
(0
/ / TJJ dv
dS* taken over the surface
=
S2
e,
dS taken
&c.
2
over the surface
=e
=
&c.,
(2) (3)
V V has given value at every point outside of all the surfaces, V vanishes at an infinite distance,
then the integral
throughout
V is
an
all space outside of all the surfaces has constant over each surface.
its least
value
when
We now
see the physical
meaning of the theorem
as applied to
/ /
electrified system.
For
V being the potential,
-r-dS,
taken over any surface, is the charge upon that surface, whether the charge be so distributed over it as to make V constant
or not.
Now
in whatever
way
the charges be distributed over the
surfaces, consistently with the whole charge on each surface
being given,
/ / /
Vedxdydz
is
the energy of the system.
integral on the right-hand side relating to the space outside, and the second to the space inside of the surfaces.
the
first
And
has
the proposition shows that the

possible value
first integral,
or
its least
when the charges

each surface.
are so distributed
in that case
as to
make
V constant over
And
V is
constant throughout the space inside of the surfaces, and therefore the second integral is zero.
68.]

the distribution actually assumed on each the electricity is free to distribute itself, that is, the surface is a conductor, is the one which makes the
It follows that
surface
when
when
intrinsic
energy the
least
possible,
given the charges on the
conductors respectively.
168.] The potential of any conductor, as Cr due to a quantity of electricity <? in the volume element dxdydz } is evidently of the form A rs e> where A rs is a coefficient depending, like the coefficients
,
already investigated, on the forms and positions of the conductors and the position of the element in question, and the suffix that element, and r to the conductor.
s relates to
Similarly the potential at the element due to a charge e on Cr will be A sr e, where A sr depends only on the form and position of the conductors and the position of the element.
Also the equality of
rs
and
A sr
follows from that of
2 Ve'
and S V'e above proved.
Thus the systems of equations (A) and (B) of Arts. 155, 156 can be extended to any electrified system, whether consisting
exclusively of conductors of finite size or not. J 2 Ve we express every V Evidently if in the equation will be a of the charges by means of equations (A), in terms
quadratic function of the charges with coefficients depending on In this form we the forms and positions of the conductors.
shall write it
Similarly if we express every e in terms of the potentials by will be a quadratic function of the means of equations (B),
potentials.
In this form we
shall write it
Ey.
,
It follows
from the equality of A J2 and d
A zl
&c
&c., that
**- r" K
'
'
~ _l-y
de,
d^
or generally,
= V.
+
(JL&
For as from
E=
2 Ve we have
dE
and
dE
-
dE dV
~
~
dE ~' () dV, &
\V
--
170
therefore
MECHANICAL ACTION BETWEEN

t
171
-I -I -I
-^
= -V, + -Aê^ -A
12 e 2
+ ...&c.
dE
Similarly
e^ &c.
169.]
0#
/$<?
Mechanical Action between Electrified Bodies.
We
system
tricity
have seen that the intrinsic energy of any electrified is of the form 4 Ve> where e is any quantity of elec-
forming part of the system, where that quantity is situated.
the potential at the point
If q be any generalised coordinate defining the position of the system, the force tending to produce in the system the displace-
ment dq
is
dE -7
or
Id 2 dq
dq
(2 x
Ve).
Now
tentials force is
if
the charges e are invariable in magnitude, the poare functions of the coordinates q, and therefore the
in
If,
which every Fis a function of q in respect of the coefficients A. on the other hand, the potentials be maintained constant
notwithstanding displacement, by proper variation of the charges. the force is
in
which every
coefficients B.
e is a function of q as it is involved in the It remains to find the relation between the forces
in these
two
cases.
170.] If q be any one of the generalised coordinates defining the denote the force tending to inposition of the conductors, and if / crease q when the charges are invariable, and be that force when
all the potentials are maintained constant, then
R + R' =
0.
For
let e, V)
and q
all
vary.
171.]
ELECTRIFIED BODIES.
171
Then we have
dE
de
H
dE
dq
dV
*jl.= de
7,
dq
But
and
dV
2-r
?8i
hence
and
=^-
61
therefore
ofy
7
?g g+
efy
8?
= 0.
E with
R.
q
Now
~
^T
is
the rate of variation of

is
when the charges
are constant, and
therefore the force tending to diminish q

is, it is
imder those circumstances; that

oi
dE v
dq
72
bimilarly
=R,
,
hence
+ ^=0.
171.] If any group of conductors previously insulated from one another become connected by very thin wires, so as to form one
conductor, the energy of the system is thereby diminished ; and the energy lost by it is equal to that of an electrical system in which the superficial density at any point is the difference
of the densities at the same point before and after the conthat is, is equal to the energy of the system nection is made
:
which must be added

system.
to the original in order to produce the
new
For
let
is
nection
denote the potential of the system after the conthe original potential. Then V and T' made,
V+V
are both constant throughout each conductor of the system. The charge on any conductor which retains its insulation, or
/ 4*w/ dv
-=- dS. remains unaltered.
172
[172.
Any group of conductors which become connected form one combined conducting- surface on which the aggregate charge, or
-at
(3)
1 1 -j- dS, is unaltered. 4t-nJJ dv
V is then a function which satisfies the conditions

all
(i)
V2 V =
points
outside
of
all
the
connected
conductors,
-j-
has given values
over each of them, (3)
is
satisfies conditions (i) constant over each of them, while and (2), but is not constant over each of the connected con-
F+ V
ductors.
Therefore,
by Art.
1 3,
Qv+v
where
Qr + Qv,
throughout all space outside of the surfaces, and have corresponding values.
Q v+ v and Q y
>
Now -8
77
Qy+v'
is
the original energy,
-- Q v O7T
is
is
the energy
after the connection is
made, and
O7T
Qp
the energy of the
system in which the potential is the difference of the two potentials, and therefore, by the principle of superposition, in which the density at any point is the difference between the
densities before
and
after the connection is
made.
any portion of space S, previously not a conductor, become a conductor, or which is the same thing, if a conductor
172.] If
be brought from outside of the field and made to occupy the space S within the field, the energy of the system is thereby diminished and the energy lost by it is equal to that of the system in which
;
the superficial density at any point on any conductor or on the surface of S is the .difference of the densities at the same point
before and after
S became
a conductor
that
is
to the energy of
the system of densities which must be combined with the original to produce the new system.
For
let
V be
conductor, V-\-
V the potential when S
the potential of the system

is
when
the space
is
non-conducting space.
74.]
173
Then
V is constant
is
V+ V
Let
throughout S and throughout each conductor, constant over each other conductor but not over S.
the energy of the system in the former case,
Sir
Qy be
7T
Q v+ v
>
the energy in the latter case.
It can then be shewn, as in the last case, that
throughout all space outside of the original conductors whether within or without S. But the integral of the second term is the
energy of the system in which the potential is T' that is of the system which must be combined with the original to produce
t
the
new
system.
It follows that a conductor without charge is always attracted by any electrical system if at a sufficient distance from it.
Hence
also
any number of .uncharged conductors
in a field
of constant force generally attract each other. 173.] It follows as a corollary to the two last propositions that if a conductor increase in size, the energy of the system
is
For
thereby diminished. if C be a conductor,
a conductor insulated from
to
and if the new form one conductor with
adjoining space, if S became the energy would be diminished, (7, conductor were then connected with C so as
it,
8 an
the energy would be further
diminished.
Hence
is,
the resultant force on an element of surface
of a conductor
if
the charges be constant, in the direction of
the normal outwards.

174.] If
then
if
S be a surface completely enclosing a conductor (?, 8 were itself a conductor, its capacity would be greater
C.
than that of
For
let
the conductor
be charged to potential unity,
all
the
be its capacity, Let other conductors being at zero potential. that is, the charge upon it under these circumstances.
Since unity is in this case the highest potential in the Let the potential on S is less than unity at every point.
field,
it
be
174
EARNSHAW'S THEOREM.
[175.
denoted by V. If <r be the density of a distribution over S which has at every point on S the potential T,
/VVdS =
and
by Art. 60,
since
7 <
1,
therefore
fFcrdS < M.
over
Next let the same quantity of electricity be so distributed S as to have constant potential in presence of the other
M
1
uninsulated conductors.
Let
</
be
its
density in that case.

67,
Then
/YVvdS' <
ffr*48
ty Art.
also
/T V'</dS =
V ff</dJ3 = V'M.
1,
Therefore, a fortiori,
V'M <
M or V <
S
and therefore a larger
charge would be necessary to bring
to unit potential.
Earnshaivs Theorem.
175.] If an electrified system A be in mechanical equilibrium in presence of another electrified system J3, and be capable of
movement without touching the

be stable.
latter,
the equilibrium cannot
For
let
in space,
and
is fixed us suppose first that all the electricity in all the electricity in A fixed in the system, so that
the system A is capable of us further suppose first that

only.
movement
it is
And let as a rig-id body. of motion of translation capable

completely determined by the
In
this case the position of
is
in it, and is therefore a position in space of any single point referred to any system of axes function of the coordinates of
fixed in space.
coincides with a Let the position of equilibrium be when certain point C in space. Let be the potential of the system S. Let pdxdydz be the
75.]
EARNSHAW'S THEOREM.
175
volume element
quantity of electricity of the system
in the
dxdydz.
Then
V dxdydz
throughout
is
two systems, that
the intrinsic energy of the mutual action of the is, that part of the whole energy which varies
with the position of 0.

Let
dv
d*E
dx*
and
as similar equations hold for
y and
z,
=
Now
so long as
0,
1 /YY pV*Vdxd,ydz.
no part of
A
0.
coincides with
any part of
and therefore
V2 E =
A is capable of motion of translation without any of it coinciding with any part of B, it must be possible to part describe a small closed surface 8 about C, the position of equiAgain, since
librium, such that, if
be anywhere within S,
#, y, z,
VZ V
'
0,
and
V E=
2
0.
But
is
a function of
the coordinates of 0.
by Green's theorem applied
to the surface
S and the
Therefore, function E,
=
Either therefore
0.
must be constant
for all positions of
in
the neighbourhood of C which are consistent with A not touching B, in which case the equilibrium is neutral ; or there must be on that portion, be some part of the surface S such that, if
is at C, that is less than in the position is less than when Therefore any small displacement of A in this of equilibrium. direction will bring it into a field of force tending to move it
still
further in the same direction, and the equilibrium fore unstable.
is
there-
176
A SYSTEM OF INSULATED CONDUCTORS
[176.
If the system has any more degrees of freedom, as for instance freedom to rotate about an axis, or for the electricity on A or
to
its position,
instead of being- fixed as we assumed it to change a fortiori the energy will be capable of becoming less in the be, and therefore the equilibrium is unstable. displaced position,
176.]
On a
system of insulated conductors fixed in a field of

is
without charge. uniform force and Let us first suppose the uniform force
the axis of x.
Then we may always choose the
unit force parallel to origin of
coordinates, so that the potential of the force at
any point may x. be denoted by The induced distributions on the conductors must be such
that the potential due to

shall
them
be
<7-f #,
where
is
at any point in any conductor constant over each conductor but has
generally a different value for different conductors. Let the density of this induced distribution at any point be Then X(f> x is the density of the or shortly (f) x <$> x (os, y, z),
.
induced distribution which would be formed

X.
if
the force were

is
And CX+xX.
the potential due to the distribution
X$ x
therefore
Definition.
The function \\x $ x dS taken over the
surface of
every conductor of the system is the electric polarisation of the system in direction x due to a unit force in direction x acting at every point of the system. For position of the origin.
It
is
evidently independent of the
dS
"
since 1 1 $*$$ is the algebraic
sum
of the induced distribution
and
is
therefore zero.
In
like
manner we may
define
to be the electric polarisation of the system in the directions of
y and z respectively due to unit force in direction x. In like manner if there be forces T and Z parallel
to the other
1 7 7.]
IN
A FIELD OF UNIFORM FORCE.
177
tributions whose densities are
coordinate axes, they will produce in the system induced disYfa and Z<p z respectively, and the
functions
will denote the polarisation in the directions y, x,
and z respect-
ively due to unit force in direction y.
Similarly,
llzfadS,&e.
z.
denote polarisation due to unit force in direction

of the quantities
y(f) x
And
each
dS, &c.
is
independent of the position of
the origin if the direction of the axes be given. If *l> C denote the total polarisation parallel to respectively, due to the three forces, we shall have
#, y,
y fa
dS+
Yy $ dS+ zy
y
j. dS,
dS+
177.]
Y^fz
that
<j>
dS + zffz
<f> z
dS.
We
can
now prove
For the potential of the system of
densities denoted
by
<f>
x is,
as
being, as before mentioned, a constant for each conductor, but having generally different values for difTherefore ferent conductors.
seen,
a?,
we have
C+
the work done in constructing the distribution whose density is <p y (which we may call the system c^), against the repulsion But since for each conof the system fa previously existing.
is
ductor the algebraic
sum
of the induced distribution fa
is zero,
and
C is
constant,
jfcfa
VOL.
I.
dS
0,
178
and
A SYSTEM OF INSULATED CONDUCTORS dS

expresses the
y<j> x
[178.
#(f) v
amount of work above mentioned.

the work done in constructing the
In
like
manner
(j>
dS
is
system
But by the conservation of energy existing. Therefore tities of work must be equal.
against the repulsion of the system <$) y previously these two quan-
Similarly,
ffx <fc dS
=ff* **
line
178.] If the direction cosines of
any
referred
to
any
system of rectangle axes be a, (3, y, the polarisation parallel to this line expressed in terms of these coordinates becomes
that
is,
that
is,
af + jSq + yf
a, fij
The
polarisations
rj,
fare in
fact vector
quantities,
and admit of composition and

y be proportional to
resolution.
,
Evidently, if
then
r?,
and
f = ap, t] = pp, =yp, and the polarisation in any direction a', /3',
is
y', is
that
(a
and
is
therefore zero for
any
,
direction at right angles to the

77,
direction of the resultant of
179.] Let it now be required to find a direction relative to the system such that if the resultant force be in that direction,
the resultant polarisation shall be in the
same
direction.
79.]
IN A FIELD OF
UNIFORM FORCE.
to X, Y, Z.
179
That
is,
In that case
f,
77,
must be proportional
(=
where
*X,
e is
a quantity to be determined.
Hence we have
x+
ds(ffy<i>y
Thomson and
These equations are of the same form as those employed in Tait's Natural Philosophy 2nd Edition, p. 127, for
,
determining the principal axes of a system leads to a cubic equation in
strain.
,
As
there shown, the
of which,
when
the three roots are always real. The equation is the same as that treated of in Todhunter's Theory of Equations, 2nd Edition, As shown by Thomson and Tait, each of the three p. 108.
values of e corresponds to a fixed line in the system, and the three lines corresponding to the three roots are mutually at right
angles.
There
exist,
therefore, for every
system of conductors three
directions at right angles to each other, and fixed with reference to the system, such that a uniform force in any one of these
directions produces no polarisation in either of the others. might define these directions as the principal axes of polarisation
We
of the system of conductors in question.

lines for axes
If
we take
these three
we
shall
b
have evidently
dS
/
=
/.
0,
y fa dS
0,
&c.
Let us denote
//
(j)
dS by Qx
I I
*/
y $ v dS by
Qy
and
f / *$
/ */
^ by
ft
180
A SYSTEM OF INSULATED CONDUCTORS
[l8o.
then the polarisation in any line whose direction cosines referred to these axes are a, p, y, due to unit force in that line is
the energy of the polarisation of a system of conductors
180.]
Of
placed in a field of uniform force.
Let the system be referred to
its
principal axes.
Let X, Y,
be the forces parallel to these axes respectively.
Let
X$ x
be the
density at any point on any conductor which would be produced and Z. Then alone acting, Y$ y and Z(f> z the same for by
X(j> x
+ Y(j> y -\-Z(f)
The
the density when potential of the three forces is

z
is
all
three forces act.
-(Xx+Yy + Zz).
The work done
forces is then
in constructing the system against the external
taken over the surface of every conductor. The work done against the mutual forces of the system itself is
Yy + Zz)
The whole work
is
therefore
taken over the surface of every conductor, and the work done against the mutual forces of the separated electricities is the
same expression with the
positive sign.
But the axes being
principal axes,
ffx^y dS
Therefore the energy
is
0,
Pix <k dS
0,
&c.
72
or
181.] If the conductors be free to move in any manner, either by translation or rotation, they will endeavour to place them-
8 2.]
IN A FIELD OF UNIFORM FOECE.
181
selves in
such positions as that the above expression within brackets shall be maximum, given the resultant external force.
,
If the system consists of a single rigid conductor Q x Q and y If Qz will not be altered by any motion of the conductor. placed in a field of uniform force and free to move about an axis,
its
position of stable equilibrium will be that in which the axis of greatest polarisation coincides with the direction of the force. If the system consist of many conductors, and they be not so
may be neglected, they will tend either by rotation or translation to assume a position in which the axis of greatest polarisation shall coincide with
still
distant that their mutual influence
the direction of the force; but Q x Q y , and Q a will in this case generally vary with change of position of the conductors.
,
182.]
We
If
have hitherto treated
(j)
x,
cf)
&c. as the densities of

field
the distribution produced on a conductor in a

force.
of uniform
we extend our
definition,
and define // xfydS to be
the polarisation in direction x of an uncharged conductor placed in any electric field, $ being the density of the induced distribution,
we can prove the

polarisation
The
electric
following proposition of any spherical conductor due

:
to
any equal in magnitude to the resultant force at the centre of the sphere due to that distribution multiplied by the cube of the radius, and is in the same
distribution
of
electricity entirely
without
it is
direction with that resultant.
be the ^-component of force at the centre of the is the ^-comdue to the external system. Then sphere at the centre due to the induced electrification. ponent of force
For
let
But the last-named component
is
if
or
be the density of the induced distribution.
Hence
Similarly
JJx(rdS=r*X.
jjy
<rdS=r3
Y,
182 SYSTEM OF CONDUCTORS IN A FIELD OF FORCE.

be the components of force parallel to this establishes the proposition. If v be the volume of the sphere,
if
[l 82.
and
y and
z,
and
CHAPTER XL
ARTICLE 183.] HITHERTO, in accordance with the plan laid down in Chapter IV, and with the view of giving the two-fluid theory as complete a development as possible in its most abstract form,
all
space has been regarded as
made
;
up, so far as electrical pro-
two kinds conducting space, through which the fluids pass from point to point under the influence of any electromotive force however small, and non-conducting or insulating space, through which no force however large can
perties are concerned, of
cause such passage of the fluids to take place. Conducting spaces are necessarily occupied
stances,
by
actual
sub-
prominent among which are
all
metals.
Non-conducting
spaces
may
be occupied by actual substances, called non-con-
ductors, insulators, or dielectrics (the last term having reference to their transmission of electric action as distinguished from the passage of the electric fluids), such as dry air and other gases,
wood, shell
lac,
perfect
vacuum was
sulphur, &c., or these spaces may be vacuum. at one time regarded as a perfect
to point out, as the result of exthat there is a considerable diversity him,
first
insulator.
184.] Faraday was the
periments performed by
of constitution in dielectric media, in reference to their electric different substances possess the properties that, in fact, while
;
common
property of refusing passage to the electric
fluids,
they
are nevertheless
endowed with very
different electrical properties
in certain other respects. If, for instance, there be, as in Faratwo concentric conducting spherical surfaces, day's experiments,
and the space between them be
filled
the potential of the inner sphere due to any charge
with any dielectric substance, e on itself
184
[185.
hitherto investigated (which according to the simple theory
should be /
>
where r
is
the radius) will be found to depend on
the nature of the dielectric medium in the space between the And therefore the charge on the sphere necessary to spheres. a given potential, or the capacity of the sphere, is produce
greater
for
some of such substances than
for
others.
The
It is dielectric, in Faraday's language, has inductive capacity. for air and the permanent gases than for any solid dielectrics, less
and rather less for vacuum than for air. 185.1 In order to explain this phenomenon, Faraday adopts the
hypothesis that any dielectric medium consists of a great number of very small conducting bodies interspersed in, and separated
by, a completely insulating medium impervious to the passage In his own words, If the space round a charged of electricity.
' '
globe were
oil
'
filled with a mixture of an insulating dielectric, as of turpentine or air, and small globular conductors, as shot, the latter being at a little distance from each other, so as to be
'
insulated, then these
in their condition
'
resemble what I consider to
and action exactly be the condition and action of the

If the globe were be polar ; if the globe return to their normal state, to
all
'
particles of the insulating dielectric itself.
'
charged, these
little
conductors would
1
'
were discharged, they would all be polarised again upon the recharging of the globe/ The properties of such a medium closely resemble, as far as
is
' '
their mechanical action

as conceived
concerned, those of a magnetic mass, each of Faraday's shot being in fact by Poisson, when polarised equivalent to a little magnet, except that in dealing with magnetic masses the polarisation is usually under-
stood to be in parallelepipeds instead of in spherical particles, and Poisson's investigations are therefore applicable. (See
Memoires de PInstUut for 1823 and 1824.) The mathematical theory has also been treated by Mossotti with especial reference to Faraday's theory, but by a different method from that here employed.
186.] In accordance with this hypothesis of Faraday's, we will consider the dielectric as consisting of a great number of very
86.]
185
small conducting- bodies, not necessarily spherical, and separated first object is to find the by a perfectly insulating medium.
form assumed by Poisson's equation when the conductors become

infinitely small.
In this medium take any parallelepiped whose edges, h, k, I, are parallel to the coordinate axes. Let these edges be very small compared with the general dimensions of the electric field,
but yet infinitely great compared with the dimensions of any of the little conductors in question. The face Tel of the parallelopiped will intersect a great number of these little conductors. If the medium be subjected to any electromotive forces, there
will be on each conductor
an induced distribution of
electricity
for each
whose
superficial density
/ /
</>
we
shall denote
by
$.
Then
conductor
ds
0.
Let
parallel to #,
field,
be the average value over the face kl of the force and therefore normal to kl, due to the whole electric
all
including the induced distributions on
the conductors
whether intersected by kl or not.
We
will first
assume that the
corresponding forces Y, Z are zero. In this case the average value per unit area of kl of the algebraic sum of the induced distribution on the intersected
conductors which
lies to
the right, or positive, side of kl
is,
by
the principle of superposition, proportional to X. Let it be were the unit QX, Q being the value which it would have if
of force.
If the forces Y and Z are not zero, then the quantity of the induced distribution on any individual conductor lying to the right of kl will generally depend on Y and Z as well as on X.
But
if
the conductors be in
all
manner of
orientation indiffer-
ently, the quantity of free electricity to the right of kl, due to and Z, will disappear on taking the average because for any
conductor,
if
from
Y or Z
the total density of the induced distribution arising for any position of the conductor be calculated, then
on turning the conductor through two right angles about an

axis parallel to #, the corresponding density in the new position will be equal to that in the former position, but of opposite sign.
186
SPECIFIC INDUCTIVE CAPACITY,
shall for the present confine ourselves to the case in which the conductors are orientated indifferently in all directions, and we shall define a medium in which this is the case to be an
We
isotropic
medium, and any other
to be a heterotropic
medium.
evident that in an isotropic medium the quantity of the induced electricity in the conductors intersected by the faces hk
It
is
or h I of the parallel opiped which lies to the positive side of those faces respectively, due to unit force in direction y or z, is the
same
is
as the corresponding quantity for the face kl.
That
is, it
Q.
187.]
The total electricity included within the parallelopiped will consist of (l) p 7ikl, the quantity of the given electrical distribution, which is supposed to exist independently of the condition
of the
medium within
Jc I,
whether
it
be vacuum or dielectric
(2) the sum of the induced superficial distribution on those parts of the conductors intersected by the faces of the parallelopiped which lie within its volume. The part of (2) arising from the
two
Jcl
faces will be
UQX
respectively,
and
-klQX is
Tiki
dx (QX)
and
their
sum
therefore
In
like
manner the part of
(2) arising
from the faces hk,
Jil
of
the parallelopiped are
and
respectively.
-Kkl-
We
obtain therefore
for
the whole electricity within the
parallelopiped,
which we
will call E,
Now
the
let
N be the normal force

N is
and
parallelopiped
at any point on the surface of measured outwards. Then on the two kl
faces the average value of
-X
+X + h^ dx
88.]

Therefore for these two faces
187
respectively.
Nds
Similarly, for the other
'
dX +~ hkl dx
faces
rl
two
we
shall
have
Nds
and
=+
~
Y
dy
hkl,
Therefore for the whole surface of the parallelepiped
But
/YV<fo
=
-
Therefore
hkl(- + dx
^
dy
But from
(1)
= hkl
Hence we obtain
or, if
we write
1
+ 477(5
^,
and
if T
"
be the mean potential, so that

JL
dV = -=
'
>
dV = -r
'
Zi
dV ='
>
cfo
This
is
dz dz dy^ dy the form assumed by Poisson's equation

as
dx
in such
an
isotropic
medium
now under
consideration.
evidently
that
depends on the form, number, and position of the conductors, It is called the dielectric is, on the nature of the substance.
188.] Again, if p
constant.
+p' be the whole
free electricity in the
element
188
[l8 9
of volume dxdydz, including both that of the general and that of the induced distributions, evidently
electric field
Hence we have
d
,
dV
dV
d_
"fa
dV
dz
and phkl is the sum of those portions of the induced distributions on the conductors intersected by the faces of the parallelepiped which lie within its volume.
189.] If over
any
surfaces there be superficial electricity of the
given
electric distribution, the equation
dx
dx
'
dy
'
dy
dz
dz
becomes, as in the cases previously investigated,

(2)
dv
or
,dV
(
dv
suffixes relate to the
where the
Let
media on either side of the surface

surface
of separation.
(1)
and
(2) denote
two media bounded by a plane
AS, such
1
C.2
that K, Q, and have the suffixes and 2 in these media respectively. Let Clt
AB.
be two parallel planes on either side of Then, by the preceding, the superficial
space between
induced electrification in the
C1 and AB, and C2 and AB, per unit area of the planes, is + Qi-î an(^ ~~ Qz^-z respectively,
and the
B
Fig. 28.
total induced electrification in the space
between C^ and
C2
is
Q 1 X1
Q 2 X2
per unit area
oiAB.
If the
till
two planes Ci and C2 be made to approach each other they become infinitely near, this gives a superficial electrifi-
189
cation </ over AJ3, the surface of separation of the media (l) and from induction on the conductors, such that (2), arising
dv
if
the normals be reckoned inwards from the surface in case of
each medium.
Also
if
induction be called
the electricity per unit volume arising- from such />', we have seen that
Therefore our equations
may
be written
0,
and a' are called by Maxwell the apparent electricities solid and superficial respectively, and Faraday's hypothesis of the dielectric medium supplies us therefore with a physical meaning
//
for these quantities.
It follows from the equation (2) that at the surface of separation of any two isotropic media, in which the constant has the values K-l and 2 respectively, if there be no real electri-
fication
on that
surface, that
is,
if
o-
0,
the normal forces on

ratio.,
either side of the surface are to each other in a constant
namely
be the superficial electrifi^llia at any point 190.] Now let of the surface of any one of the small conductors in jbhe neighbourhood of any point P, (x, y, z) in the dielectric, and let
the sum of the integrals "sffxQdS, or
1
1 to $ US
taken over the
4 surfaces of all these conductors within uni o volume, be denoted
by
o-
x,
assuming that the distribution of
electricity
on each
190
[190.
is
conductor and the distribution of the conductors themselves
constant throughout that volume and the same as it is at thus a-x is a physical property of the dielectric at analogous to the pressure p referred to unit of surface at any points in a fluid
;
Let a be the average mass, and other similar quantities. distance between two planes parallel to y, z, touching any small conductor, i. e. the average breadth of a conductor parallel to #,
n be the average number of such small conductors in It follows that the number of conductors in an elementary parallelepiped dxdydz is n dxdydz^ and the number
and
let
unit of volume.
intersecting the dydz face
must be
dx
a
or n a dydz.
xl be the x coordinate of the left-hand plane parallel yz touching any conductor, the average amount of the electricity lying to the right of any other plane parallel to yz interif
Now
to
secting the same conductor
must be // .
tydS, the integration

i.e.
being over the surface of the conductor, rr

since
it is
* - /rrx /
(/>
dS,
1 1
N)dS =
0.
Therefore the
intersected
amount of
electricity
on the small conductors
by the left-hand dydz face of the parallelepiped dxdydz and lying to the right of that face must be
nadydz
or
n/
axfrdS. dydz.
But nilxfydS
Therefore jrm
is
the quantity above designated by a x
is
the amount of electricity per unit surface
on the rin| hand of a plane at P parallel to yz situated on small conductors intersected by that plane it is the same quantity as is denoted by QX in Art. 186; similarly for a- y and 0-3.
;
<r quantities IT^, cr y3 z are components of a vector or, the value of any one of* them when the corresponding axis is taken in
The
the direction of
o-.
(See Chap. X, Art. 178).

it
From
Arts. 186 aiuj 188
follows that
//,
the density at any
1 9 1.]
101
point
of induced
electricity
belonging to the conducting
surfaces, is
dx dz dy and that if o- x cr y) v z be discontinuous over any surface S through P whose normal has direction cosines I, m, n, then there will be
,
on the small conductors over the surface

at
a superficial electrification arising from the induced electricity S, the density .of which
Pis
I
(a- x
crx
a-' x
+ m(o-y- a'y) + n(<r - *',),

z
where
and
a'x are
the values of
cr
and
v'x
on opposite
sides of
at P.
If
V be
the potential at any point of the
field arising
from
the induced charges on the small conductors and from these must satisfy the equations alone, then from Art. 189
dV
dv
_
d and
And
unique,
since the solution of these equations is determinate
we must have
r=
fact
rrrp'dxdydz
rr</ds
}
where the integration extends over the whole field, a result in which is at once obvious from the physical meanings of p
(/.
and
191.]
any whose algebraic sum is m placed on the positive side of the plane, and at a distance from it very small compared with the
dimensions of the plane, is 2irm. If therefore any such plane be situated in the medium under
consideration, the average force upon it arising from intersected conductors will be -2770-3 from those on the right-hand side,
finite
"We know that the average force in direction x over plane parallel to yz due to an electrical distribution
and again 4770-,,. 2770-3. from those on the left-hand side, or on the whole and if we limit ourselves to the consideration of the little conductors situated between two planes very close to
;
and
parallel to the supposed plane
on opposite
sides of
it,
the
192

x, since
4770-3. parallel to average force will be for non-intersected conductors is zero *.
the value of
It follows therefore that if in the dielectric
medium we take
and each perpendicular to v, the resultant of <rx cr v <r z at any point lying between them, the force at that point arising from the induced charges on the
any two planes very

,
close together,
,
* The proposition in the text is an important one and may be proved rigorously as follows Let there be an infinite number of polarised molecules between two infinite planes parallel to yz, and not intersected by the planes. Let the equations of the = a t and x = a2 . Let V^ and V2 be the values of the potential from planes be x the polarised molecules upon the respective planes; and let dy l dz l dy 2 dzz denote elements of their surfaces, and dv^ and dv2 elements of their normals measured outwards from the space between the planes. Applying Green's theorem to the space between the planes, using x and 7 for
:
functions,
we have
ai
rrr CCdv dy^dZi + CTdVj J -j- dyzdzy Illy. dv d "> JJ JJJ JJ

.
I I
"
ctt
>
rrr
the last term
JJJ
/ / /
xv*V dxdydz
including
superficial density or discontinuous
^
,
JJ
/ /
rr# ,dv
(;r-
+ T~)d>3
<".
dv.
for surfaces of
&c.
Since the distribution within the planes
is
/ algebraically zero, /
/ -=
dt/i ^~dyidz and

l
are separately zero. / I fl~ dytdzz
Also
^-
and
are
d and +
resp respectively,
and
/ / /
x v 2 V dxdydz
anes.
- 4tr
I I I
xtydxdydz
if
<f>
be the density at any point
irt dy9 .dsg mean
/Fiêfoj
= 4w
/ / /
x<f>dxdydz.
the
force in direction of x,
and C the area of either plane,
ll'
where
is
the volume between the planes.
Therefore
r-a
These conclusions are equally true when the planes are of any magnitude, provided the distance between them is infinitely small compared with their linear
dimensions, in which case
/
JJ
n
becomes the same quantity as that

proved.
above denoted by a x and the proposition
is
9 I.]
193
small conductors situated between these planes and not inter47r<r, by them will be in the direction of <r and equal to and the forces from these small conductors thus included between
sected
the planes parallel to x, y, and z will be 47rcr 2 47:0-3., 4 irtT yt the same as the force would have been from the respectively,
included conductors
if
the parallel planes including the point
had been perpendicular to
#, y, or z respectively. If instead of taking a region between two parallel planes whose distance is very small compared with their linear dimen-
in the
considered a space inclosed within any small sphere medium, then we might prove that the force at the centre of the sphere arising from all the small conductors entirely
sions
we had
included within
A
it
has for
its
components
--
and
-33
(r x
,
cr
cr a
respectively.
If instead of a
medium
of small conductors with electricity on
their surfaces distributed according to the law of induced electricity
X,
J",
Z we
under the action of a constant force with components were considering a medium composed of small dis-
crete molecules, each separately containing
an
electrical distri-
bution according to
the algebraic sum molecule is zero, and
any law, subject only to the condition that of the distribution in or upon every such
if
we denoted by
o-
</>
any point in any molecule, and by
x)
vy
the electrical density at and o-z the sums

,
for unit of
volume in the neighbourhood of any point P,

triple integrals
(#, ^, z)
in the
medium, the
scfydv &c. being replaced
by
0-3.,
iJx<f)clS, &c.,
<T
where
<
is
superficial,
we should
still
have
cr
to
any other rectangular axes are l> m, n, we get cosines of
the components of a vector; inasmuch as by changing such that the directionf, 17,
=
VOL.
I.
/ /
/ (lx (
+ my + nz) (f)dv
194
92
and the results arrived at in the preceding
articles as to the
any point, and the value of the potential F', would hold good of this medium. Comparing two electrified systems in all respects 192.]
similar, except that in the
density, solid p or superficial </, of the electricity at
one the dielectric constant has the
uniform value
see
j5T
l5
and in the other the uniform value
we
from the form of Poisson's equation above obtained, that, if has at each point in either system the same value as at the
corresponding point in the other system, all the volume and superficial densities must as between the two systems vary
directly as K, the dielectric constant. Conversely, if the densities be the same at all corresponding points, the potential at corresponding points will vary inversely as K.
The
any
effect of substituting
a uniform dielectric
medium with
dielectric constant K, for

electrified system, is
which the constant is unity, in therefore the same as if all the charges
air, in
on the conductors were reduced in the ratio 1 :K, or as if the repulsion between the masses e and e' at distance r were
/
/
instead of
It follows that the charges necessary to
produce given potentials, that
is the capacity of the system, must is called in similar systems vary directly as K. For this reason the specific inductive capacity or briefly the inductive capacity of
>
the medium.
conducting
The phenomenon observed by Faraday, using two spheres separated by a homogeneous

is
concentric
isotropic
medium,
article.
a particular case
of the general result of this
The conception and treatment of lines, tubes, and fluxes developed in Arts. 96-103 of Chap. V are equally applicable to an isotropic dielectric with any value of K, either uniform or variable, and might, indeed, have been applied to If we establish the equations above obtained in such a medium. of the equation above proved, viz. integrate each term
193.] of force
dz
I93-]

S,
195
over a space inclosed within any closed surface
we
get
and
m, n be the direction cosines of the normal to any element dS of the surface, this becomes
if
I,
or
KFn dS'= 4 Tim;
where
S,
and
If,
measured outwards at each point of the algebraic sum of the included electricities. therefore, as in Art. 102, any tube of force be limited by the
Fn is the normal force

m
is
transverse surfaces
at points on
S and $', and if F and F' be the normal forces S and S' respectively, and if K and K' be the in-
ductive capacities at those points, then the equation becomes
^K'F'dS'or as it
may
be written
/7Vd,S"- ff'f& = 4w
jm-
an equation expressing the same physical property as that of Art. 102, inasmuch as
the addition to the electricity included in the limited tube of force arising from the polarisation of the small conductors in the
is
medium. In a medium with a continuously varying specific inductive capacity and finite volume densities, the force F obviously varies continuously both in direction and magnitude. If however there be an abrupt transition from one dielectric medium to another at any surface S, then, whether there be an
dielectric
actual charge on
S or not, there is, as we have seen, a charge over from the polarisation of the small conductors, called arising O 3
196
[194.
generally the apparent electrification, although both from theory and experiment it is proved to have an existence as real as what
is called
by
distinction the actual charge
if a'
be the density of
this charge
we have seen that
where Fl and F2 are the forces normal to 8 at the point in the two media respectively, each supposed to act from medium L If therefore there be no actual electritowards medium 2
fication
on S we have
9
or
And
if
i
= 0,
as above shewn.
and
i'
be the inclination of the lines of force to the

after the transit over $,
i
normal to S before and
tan
(1
~f,
.) '
tan i'
as above proved.
All the properties of tubes of force, elementary or otherwise, hold good in proved in Chap. V, for a dielectric of uniform
the case of a
force at
medium with varying K, if we substitute for F (the any point) the quantity KF. This quantity KF is some8,
times called the induction.
Should there be an actual charge a over equations wonld give
then the ordinary
being determined as before. 194.] As an illustration of the application of the preceding results, let us consider the state of the electric field when two
(/
media of different but uniform inductive capacities are separated by an infinite plane surface, and an electric charge is situated at
a given point in one of them. Suppose the plane of the paper to be perpendicular to the plane of separation; let YEY' (see Fig. 29) be the line of inter-
94.]
197
section of these planes, and let the charge m be situated at the in the medium whose inductive point
m
2
capacity
is
.
kl3 that of the other medium

perpendicular to the m' be so taken that
being Let
mEm' be drawn
bounding plane, and
let
m'E = mE
suppose.
,
Let the distances of any point P from and m' be called r and / respectively. If V and be the potentials on the left
and right of the plane YEY' respectively, then V and must satisfy the following conditions, ^ and 2 being uniform in each
Fi
medium
(1)
V=
V on the plane and each vanishes at
infinity,
(3)
VF+
=/
Now
over the plane and the differential coefficients
of the functions
- and
along the normal to the plane are pro-
portional to
-3
and -^ respectively.
It follows therefore that the conditions (l)

satisfied
and
(4)
may
be
by assuming
A ~+ r
B
r
and
_,
V'=
C
r
D
r
and properly determining A, B,
C,
and D.
Since p is zero to the left of YEY' except in the neighbourhood of m, the condition (2) requires that A should be equal to
-j>
and since p
is
zero everywhere to the right of YEY', the
198
[195.
condition (3) requires that
D should be zero,
)
and therefore
m
(1) gives
T-
(4) gives
whence we get
2m
-^
/
2m
and the problem is completely determined. If o-' be the superficial electrification of polarisation, or so called apparent electrification, over the plane, then
fî-
1 /.
î-^xo *-!
7 CT
^)
If k^
27T7-
and
>^
oo
we have
agreeing, as they should do, with the results obtained for an infinite conducting plane in presence of a charged point, in Art. 105.
195.] As an instance of a similar treatment let us consider the case of a sphere composed of a dielectric medium of specific
inductive capacity ky brought into a field of uniform force

air.
in
the
Before the introduction of the sphere the force throughout field was in a given fixed direction, which we will take for
the direction of the axis of x.
I95-]
199
If the origin be measured from any point, as for instance the with which the centre of the dielectric sphere is made to point
coincide, then, before the introduction of the latter, the potential of the field was Fx+C.
potentials outside
Let a be the radius of the sphere, and let V and be the and inside of the sphere, then the conditions to
:
be satisfied are
(1)
V= V
2
at the sphere's surface,
and
becomes
Fx + C
at
infinity ;
(2)
V V= V
k-j
V=
=0
everywhere
(3)
dv l
dv
at the surface.
Now we know from

forms Aas
t
Art. 107 that a potential
To?
either of the
or
-y
gives a normal force at any point on the

a?,
sphere's surface proportional to
and
satisfies
the condition
V2 V
0,
provided
that in the
case of the
form
Bx
being
chosen, the point is not infinitely near to the centre. If therefore we make of the form
and make
of the form
Bx+C, we
A
shall
have condition
(2)
satisfied identically,
and
shall be able to satisfy conditions (1)
and
(3)
by properly determining
and B.
surface, or
(1) gives 7'
= Bx+C = 7 = Ax+C at the

ZFx
(3)gives
.Bx _*_ =
B=
A.
Ax _-,
2
or
= ,!=__
3^T
And
therefore the potential

is
throughout the region external to
the sphere
given by the equation
and the potential
V within the sphere

3Fx
is
given by the equation
200
[195
a.
The density </ of so-called apparent is given by the equation
electrification at the surface
that
is.
<r
3F = - k-lx
4ir
k+2a
Tjl
>
If k become infinitely great, </ becomes
4TT
as already
determined for a conducting sphere in a uniform field. obtained above are obviously those outThe potentials Fand
side
and inside of the surface due

"
to the superficial electrification
ITT
BF k-l k+2
x
'
~a
together with the potential of the

this
latter
field
Fx+C.
If
we
subtract
from
potentials of </
and respectively, it appears that the within and without the surface respectively are
and
kl Fx
k+2
That
is
kl F a?x ^
k+ 2
1
respectively.
to say, a superficial electrification 4 - p a*x

TT
px
over a sphere's
surface produces potentials
4 7f
-pa*,
and
within and without the sphere respectively, and therefore gives a uniform field of force within the sphere.
1950.]
We proceed next to
consider the more general case of a
medium not
necessarily isotropic.
In that case the quantity of electricity of the induced distributions on the little conductors intersected by the kl face of the parallelepiped above mentioned, which lies to the right of that face, depends generally on the forces T and Z> as well as X.
By the principle of superposition it must consist of three portions and Let it be denoted by y proportional to X, respectively.
In
like
manner the quantity of
electricity
of
the
induced
distributions on the conductors intersected
by the hi and
hk
Of THf
196.]
faces of the parallelepiped, which lies on the positive side of these faces respectively, may be denoted by
where
<r x
=2
j j
xdS
<r
=2
d8
<r
=2
the electric density at any point of a small conductor, the double integration extending over the surface of each conductor and the summation 2 extending over the conductors in
$ being
unit volume, as described above, Art. 190. We shall generally omit 2 for the sake of brevity in cases where there is not likely
to be
any doubt
as to the meaning.
196.] Again, the induced electrification $ at any point on any conductor consists, by the principle of superposition, of three
portions proportional to X, J, and
Z respectively.
denote by X$ x the density of the electrification due to the force X, Y$ y that due to and Z$ z that due to Z, so that
We will
the whole density at any point on the surface of any conductor be
We
have then
^ = ^ x+ QxyY+ Qx&
all
the integrals being over It follows that
conductors in unit volume.
Similarly
we
shall obtain,
Q
>
l,
Y+Qy
dS+
ry ^
dS +
zy
<!>.
dS,
202
and therefore
[197.
&c.
= &c.
Q xx Q xv
,
The
properties of the coefficients
&c. or
ffx<f>9 d8,
&c. were investigated
in
Chap.
X;
and
as
there
Q yx &c. proved, Q xv If I, m, n be the direction-cosines to the normal to any plane drawn in the medium, the quantity of electricity on the little
,
conductors intersected by unit area of that plane which on the positive side of it is l<rx + m<y y -\-n(r z by Art. 191.
If the
lies
medium be
In
(f>
isotropic, as
above defined, the forces
Y and
Z will
not affect the quantity of electricity to the right of the

fact, in
plane kl.
an isotropic medium
ffx
And
dS
0,
Uy
<i> z
dS
= 0,
<\>
and
ifz
z
<f> x
dS
0.
x ifc dS
=y
dS
$ z dS.
In that case
and
JT
= +
1
4-7T
197.] If the
medium be not
isotropic, the integrals
/ /
x $ y dS,
&c. are not generally zero for all directions of the coordinate axes. But it was shewn in Art. 179 that for any system of conductors
in a field of constant force there exist three directions at right angles to each other, such that if these be taken for axes, each
of the integrals \\x (j> y dS, &c.
is zero.
197.]
203
We may therefore describe a small sphere about any point in our medium, and find three perpendicular directions such that, if these be taken for axes, each of these integrals vanishes, if taken
throughout the sphere.
And we may
call these three directions
the principal axes of electric polarisation at the point in question. With these directions for axes we have
(T
=
=
<*
But
it
will not be generally true that
<r
xj
(T
and
o-
being in this case proportional to X, Y, and

will write
respectively,
we
and
X'=
r=
Z =
f
'
And we may
write
Kv =
These ratios
K K K
x,
y,
have a determinate value at every
point in a heterotropic medium, but may vary from point to Also the directions of the principal axes may vary from point.
point to point. and If x y
and the directions of the & be constant, axes also constant/ the medium, whether isotropic or principal An If otherwise, heterogeneous. not, is said to be homogeneous.
, >
K K
isotropic
medium
is
therefore
homogeneous
if
K be constant.
204
If
in
[198.
the same reasoning by which z vary continuously, x) K y) an isotropic medium we obtained the equation d /r^dV. d , T7 dV. d T,dV.
(K--) + --(Kdx v dx ' dy v dy
) '
+ dz
(K) + 4irp = dz
v '
leads, in case of a heterotropic
medium
d
-jdz
,
if
the coordinate axes be
the principal axes, to
d
cfcc
dV.
(fcc
(K x v
) '
d
<fa/
(Ky v
_ <ZF X
dy
) 4'
(Ks <fo ' + 4 w/> v )
^ dV^
= 0.
constants for Also if j5Tla; Z1J/5 JTlg and 2x 2y , K2z be the two heterotropic media separated by a plane whose direction cosines are I, m, n, we have at the surface of separation
,
corresponding to equation (2) of Art. 189. Let X' be the average force which would exist on the plane kl if all the intersected conductors were removed. Then., it
follows from Art. 191,
that
X'
is
connected with
by the
equations
X =
= X-\- TtQx X if the axes be the principal axes, = KX X,
so that
X'-K
or
~X~ KX
>
x is the ratio between the average force which would exist on the plane Icl if all the intersected conductors were removed and the average force which does exist over that plane in the
medium.
198.] As shown in Art. 180, the energy of the unit of volume is
medium per
-\
and the
little conductors, if each free to rotate on any axis, will so use their freedom as to make the expression within brackets the
99.]
205
greatest possible, by placing themselves in suitable positions ; that is, they will endeavour so to place themselves as that the
axis of greatest polarisation shall coincide with the resultant force ; so that, for instance, if
axis
the conductors will so place themselves as that the principal x shall coincide with the direction of the force.
If they be perfectly free to move, this object will be effected any direction of the resultant force ; and as in that case there
for
will be
force,
no polarisation in any direction at right angles to the
the expressions
are zero.
isotropic
Such a medium medium.
will
then have
all
the properties of an
But
spheres, the
unless the conductors be perfectly free to move, or are medium will in general be heterotropic.
199.] It appears from the preceding that the numerical value of the dielectric constant in any isotropic medium must depend
upon the form and density of distribution of the small conductors within the medium.
Suppose now that these are spherical, and that A is the fraction any volume within the medium which is occupied by the whole of the small conductors within that volume.
of
Suppose also that the average force within the medium in the neighbourhood of any point is X, parallel to the axis of x.
Since the force within each conductor
is zero, it
follows that
the average force in non-conducting space in the neighbourhood

of the point in question
must be
Now
must be such that the
the electrical distribution on the surface of each sphere force arising from it within the sphere,
together with that from all the other electricity in the field, shall be zero throughout that sphere. If the spherical distribution were very rare it is clear that the
force arising
from
all
the electrical distributions except that in
206
[2OO.
any one sphere must be sensibly constant throughout that In other words, the sphere is situated in a field of sphere.
constant force
jr
J.
'
A.
parallel to the axis of x.
-4-77
Therefore the polarisation of any particular sphere must be

>
where v
is
the volume of the sphere; see Art. 182.
Hence the
polarisation per unit of volume,
which we denoted
3A
above by QX,
is
X-
and therefore
q\
1
A
This amounts in
or, as
A.
is
supposed very small,
+ 3A.
fact to regarding each sphere as polarised independently of the If A be not very small, so that we have to consider the rest.
mutual influences of the spheres, the reasoning

cannot be insisted upon.
200.]
is
precarious and
construct a composite medium, portions of which shall consist of a dielectric whose constant is l9 and other
We may also
portions consist of a dielectric whose constant
is
If such
if
medium be uniform throughout any

two
space, that
is,
the
distribution inter se of the
dielectrics be the
same
for unit
of volume in any part of the space in question, the problem presents itself for consideration, what is the average force in
such a composite medium due to the induced distributions within it ; or, as we may otherwise express it, what must be the value
for dielectric of K, in order that a uniform medium with have the same effect as the composite medium. constant may
solution of such a problem depends on the manner in which the two dielectrics are distributed inter se. If, for instance, the
The
medium 2 is in separate masses bounded by closed surfaces dispersed through the medium ly the solution of the problem will depend on the shape as well as the number and magnitude
of the separate masses.
"We might endeavour to determine the density of an induced

distribution on those surfaces which, if they were filled with the dielectric lt would cause the normal forces on opposite sides of
2 CO.]

rr
207
If
the surfaces to bear to each other the ratio -=?
by
that, or
by any other method, we could

composite medium, the value of
find the value of
/ /
x<f>
ds for the
is
at once
known
to be
rr
JJ
substantially the same as that of the determination of the dielectric constant in a single medium. If, for
is
The problem
instance, the dielectric

so distant
be contained in spheres, and they be 2 from each other that their mutual influence may be neglected, and the whole system be regarded as placed in a field of uniform force X, it will be found that the density of the
induced distribution upon them which causes the normal forces within and without the spheres to have the required ratio is
3X
proportional to
before, the
cos
0,
being the external
force,
and
0,
as
angle between the radius of any point on a sphere
and the direction of #. Let the density be

a
= n x 3X cos 0,
47T
where n
force
is
a ratio to be determined.
n X within any sphere.

is
This distribution gives a Consequently the normal force
within any sphere
(l-n)XcoaO.
The normal
force outside of a sphere is
We
have then by the condition respecting the forces
KI (1
and
+ 2 n)
= A*
(1
n),
from which
K
small,
or,
X being very
CHAPTER
XII.

ARTICLE 201.] HITHERTO we have been engaged in the development of the so-called two-fluid theory of electricity in its application to Electrostatics, or the conditions, on that theory,
of the permanence of any electric distribution, one essential condition being that the potential shall have the same value
at every point in a conductor.
far in
The
results arrived at are so
agreement with experiment as to justify the acceptance
of this theory as a formal explanation of electrical phenomena. now proceed to consider how far the theory can be adapted
We
the explanation of observed phenomena in another class of cases, those namely in which different regions of the same conto
ducting substance are maintained by any means at unequal

potentials.
Suppose, for example, that two balls of any given metal and at the same temperature, originally at different potentials, are held in insulating supports, and connected together by a wire
of the same metal
;
then
it
is
found that after an interval of
time inappreciably small, the potentials are reduced to an equality at all points of the conductor thus formed of the balls and wire,
and that the
charge on the ball of higher potential has been diminished, and that on the ball of lower potential has been inWith the conception and language of the two-fluid creased.
total
theory there has been in this short interval a flow of positive electricity in the one direction along the wire, or of negative
electricity in the
opposite direction, or both such flows have
taken place simultaneously. If a magnetic needle be suspended near to the wire, a slight transitory deflection of this needle may be observed during the
process of equalisation of potentials,
and
it
might be
possible
203-]
with a
sufficient

length of wire and apparatus
209
of sufficient
delicacy to detect a slight rise of temperature in the wire.
202.] Methods exist whereby the inequality of potentials in different parts of a conductor may be restored as fast as it is
destroyed, and in such cases certain properties are manifested in the conductor and its neighbourhood so long as this inequality
is
maintained.
For instance, if the conductor be very small in two of its dimensions in comparison with the third, in ordinary language a wire, the deflection of the needle is no longer transitory but persistent, so long as the inequality of potentials is maintained,
the
amount of such
deflection
depending upon the amount of

;
the inequality, and the dimensions and constitution ef the wire heat also continues to be generated in the wire at a rate depend-
ing upon the same circumstances. Also if the wire be severed at any point, and the severed ends connected with a composite conducting liquid, thus forming a
heterogeneous conductor of wire and liquid, chemical decomposition of the liquid will ensue at a rate dependent on the difference of potentials, and the nature of the wire and liquid.
According to the two-fluid theory, there must be under the given circumstances a permanent flow of one or both electricities
between the unequal potential regions, of a transitory flow spoken of above, and the wire
like nature to the

is,
in the language
Of of that theory, spoken of as the seat of an electric current. course the existence of such a current is as purely hypothetical transference of some as that of the electric fluids themselves.
kind there must
be, for it is indicated
by the
respective gain
and loss of electrification in the two connected conductors, but whether that transference be a material transfer as implied
by the
two-fluid theory, or a formal transfer like a wave, or the transmission of force as in the case of a tension or thrust,
The current, as it is are not in a position to determine. must be regarded as a phenomenon by itself, called designated,
we
into existence under certain conditions,
and subject to laws

arise,
to be
investigated
by
independent observation.
203.] The VOL. i.
question indeed
P
might
how
far
are
we
210
[204.
warranted in regarding current phenomena as indicating the

absence of electrical equilibrium ? When parts of a conductor are maintained at permanently unequal but constant potentials, a certain state of the field
ensues,
which
is
also
permanent, and
it
might be
said that
we have
this
it
in such a case a system in equilibrium although not To satisfying the conditions required by the two-fluid theory.
can only be replied, that in the case of electrostatical equilibrium we have a system permanent of itself whereas in a constant current the permanence always necessitates an expendi;
The former case ture of energy from some external source. resembles the mechanical equilibrium of a heavy body on a horiThe permanence of the latter case resembles that zontal plane. of a heavy body dragged uniformly up an inclined plane, and
requiring at each point of
its
course the expenditure of external
work.
Laws of the Steady Current
in a Single
Metal at Uniform
Temperature.
204.] (l) The intensity of the current is the same at every point. We have mentioned certain physical manifestations accom-
panying the current, viz. thermal, chemical, and magnetic. These are capable of measurement and it is reasonable to re;
gard these measurable
effects as exhibited in the
neighbourhood
of different portions of the current as giving a measure of the It is found experiintensity of the current in those portions. mentally that in the case of a steady current these effects are
the same throughout.
Wherever the magnetic needle

the same deflection results.
is
sus-
pended
assuming
its
distance from the wire and other circum-
stances to be the
same
If the
wire be of equal section in every part, then equal portions are heated at the same rate, and in whatever portion of the wire
the liquid conductor above described action also takes place at the same rate.
is
introduced, chemical
is evidently consistent with the two-fluid theory, according to which we regard the current as a flow of either fluid across any transverse section of the conducting wire.
This law
205-]

(2)
211
Ohm's Law.
This law, which is universally accepted, asserts that If a uniform current be maintained in a homogeneous wire
whose surface
intensity
of
is completely enveloped by insulating matter, the the current in the wire is directly proportional to the
(i.
e.
electromotive force
and
the difference ofpotentials at its extremities), inversely proportional to the resistance of the wire; the
mathematical expression of the law being 7

current intensity
',
T?
-
JK
where I
is
the
E is the
electromotive force,
and
the resistance.
the resistance depends upon the and transverse section of the wire and upon the material length of which it is composed. For wires of the same substance it
called
is
The quantity here
inversely,
proportional to the length directly and the transverse section and Ohm's law asserts that if through a wire the
electromotive force
wire
E produces
E'
-~r
a current
I,
and through another

/',
the electromotive force E' produces a current
then
one
If
the fractions
E -=-
and
will always bear the
same
ratio to
another so long as the same wires ^Tand
are employed.
be the resistance,
-^J\i
is
called the conductivity,
and
if this
be denoted by K, then Ohm's law
may
be expressed in the form
that no trans205.] If the insulation of the wire is perfect, so ference of electricity can take place across its surface, the direction of transference at each point must, in the permanent state, be but this direction parallel to the axis of the wire at that point,
also perpendicular to the equipotential surface through The wire is in fact a tube of force, and if it be of that point 1 .
must be
uniform section the resistance through each element of length ds

is
proportional to ds, and therefore
we have
i <x
or
j^
1 This coincidence of direction of the electromotive force at any point and of the current through that point does not hold good in the case of anisotropic substances. At present and hereafter, in the absence of special notice to the contrary, it must be understood that we are confining ourselves to the consideration of isotropic
substances.
P 2
212
[206.
constant at each point.

electricity at
Hence, by Art. 102, there can he no free within the substance of the wire. any point This condition is satisfied according to the most generally
accepted theory by regarding the electric current as consisting of equal quantities of positive and negative electricity flowing in
opposite directions. In this case the potential F, at any point distant s from a fixed point in the wire's axis, must be given by the equation
V = Rs+C,
if
and
i.e.
is the constant resistance per unit where length ; the axis be a straight line parallel tc x we have Rx + C, the potential is that of a field of uniform force.
F=
If the wire be not of uniform section, then the resistance
along a portion of length ds along the axis is, by Ohm's law, proportional to ds directly, and to dS the transverse section
inversely ; hence
we have ice
-jdS,
or
dS is
is still
constant through-
out, proving (by Art. 102) that there within the substance of the wire.
no
frê electricity
206.]
their
follows for all forms of
Ohm's law may be generalised as homogeneous isotropic conductors with all dimensions finite. For, from what has been said above, it
The statement
of
follows that the current flows from one elementary region to another of such conductors along elementary tubes of force. If
we regard such
tubes as wires in which the current obeys
Ohm's
law, this leads us to the equation for the intensity of the current over the elementary area dS of the equipotential surface through
any point
i oc
dV
ds
-r- dS.
70
dV
or
-=-
as
is
constant.
ds
equation which, as before stated, proves that there is no free electricity within the substance of any conductor through which
If the conductivity be variable a permanent current is passing. and be denoted by K, this becomes
An
may here be interesting to prove the following proas an illustration of the resistance of a conductor, position,
207.] It
208.]
213
namely If one electrode of a conductor be in communication with the earth, and the other with a conducting sphere charged originally with any amount of electricity, then the resistance of the conductor is the reciprocal of the velocity with which the radius
of the sphere
must diminish, in order that the potential of the
constant, notwithstanding the loss of electhrough the conductor *. Let the initial radius of the sphere be #, and the mass of its initial charge be then the original potential V will ;
sphere
may remain
tricity
i,
be
M
a
and da be the simultaneous small decrements of and a in the small time dt, then, since by hypothesis V is constant, we must have
If
~
dM
M _dM ~
a
da
But
if
be the Resistance of the conductor,
we have
K
"
\_
Multiplying these equations together we get
Bda da_ 1 ~-'

On
the Value
dt_
208.]
(a)
of the Resistance in particular Cases.
A series
of wires of the
same material but
different trans-
verse sections joined together in series end to end.

&c.
Al
A2
A3
Fig. 30.
At
Let the
wires,
n in number, be
AÂ^ A 2 A 3 AZ A^
,
&c.
Let
let
the resistances in these wires be RL, 2 tials at the points A lt A2 A B9 &c. be

,
H R3
,
&c.
, ,
Let the poten&o.
7lf 72 73
And
The
proposition
is
taken from Mascart and Joubert's Electricity and
214
[208.
the intensity of the current, which must be the same in each wire, be i.
Then, by the continuity of the current and Ohm's law, we have

v _ Fl~ F _ F2~ F
'
'
'
fc
FF n~
'
r
n+i
R,
If therefore
R,
Rn
_ _ v ~ ~R,+ R
I
FF
z
.
n+1
R be the
resistance in this case,
(/5)
The
resistance in the case of a multiple arc conductor.
The conductor is called a multiple arc when it is formed, as in the figure, of a number of separate wires branching off from A,
Fig. 31.
the extremity of one wire a A, and converging to the extremity of another wire Bb at B. Let F Fb be the potentials at A
,
and B respectively. In this case the electromotive force in each separate transit If R^ R2 &c. be the from A to B is the same, viz. Fa Fb
.
,
resistances of the wires, %, them, and i the current in

,
&c. the currents flowing through
A a, we
&c.
have
6
,
= R =
i2
2
= in Rn = Fa- F
if j5
be the resistance sought, and therefore
JL
JL RI
in
J_
Rn
_L
wire, as for instance
i
The current flowing

,
.
any particular
iE
^H
\
is
equal to
If
we denote the
conductivities
by
: ...
2 ...
n,
we have
It follows from (a) that the resistance in a wire of given
210.]
215
uniform section varies directly as the length of the wire, and it follows from ((3) that the resistance in a conductor consisting of any number (n) of similar and equal wires placed side by side is
- th of the resistance of any one of the wires taken singly, %

hence the resistance of a wire of given substance and given length varies inversely as the area of the transverse section,
or generally the resistance in a wire of given material varies as the length directly and the transverse section inversely, as
already stated. 209.] If we have a homogeneous wire of which the area of a transverse section at distance s from one end is /(<?), the resistance
per unit of length at the same point

rs
is
/W
.
and the resistance

if
$s
of the portion s of the wire
is
JQ
/W
Hence,
be the*
s,
when a current
a at distance potential at the end in question, the potential i flows from that end, is found from
Currents of much greater complexity may occur in practice and are of great importance. We shall later on investigate a more general case of a system of wires traversed by electric
currents.
of wires, 210.] When the conductor is not a wire, or collection have seen that but a continuous conducting substance, we
Ohm's law may be expressed by the equation
**??
ds
the intensity of current which traverses an equithe neighbourhood of any point potential elementary area dS in is an element of the line of force at which the potential is F", ds
where
is
is a constant at all points in the subthrough the point, and stance depending on the nature of its material. When any given regions of such a conductor are kept at uniform given unequal potentials, a permanent current state
216
is

;
[211.
soon established the given equipotential regions are in such a case generally termed electrodes, and sometimes sources or sinks of electricity, according to the direction of the current flow from
or towards them.
When
sink,
we may,
these electrodes are two in number, one source and one as in the case of a wire or wires, determine a value
of the ratio of electromotive force to current intensity which will remain constant so long as the substance and position of
the electrodes
is
constant, and this ratio
is
spoken of as the
resistance of the system ; the electromotive force is the difference of the constant potentials of the source and sink, and the
current intensity is measured by the rate of transference from source to sink per unit of time.
211.] As a particular example let us take an infinitely extended and very thin conducting plate, bounded by parallel planes and pierced by two cylinders P and Q which are maintained at
given constant potentials. If the mean plane of the plate be that of x, y> and V be the potential at any point, the conditions that there shall be no
free
electricity within the plate, and that the equipotential surfaces are all normal to the plate, lead to the equations
V F=0,
2
^=0. dz
only,
Hence the problem may be treated as one in two dimensions and the electrodes may be regarded as circles with radii
;
equal to those of the cylinders let these radii be a and l > and let the constant potentials be 9 and Vq respectively.
The equation
in F, or
dx*
~
df
&c., or
may
be
satisfied
r
by assuming
1
F=C +4
taken that
logr,
+4
logr2 +
,
C+2A logr,
where the quantities r l9 r2 &c. are the distances of the point x, y from any assumed fixed points, and these points must be so
is
equal to
Vp
and
Vq
respectively at the circum-
ferences of the circular electrodes.
211.]

circles
217
and Q such circle, and let the
>
Let Op and O q be two points within the

that each
potential
r^
is
the image of the other in
its
own
to
V at
any point be taken equal

the distances
all
C A log -
where
r2
and
r2 are
spectively, then
the
of the point from O and O rep q required conditions will be fulfilled,
provided
C and A
be taken to satisfy the conditions

at the circumference of P,
Vp
= CA log f
log
rz
Vq = C A
inasmuch
Since
as
**2
r2
at the circumference of Q,
is
constant over each of these circumferences.

is so, it
is
constant whenever
r2
follows that the
equipotential curves are circles each one of which is conjugate and Q. The orthogonal trajectories of to the centres of
such
circles, or
the lines of current flow, are circular arcs each

if
passing through these centres, and,
da
and
do
be found at the
find the
circumferences of these circles respectively,

current in unit time in terms of
we can
whole
Vp
in the form of
^=
V
-
is then called the resistance of the the quantity system, reciprocal being the conductivity.
its
In the particular case of the radii a and 6 being equal, and very small compared with ./, the distance between the centres, we find from the above equations
each
= \ V~ V
"
Let
be the current in unit time over the arc ds of the
circumference of the
electrode, then, since r2

is
is
sensibly con-
stant and the direction v of the line of flow
along the radius
ofP,
i
AK ^dV ,dV -K^ -ds=K-dr~ds - --ds, T a dv

T
.
218
where
SYSTEMS OF LTNEAE CONDUCTORS.
[212.
is the conductivity of a unit length of a prism of the conductor of unit breadth. Therefore the total current in unit v
time over the

It
plate,
is
circumference
clear that
if for it
K
we
and
is 2-nai, or 2irKA. proportional to the thickness 8 of the write Kb, the current per unit time will be
is
where
K is now the conductivity through

is
a cube of the substance
whose edge
the unit of length.
Writing
for
the value already found -
V ~
,
we get the
current per unit time equal to
2 log3
ia
and the resistance of the system
is
log
On Systems of Linear
212.]
Conductors.
conductor,
two of whose dimensions are very small

is
compared with the third, as for instance a wire,

conductor.
called a linear
We
conductors.
have had occasion to consider certain properties of linear Firstly, we have seen that if such a conductor be
divided into several parts through which a current flows conC, &c., the resistance of the whole is the secutively, as
A,
sum
of the separate resistances of the several parts. Hence, in case of a homogeneous conductor at uniform temperature, if the
potentials at the ends are at any intermediate point
known we can determine the when a current is flowing.

.
potential
For instance,
extremities are
let
APB
7b
Va
and
be a wire the potentials of whose Let P be an intermediate point, and
let the resistance of
the portion
AP
be rap and that of

,
PB
be
rpb .
Then
if i
be the current,
2 1 3.]
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR CONDUCTORS.
219
Hence
which determines
Similarly, if i
Fp
be given, but the potentials are not given,
we
.
can determine the differences of potential Fa Fp and Va Vb Again, in case of two or more wires connected in multiple arc,
we have shown
that
if
Vm Vb
be the potentials of the extremities
the currents in the several wires are respectively Vb ] a l (V (Va F&), &c., where v K^ &c. are the conductivities of the z
J
wires.
And we
can therefore determine
all
the currents if
Va
and
sum
It
b are given, or the difference of potentials of the currents is given.
Fa
b,
if
the
is
assumed that the wires are
all
of the same metal, and at

called the electrodes.
uniform temperature.
213.]
The points of junction of the wires are
In the above simple case we have only two electrodes. But we may conceive a system of wires meeting in more than one point.
be two wires
For instance, to take a case a little more complicated, APB, AQB, and the
let there
two intermediate points P and Q connected by a third wire.

If the potentials at
given,
^B
and
are
we may determine
Q, as follows.
ap ,
pb ,
those at
P and
Let
K K Kpq be the conductivities

Then, since the
of the three wires
AP,
PB, PQ.
must be
sum
of the currents flowing from
zero,
we have
(r -7,)
(I
= o.
= 0,
Similarly,
*.. (F.- F.J + Z,,
(F- F.) + *M
(F,-
F.)
from which, the conductivities being known, the two unknown Vp and Fq can be determined; and thence the curpotentials,
,
rents are
known.
C, it
If instead of the potentials, the current

at
and leaving
at B, be given,
we have
entering the system three linear equations
220
[214.
to determine the differences of potential
Va
fî,
ô~ ^p
Va -Vq namely, C = Kap (Va - Vp) + Kaq (Va - Vq\

,
The points
and a current
214.]
and
will generally
be at different potentials,
to be at the
will pass along
The
is
case in
which
PQ QP. P and Q happen

or
same
of special importance. In that case no current passes potential in PQ, and the potentials at every point in either wire are the
same as
if
there were no metallic connexion between
P and
Q.
Tkali "
(V'
VA K^
PQ,
unless
current will pass in one or other direction along and Q are at the same potential, that is, unless
This principle
resistance.
is
made use of in instruments
for
measuring
Suppose, for instance,
AX is
and
a wire whose resistance
be a conrax is required. Let ductor whose resistance rxb is known.

Place
BX
AX
XB
so as to form one
conductor
AXB. Let AEB
be a uni-
JB
form wire, E a point in it. If E and be joined by a wire, a current will pass along it in one or
other direction, unless the potential at is the same as at E.
We
increase or diminish the distance of
from
until a
needle suspended near shows no deflection when an electric current is made to pass from A to B. Then we know that the
potential at
EX
X is the same as that at E;

AE
and therefore
2 1 5.]

rax
.
221
which determines
This
is
the principle of the instrument
known
as Wheatstone's Bridge.
trodes, connected each to each
215.] In a more general case, there may be n points, or elecby wires of known conductivities.
Let
(?
Vl
cn
Vn
be the
potentials
at
the
several
electrodes,
the currents which enter the system from without at p these electrodes respectively, taken as negative when a positive
c2 ,
...
current leaves the system.
Then the current
in
AB is
and we have
for the electrodes

)
and
op
= K p (V,- Va + K, f (Vp - Fi) + &c.) = *(?,- r.)+r. (v,- r)+&4 ,

no
electricity
'
and
so
on
for each electrode.
Now
since
can be generated or destroyed within

all
the system, the sum of the currents entering the system at the electrodes must be zero. That is,
e1
+ c2 +...+on =
c's
0.
Therefore only
Also, since
ft
of the
are independent.
are only concerned with the differences of the i independent quantities of the form there are n potentials,
we
independent linear equations of the form between the independent quantities. subsisting 1 of the quantities be given, the equations If therefore any n
In
all
we have n
_
1
2n2
suffice to
determine the others.
For example,
if
the entering
1 of the electrodes, we can detercurrents c be given at any n mine all the differences of potential. And if all the differences of potential are given we can determine the currents.
If
we
differentiate the equation
for
any
electrode, as P,
we
obtain
Similarly, differentiating the equation for
A we
obtain
Since
Kap = Kpa
it
introduction of unit current at
due to the follows that the potential at A is equal to the potential at A
due to the introduction of unit current at P, and so on.
222 GENEKATION OF HEAT BY ELECTRIC CURRENTS.

On
the Generation
\2
6.
of Heat ly Electric Currents.
in
216.] Suppose a uniform current of intensity of resistance R, a linear conductor
/ to be
with
existing
AB
terminal
potentials
VA
and V B
a transference, per unit time, of electricity / from the extremity A to the extremity of B. Now if elt 2 &c. be the charges upon a system of conductors z AH A 2) &c., and if Tl} V , &c. be the corresponding potentials and
There
is
W the
electric
energy of the system, we have proved that

'
de
consideration, the charge at the A) is extremity A of the conductor, where the potential is T diminished by Idt in the time dt, and that at the extremity J9,
In the case
now under
where the potential is FB) is correspondingly increased by the same quantity. Hence, since VA is greater than V there is by B
,
the process a diminution of the electric energy of the system in
time dt equal to
(VA
-VB)Idt.
R
But by Ohm's
law,
we have
Therefore the diminution of electric energy, owing to the

existence of the current, in the time dt
is
K
This
is
= RPdt.
field in
the work done ly the electrical forces in the

electric
time dt in the passage of the current 7 through the conductor,
and this work done, or
energy
lost,,
must reappear
in
heat evolved in the conductor
AB in
the same time.
If therefore / represent the Joule heat- equivalent, the heat evolved per unit time will be
RI*
~J"
to prove by direct experiment that the rate of evolution of heat in any wire through which a current passes
first
Joule was the
2l8.]
is
GENEKATION OF HEAT BY ELECTRIC CURRENTS. 223
proportional to the square of the intensity of the current,
and we now see that this result follows directly from Ohm's law and the principle of the conservation of energy. 217.] If the current, C, having been generated in a system, be allowed to decay by the resistance R, the value of the current at time t after the commencement is C*~ Rt Hence the total
.
quantity of heat generated
when
the current has ceased
is
&C*
*/o
*+**& = 1C*.
sometimes called the energy of the
For
this reason
\C Z
is
current.
It is supposed here that the current during this process is uninfluenced by any other current, or by any magnetic field, as
we
shall see later that electric currents in the
same
field
exert
mutual action on each other.
On
the Generation of
Heat
in a System of Linear Conductors.
218.] In the simple case of a number of wires in multiple are arc, we have seen that R^C^ = -S2 <?2 = &c., where Clt 2 &c. the currents, and R lt R^ &c. the resistances in the respective
,
wires.
If the total current
Cl + C2 -f &c.,
among
distribution of the current
or 2 C be given, this is the the several wires which makes

y
the heat generated per unit of time a minimum. For *2,R Z C is the heat generated, and the condition that this should be mini-
given 2 C is that R C = R2 C2 = &c. The same property can be proved (Maxwell's Electricity and Magnetism, 283) for the more general system, provided there be no internal electromotive forces.
mum
For
let
Cay Cb)
linear conductors at the electrodes A, H, &c.
&c. be the given currents entering a system of Let Cps be the
current in any wire PS determined according to the process above described, so that
or
Ohm's law by
cps = (vp -r,)Kpi Vp -V, = Rpt Cpt

Let us next suppose the same
total current constrained to flow
through the system according to any other
mode
of distribution,
224
ELECTROMOTIVE FOBCE OF CONTACT.

sum
[219.
without however altering the

or to
any
electrode.
Let,* for instance, the

.
of the currents flowing from current in PS be
Cp8 + Xps
instead of
Cps
.
Then the heat generated Ohm's law is 2.RC 2
in the distribution according to
And
or
the heat generated in the constrained distribution
is
But
for each electrode A> JB,

is
&c. the
sum
of the entering
currents
unaltered.
Hence, for any electrode as A,
or
2Xa = 0.
2^RCX=Q.
Hence
Therefore the heat generated per unit of time in the con2 2 in is , and exceeds that generated 2 the original system by the essentially positive quantity 2
strained system
2KC +2RX
EX
Electromotive Force of Contact.
219.] Up to this point we have introduced the restriction that the conductors with which we are concerned shall be of the same
substanee throughout.
The reason
of this restriction, which in
strictness is equally required in electrostatic investigations, will
now
be considered.
Volta believed that when two different metals were placed in contact, the potential of one of them was always higher than
that of the other, and this without any disturbance of electric In fact, that instead of the condition of electric equilibrium.
Constant throughout equilibrium being V the condition should really be, ducting space,
all
continuous con-
when such conductdifferent
ing space
is
composed of substances of
,
materials,
&c., in the regions occupied by these substances respectively; the values of the constants Clt C2 (?3 &c. being dependent upon the nature of the substances, and the
(?3
, , ,
C19 V =. C2 V =.
electric distribution in the field
subject only to this restriction, that in every case of electrostatic equilibrium of a compound
;
221.]
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF CONTACT.
225
Cr Cg of the constant potentials of any two given substances should always be the same at the same
conductor the difference
temperature.
220.] For instance, if a zinc wire and a copper wire were held by insulating- supports, and brought into contact at one end of each,
the potential of each wire would be the same throughout, but that of the zinc would exceed that of the copper by a quantity
always the same for the same temperature.
If platinum were
substituted for copper a similar result would be observed, but the difference of potentials (the temperature being the same as before)
would be
If platinum, and copper were similarly connected, less. the platinum would stand at the higher potential, and the constancy of temperature being still maintained, it would be found that the excess of potential of zinc over copper in the first case,
supposed above, was equal to the
sum
of the excesses of the
potentials of zinc over platinum and platinum over copper in the two last cases. This difference of potentials is generally called the electromotive contact forces of the two metals, and is for
metals
It
is
and
B denoted
by A/B.
considered as positive if the metal of higher contact potential is placed before the line and negative if the reverse, so
A/B + B/A = 0, and if there were three metals J, B> and C whose electromotive contact forces at any temperature were A/B for A and B and B/C for B and <?, then the electromotive contact force for A and C at the same temperature would be A/B -f B/C or in other words, for the same temperature we have
that
;
the equations
and
If the metal
A/B + B/C+C/A=0.
at any temperature stand at a higher potential than B, it is said to be electropositive with to be electronegative with regard to A. regard to j5, and Volta with his followers regarded all metals as having 221.]
in contact with
certain specific affinities for the positive fluid, so that in cases of contact the electropositive metal of the pair becomes charged
similar effect is positively with reference to the other metal. on this view supposed to attend the contact of all conducting
VOL.
I.
226
CUEEENTS THEOUGH CONDUCTORS.
[222.
bodies, whether metallic 01* non-metallic, solid or liquid, in the absence
In the case of composite liquid conductors of chemical action. chemical decomposition ensues on contact, and the electromotive
is on such decomposition diminished, or reduced to the contact difference of potentials being, on this view, ; dependent upon the absence of chemical action.
contact force
zero
According to the views entertained by other physicists, the dependent upon the medium in which the touching bodies are situated, and is in all cases the
difference of potential at contact is
remit of chemical action in that medium.

is
The
latter hypothesis
by experiment*, and the cannot be regarded as being yet thoroughly decided. subject Meanwhile we may, without waiting for a solution of the difficulty, develop the laws of this electromotive force of contact, so
to a certain extent at least borne out
far as
222.]
they have been experimentally determined. Ohm's law as originally enunciated contemplates a wire of
homogeneous substance throughout. The laws of current intensity and of evolution of heat in the case of wires in series require modification when these wires are not of the same materials
:
v a vb
V~
~m~
Fig- 34-
~F
For example, let there be two wires of metals A and B touching at m. Let the potentials of A at the free end and at m be V and V and let those of B at the corresponding points be a9 v
Let Ra and R b be the resistances of the A and B wires Then by Ohm's respectively, and let i be the current intensity. law
?2 and
b.
Ra
if
Ra + R b
R
be total resistance as
F! be greater than
29
and
if
* See a Paper by Exner, Phil. Mag. vol. x. p. 280, and works there cited. third view, suggested by Professor Oliver J. Lodge, is that each metal in the absence of contact with another metal is at lower potential than the surrounding air by an amount depending on the heat developed in its oxidation, that on contact the potentials of the two metals become equal, the more oxidisable metal receiving a positive and the other a negative charge.
224-]
previously defined,
PELTIER EFFECT.
the term
227
B/A
positive or negative according as negative with regard to A.
is
being, as above explained, electropositive or electro-
If there had been any

&c., the equation
number
of wires of metals
A lt A2 A 3
,
would have been
R
So that Ohm's law might
still
ment, provided the external electromotive force
be enunciated for such an arrangeY 7J were l
increased by the electromotive contact forces at the respective junctions, regard being paid to the signs of these forces, and the resistance being the sum of the resistances in the respective wires.
223.] In the multiple arc arrangement with initial and final wires of metals A and _Z?, and connecting wires of metals m-^ m 2
,
,
&c., if i be the current intensity in
or B,
and
that in the
of
wire
and
mr with resistance Er) V^ and 7J the potentials 7r and Vf of m r at the junctions, we have V V r
,
A and
B,
V
V
Rr
and therefore
Rr
Rr
>
So that
in this case also the
same expression
results as in the
already investigated, provided the external electromotive force be increased by B/A.
homogeneous multiple
arc
in the case of 224.] The expression for the energy dissipated wires in series also requires to be modified when the wires are
not of the same metal throughout. If as in the last article there be two wires of metals
and B,
and the notation of that
article
The
total loss of electric
be retained, we have energy per unit time as the current
passes from the free extremity of
A Q2
to that of
B=
(J^
V^)i.
228
PELTIER EFFECT.
[225.
Therefore the whole heat generated must be
J
But by the equation above obtained
Therefore the heat generated
is
be positive the heat generated in the compound wire of resistance R by the passage of the current of
that
is to say, if
B/A
Hi 2
intensity
i is less
than
=-
or
what
it
would have been had the

'
' ,
wire been homogeneous, by the quantity
and
is
greater
than
j- by /
'-
if
A/E
be positive
that
is
to say,
when
a current in passing through a circuit of heterogeneous metal wires traverses a junction from an electronegative to an electropositive metal there is absorption of heat at the junction, and the contrary, there is evolution of heat in the passage from electropositive to an electronegative metal.
on an
was
225.] This absorption and evolution of heat at metal junctions first observed by Peltier, and the phenomenon is called after his
;
name it is physically analogous to the absorption and evolution of heat accompanying chemical dissociation and combination respectively, the electricity at the junction being raised to a
higher, or sinking to a lower potential in the respective cases, just as the chemical potential of the dissociated or combined elements is raised or depressed. The actual amount of heating
or cooling as experimentally observed is always less than the theory requires, and in some cases is of the opposite sign ;
indicating, apparently, that the whole electromotive contact force of Volta is not to be sought in the mere metallic contact, but in the action of the surrounding medium.
CHAPTER
XIII.
OF VOLTAIC AND THERMOELECTRIC CURRENTS.

ARTICLE 226.] IF any number of wires of different metals are joined together in series, and are kept at the 2 1/3, l
3fl9
M!
M
Fig. 35-
same temperature throughout, the wire of metal l beginning and ending the series, it follows from the laws of contact action above stated that each wire is at the same potential throughout its length, and that the beginning and wires are also ending l at the same potentials, inasmuch as the sum of the electromotive
contact forces
M^M^ -f M2 /M3 + M /M
3
is
zero
be formed by joining the free ends of the

will ensue.
hence
if
a circuit
wires no current
wire a composite conductor L, and thus complete the circuit, the electroliquid motive contact forces L/MZ and L/M% are modified, the liquid L
If however
we
substitute for the
M^
being at the same time decomposed. According to the extreme views of the Volta contact theory, the last-mentioned electromotive forces disappear with the deat their 2 z and composition, the liquid L and the metals points of immersion in that liquid are reduced to the same
potential, the
electromotive
contact forces Jf2/M"3
&c. of the
forces
metallic junctions are no longer compensated
by the
L/M2
and
L/MZt
and a current ensues through the wires and
liquid.
Suppose, for instance, the liquid be dilute sulphuric acid and the metals be plates of zinc and copper partially immersed and having their unimmersed ends attached to platinum wires, so long
as these platinum wires are not united to each other, the zinc, the copper, and the liquid stand, according to this theory, at the
same potential (V suppose), but the platinum wires attached to and the zinc and copper plates are at the potentials
VZ/P
230
VOLTAIC CURRENTS.
respectively.
[227.
V+P/C
electric equilibrium
If now the platinum wires be united, can no longer be maintained, inasmuch as
the two portions of the same platinum wire are now at potenHence a tials differing from each other by Z/P + P/C or Z/C. of electricity must take place through the platinum wire flow
from the copper to the zinc plate, raising the potential of the zinc and depressing that of the copper. The inequality of the potentials thus produced in these im-
mersed plates is again destroyed by the action of the liquid, which is at the same time decomposed, oxide of zinc being formed at the zinc plate, which is dissolved as soon as formed,
and hydrogen being given off at the copper plate, and thus a permanent current ensues in the closed circuit of copper, platinum, zinc, liquid, copper, and in the direction indicated by the Such an arrangement is called a Voltaic order of these words. current, the vessel containing the liquid and plates is called a Voltaic cell, the decomposable liquid is called an electrolyte^ and its decomposition on the passage of the current is called electroThe intermediate platinum wire is in no respect essential lysis. to the process, which would have equally taken place if the copper and zinc plates had been in immediate external contact
with each other.
227.] According to the theory of the Voltaic circuit, above explained in outline, the potential rises discontinuously at the metallic junction or junctions outside the cell, and falls continu-
ously throughout the rest of the circuit ; the whole electromotive

force of the current is sought for in the contact force at the junctions, the function of the chemical action in the cell being
limited to the continued equalisation of potentials within the cell as fast as the equality is destroyed by the electric flow.
According
to the chemical theory of the circuit,
which
is
now
accepted, a discontinuous change of potential takes place at the junctions between the metals and the liquid, those being the points at which, as we shall see presently,
more generally
energy for the maintenance of the current

absorbed.
is
in fact evolved or
The
only
it is
known
true theory of the cell is not finally settled, that the chemical decomposition is an essential
229.]
VOLTAIC CURRENTS.
231
part of the phenomenon. It is possible however to develop certain fundamental laws of the action, which are essentially the same
the liquid in the
whatever be the metals constituting the plates, and whatever be cell, provided it be capable of electrolysis.
228.] The plates by which the current enters and leaves the cell are called electrodes, that by which it enters is called the anode,
and that by which it leaves is called the cathode, the two elements into which the electrolyte is decomposed are called the ions, the
element appearing at the anode is called the anion, and that appearing at the cathode is called the cation.
Let the metal electrodes be called
and
N respectively, and
v at the
the two constituents, or ions, into which the liquid is resolved be called TT and v respectively. On the passage of the current
the ion
TT
will appear at the electrode
and the ion
electrode P.
(1)
Then
it is
found that
TT
The
ratio of the
masses in which the two constituents
and
v appear at the electrodes is that of their
combining weights.
(2)
The absolute mass of each ion

is
so deposited per unit of
time
proportional to the strength of the current, or in other for each unit of positive electricity transmitted a certain words,
mass of each ion

This
is
deposited at the corresponding electrode. called the electrochemical equivalent of that ion.
is
So long as the electrolyte is the same, the ions into which decomposed are the same, whatever the metals constituting and the same ions appear at the anode and the electrodes cathode respectively. One or both of the ions may be com(3)
it is
;
pounds, and the same constituent which in one electrolyte becomes an anion, may in another electrolyte become a cation.
(4)
The source whence the energy,

is is
requisite for the maintenance
the arrangement of the elements of derived, the electrolyte and the immersed plates in a combination of lower chemical potential energy than that which existed anterior
of the current,
to the current.
action of the typical cell described above of zinc and copper plates in diluted sulphuric acid may be supposed to be as follows. The chemical arrangement before the circuit was
229.]
The
completed was
Zn H^SOl
. . .
H SO^
2
Cu
232
VOLTAIC CTJKKENTS.
it is
[230.
and during the existence of the current
ZnSOv
The
and
zinc
first
...
ff^Cu.
the
zinc
combines with the oxygen of the water (ff2 0), oxide is then replaced by the zinc sulphate
Zn S0, which being soluble leaves the zinc plate free for further The potential chemical energy of Zn S04 is less than action. that of 7/2 0, or, as more practically expressed, the heat evolved and Zn 0, S03 is greater than that by the combinations Zn
required for the decomposition of the current energy.
230.]
H 0, the difference furnishing

2
A
the
feeble current
might have been obtained with water
cell, the chemical arrangements before and after the completion of the circuit being
only in
and
ZnO.^H^Cu
respectively. But in this case, since the oxide
Zn is insoluble in water, the zinc plate would soon, by its oxidation, become unfit for action, and the current would cease. may however use this
We
ideal case as
an example.
TI
In
this case the ions
and v are
and
respectively.
Taking
unity as the combining number for hydrogen, that of oxygen Therefore one gramme of zinc is 8, and that of zinc is 32-53.
takes in combination with oxygen the place of 32-53
g
of hydrogen, each combining with o &'5 o
grammes
of
or -246
gramme
oxygen. The heat evolved by the combination of one gramme The heat which would of zinc with the oxygen is 1310 units *.
be evolved on the combination of -7^-^ O '53
gramme
of hydrogen
with the oxygen, and which is therefore absorbed on their disTherefore for every gramme of zinc sociation, is 1060 units.
* The object in this and the two following articles being illustration only, the absolute numerical values are of less importance. The system of units and the numerical values are those employed in Hospitaller's Formulaire pratique de
VElectricien, English Edition, p. 214.
232.]
oxidised the
VOLTAIC CURRENTS.
excess
233
that
of
heat evolved
over
absorbed
is
(1310 1060) units; that is, 250 units. Again, for every unit of current 00034
oxidised.
gramme
of zinc
is
the electrochemical equivalent of zinc. Therefore for every unit of current the excess of heat evolved over that absorbed is -00034x250. And this is
is
In other words, -00034
equivalent to an
amount
of mechanical
work
34 x 250
'
100000
force of the
where /
is
Joule's factor.
Now
if
F be the electromotive
is
cell, i
the current,
the amount of heat evolved

of heat evolved
Fi.
is
And
therefore the
is,
amount
by unit current
'
F.
That
"
34x250
100000
231.] It
is usual, as
above
said,
to
dilute sulphuric acid, the formula for this case we may suppose that the 2
employ instead of water OS03 In which is 2 is decomposed, and in
the
first
is
place oxide of zinc, Then the Zn set free.

4
.
Zn.
formed, and the hydrogen combines with the fiOSi forming The heat evolved by this last-mentioned combination
ZnO,
is
must be added
oxygen H
of heat.
to the
250 units above mentioned.
One gramme
of zinc combines with -246 of a
gramme
of
being decomposed with the evolution of 250 units 2 And 1-246 grammes of oxide of zinc combine with S03
with the evolution of 360 units.
Adding together 360 and 250,
we obtain 610 units as the total heat evolved. are 232.] In the cell known as Darnell's cell the electrodes one of zinc and copper, but there are two liquid electrolytes, them saturated solution of sulphate of copper in contact with the copper, and the other dilute sulphuric acid in contact with
the zinc, the mixing of the liquids being prevented by a porous diaphragm which does not interfere with the electrolytic conduction, that
is
to say,
the liberated ions pass through the
diaphragm but the liquids do not. The following posed to be the action of such a cell.
may
be sup-
234
The
VOLTAIC CURRENTS.
[233.
electrolysis of the II2 S0 in contact with the zinc gives a chemical action identical with that of the last case, but does not as in that case remain free. It passes the hydrogen 2
rise to
through the diaphragm and displaces an equivalent of copper in the sulphate of copper Cu <S04 giving as a result S04 and 2
,
depositing the copper on the copper plate. In estimating the electromotive force of this battery the dissociation and combination of the water counteract each other, 2
and the resulting force is the difference between the heat of combination of zinc with S0 and that of copper with the same
element.
The heat of combination fin $04 we have already found to be units, being the sum of Zn.O (1310 units) and ZO.SO^ (360 units), and the heat of combination CuSO is 881 units. The difference, i. e. the thermal measure of the chemical action, is 789 units. The product of this 789 by TT nnnr the electro1670
chemical equivalent of zinc, gives the thermal measure of the chemical action for each unit of electricity transmitted, and this
result again, multiplied
by
Joule's factor, gives the electromotive
force of a Daniell's cell in the ordinary mechanical units. 233.] The electromotive force of a cell in which unit
in centimetre-gramme-second
electricity transmitted is
work
force.
measure
is
done
for
each unit of
taken for the unit of electromotive
It
is
called a Volt.
Volts.
The
Daniell's cell gives in practice about 1-079 unit resistance is an Ohm, and may be defined to be
The 48-5 metres of copper wire of one millimetre thickness. unit current is called an Ampere, and is the current generated by
an electromotive force of one Volt in a conductor whose resistance
is
one
Ohm.
The electromotive
effect
234.]
force of a cell
may
be expressed in
general terms as follows.
Let the
into
See Fleeming Jenkin's Electricity. of the unit current be to decompose a constituent

of one ion
TT,
grammes
e
and
e'
grammes
of the other ion
v.
Then
and
'
are the electrochemical equivalents of the
two
IT and v. Let 6 be the quantity of heat absorbed in the combination of unit mass of TT with the corresponding mass of v, and let 0' be
substances of
236.]
VOLTAIC CURRENTS.
235
v.
the heat absorbed in the same combination for unit mass of
Then
= 0'
e' is
the heat evolved in the circuit for every unit

is
of current.
And
cell.
in mechanical units J#e
the electromotive force of the

as in the case of
is
If the chemical action be

cell,
more complex,
the DanielPs
it
still
remains true that the heat evolved
is to be found as the proportional to e or e', and algebraic sum of the heat evolved and absorbed by all the chemical changes
from which the ions
result.
235.] By increasing the dimensions of the cell we do not increase the electromotive force of the circuit, but we diminish the
resistance within the cell,
and we therefore
increase the intensity of
the current, especially in cases where the external portion of the circuit is of a small resistance, and where therefore the resistance
of the
cell
becomes appreciable
and the same
result follows
when
several cells act together, the zinc plates being severally connected, and likewise the copper plates, for this arrangement is
in its electrical effects the
same as
if all
the zinc and
all
the
copper plates were severally combined into one zinc and one copper plate with areas respectively equal to the aggregate areas
and copper plates in the separate cells. If however the zinc of one cell be united with the copper of the next, and so on in order, the cells are said to be in series, the
of the zinc
electromotive force of the separate
is
cells,
of the separate electromotive forces and the arrangement is called a voltaic or
the
sum
galvanic battery. If the discontinuous rise of potential in case of a circuit formed of a single cell be E, then in case of a circuit formed of
two or more
there
are
cells in series it will
be repeated as
many
times as
rise of
cells.
According
to the Volta theory, this
potential takes place at the junction between the copper of the first cell and the zinc of the second, and so on. According to the chemical theory the change takes place in
each
between the metals and the liquid according to either view the electromotive force of n cells in series is n times that
cell
of a single cell. 236. ] If we have a
number of
cells
of different kinds connected
236
ELECTROLYSIS.
[237.
in series, the electromotive force of the series will be the algebraic sum of the electromotive forces of the separate cells.
might for instance place a single Daniell's more powerful batteries, connecting the zinc two
We
cell
between
plate of the
single cell with the terminal zinc plate of one battery, and the copper plate of the single cell with the terminal copper plate of another battery. Then in calculating the electromotive force of
the system, we must take that of the single cell as negative. In that case the current is forced through the single
against
237.]
its
cell
own
electromotive force.
A cell in which no chemical actions can take place on the of the current, evolving more heat than is absorbed, cannot passage maintain a current. But it may be possible by connecting its poles
with another battery to force a current through it and this current may have the effect of decomposing the liquid of the first cell, work being done in it by the external battery against the chemical
;
forces of the cell itself.
Such a
cell is called
an
electrolytic cell.
238.] Cases exist in which the ions formed in an electrolytic cell do not escape, but enter into new combinations within the cell.
Such new combinations, since work has been done against the chemical forces in forming them, are of higher chemical potential than the original combinations which they replace.
They may be capable of decomposition and
restoration to their
original condition under the influence of a reverse electric current, in which case heat will be evolved, and the cell in its new state
will be a Voltaic cell capable of maintaining a current. Such a cell is called a secondary cell, or an accumulator, because the
work done
called
in producing the first chemical changes, or as it is charging the cell, is stored up in it, and may be made
available, as required, to
maintain an electric current.
Such is in its essential features the theory of the Plante battery and other allied forms, in which, when charged, one plate is of lead and the other consists of peroxide of lead, and the liquid used is generally dilute sulphuric acid. The cell when so charged maintains a current from lead to peroxide through the liquid, and from peroxide to lead outside, the chemical change being the conversion of the peroxide into protoxide of lead. Then by forcing
240.]
ELECTROLYSIS.
237
is
a current through the cell in the reverse direction the protoxide again converted into peroxide.
239.] Clausius has suggested a theory of electrolysis, supposing that the molecules of all bodies are in a state of constant agitation
;
that in solid bodies each molecule never passes beyond a certain distance from its mean position but that in fluids a molecule, after moving a certain distance from its original position, is just
;
as likely to
move
further from
it
as to
move back
the molecules of a fluid apparently at rest
Hence again. are continually
changing their
positions,
of the fluid to another.
and passing irregularly from one part In a compound fluid he supposes that
not only the compound molecules move about in this way, but that in the collisions that occur between the compound molecules,
the molecules, or rather submolecules of which they are composed, are often separated and change partners, so that the same individual submolecule is at one time associated with one sub-
molecule of the opposite kind, and at another time with another.
This process Clausius supposes to go on in the liquid at all times, but when an electromotive force acts on the liquid the motions of
the submolecules, which before were indifferently in are now influenced by the electromotive force,
all directions,
so
that the
positively charged submolecules have a greater tendency towards the cathode than towards the anode, and the negatively charged
submolecules have a greater tendency to move in the opposite Hence the submolecules of the cation will during direction.
their intervals of freedom struggle towards the cathode, but will be continually checked in their course by pairing for a time
with submolecules of the anion, which are also struggling through the crowd but in the opposite direction. of electrolysis be or be 240.] Whether this view of the process not accepted as corresponding to a physical reality, it gives us
a clear picture of the process, and is in accordance with the prinBy means of certain assumptions more or cipal known facts.
we may extend the hypothesis to the explanation of the process of electrical conduction, at any rate through a liquid, as to do this it is only necessary to suppose that each submolecule
less plausible
when acting
as
an ion
is
charged with a definite amount of elec-
238
tricity, in
ELECTROLYSIS.
accordance with the statement
electricity transferred
[241.
made above that the
amount of
for the
is the same same number of liberated ions, the charge of the cation being positive and that of the anion negative, by which conception the conduction current becomes assimilated to a convection current,
during electrolysis
or,
perhaps more correctly, to the transfer of motion along a row
of equal and perfectly elastic balls in contact. Many difficulties the way of this hypothesis, as for instance the present themselves in fact that certain ions are anions in some electrolytes and cations
in others.
We do not
stop to consider these difficulties in detail,
because the whole hypothesis, while useful in furnishing a mental picture of these processes, is not essential to the enunciation
and mathematical development of the laws by which they are

regulated.
241.] In practice, Voltaic
cells,
especially single fluid cells, are
liable to certain defects, the chief of these
being irregularity of electromotive force arising from the accumulation of the ions at the electrodes, thereby causing what is termed electrolytic polarisation,
That such an or an electromotive force opposed to the current. accumulation of the ions would engender this opposing force is
any rate on the hypothesis of Clausius, because, having with their electric charges at their respective electrodes, parted there is no longer any action tending to keep them in this
obvious, at
and they necessarily tend to recombine. This opor negative electromotive force is not so obvious in its posing effects in a Voltaic cell, because in such a cell there is at all
position,
times a preponderating positive force, but exhibited in an electrolytic or resisting cell.
it
may
be clearly
If the electrodes of
such a cell be platinum plates and the contained liquid be water, then so long as the current is maintained oxygen is given off at If the current be the anode and hydrogen at the cathode.
suspended and the platinum plates externally connected by a wire, a current will pass through this wire in the reverse direction, that is to say from the anode to the cathode, and the liberated
gases in the
cell will
recombine.
The
special defect arising

it
from polarisation
of current which
produces.
the irregularity If the current be suspended for

is
243-]
THERMOELECTRIC CURRENTS.
it
239
will start
any experimental purpose and then again renewed,

with greater intensity than
is
ultimately maintained.
Of
242.]
at the
Thermoelectric Circuits.
If a circuit be formed of wires of two or more metals same temperature, the contact differences of potential are
consistent with each wire being at uniform potential throughout its length, and therefore produce no current.
But the
contact difference of potential
is
a function of the
temperature at the point of contact. If therefore the junctions be at unequal temperatures, it is not generally possible that each wire should have constant potential throughout its length. We
therefore expect that a current will ensue. 243.] It has been shown by Magnus that in an unequally heated complete circuit of a single metal no current is produced
by the inequality of temperature.
On
there
is
the other hand, Sir W. Thomson has shown that generally an electromotive force from the hot to the cold parts of
the same metal, or from cold to hot, according to the metal and the temperature, but that in a complete circuit the total electro-
motive force
is zero. As in order to prevent a current from flowing from copper to zinc in contact, it is necessary that the potential of the zinc should exceed that of the copper by the
quantity Z/C ; so in order to prevent a current from flowing from an element of the zinc at temperature t + dt to an adjoining element at temperature t, it is necessary that the potential of the
second element should exceed that of the

or, if
first
by a
certain
the potential be constant, there is an electroquantity adt, motive force vdt. This quantity a is for any given metal a function of the temperature, and may be positive or negative,
but has generally different values

originally called by metal in question.
for different metals.
It
was
Thomson the
specific
heat of electricity for the
According to this law, if a and Vb be the at the ends of a wire unequally heated, the electropotentials /*<* motive force in it is
Va -Vb +
<rdt.
Jb
Since
o-
is
for
any given metal a function of the temperature
240
THERMOELECTRIC FORCES.
any closed
a-dt
[244.
one metal,
alone, it is evident that for
circuit of
however the temperature vary,

motive
force,
0,
or there
is
no electro-
which agrees with the law of Magnus. This difference of potential, due to difference of temperature, is frequently called the Thomson effect,' and a- the coefficient of the
'
Thomson
effect.
Professor Tait
has shown experimentally that throughout
ordinary temperatures, and probably at all temperatures, o- is It is positive for proportional to the absolute temperature.
some metals, negative
for others,
and
is
nearly zero for lead.
It follows from the above statements that in a circuit of
two
metals with unequally heated junctions we have to consider two causes, each of which may produce a current, viz. the unequal contact differences of potential -at the junctions, and the electro-
motive force due to variations of temperature in the same metal. 244.] It is found that in general an electric current flows
accompanied with equalisation of the unequal If JR be unless these be artificially maintained. temperatures the resistance of the circuit, i the current, the electromotive force
round the
circuit,
is
Ri.
Such a
couple.
circuit is called a thermoelectric circuit, or thermo-
electric
The electromotive
force is
found to obey the
following experimental laws. I. If the temperatures of the junctions be t and t and if p qt A p/.q be the electromotive force when A and B are the two
metals,
and
B p/ C when B and C are

q
the two metals, then
This was proved by Becquerel.

II. If a thermoelectric couple
be formed with given metals
and B, and p and (f be
if its
electromotive force with junction temperatures A p/q>B, and with junction temperatures q' and q be
then the electromotive force of the couple when the junction temperatures are p and q will be
A q'/q B,
that
is,
A*/t B
is
This also
due to Becquerel.
245-]
III.
The
direction of the current, that
is
241
it
whether
be from
to
J3,
or from
to A, at the hot junction
depends on the mean
temperature of the junctions. When the mean temperature of the junctions for a given pair of metals is below a certain temperature T, dependent upon these
metals, the current sets in one direction through the hot junction, and when the mean temperature is above T the current sets in the opposite direction, or the electromotive force This was discovered by Seebeck.
is
reversed.
called the neutral temperature for the In an iron and copper couple this pair of metals employed.
is
The temperature
neutral temperature is, according to Sir W. Thomson, about 280 C. When the mean temperature of the junctions is below
the current sets from copper to iron through the hot junction, and when it is above this the current sets from iron to
this,
copper through that junction. IV. For any constant temperature of the cold junction, the electromotive force is the same when that of the hot junction
is
T+x,
as
when
it
is
x,
and
is
maximum when
it is
T.
This was established by Gaugain, and results from Tait's exIt may be expressed thus The electromotive force periments.
:
of the couple between temperatures
and
is
proportional to
The following phenomena

245.]
:
is
a mathematical explanation of these
If the difference of temperature between the two junctions be very small, as dt, the electromotive force of the couple must be proportional to
it,
and
for the metals
and
B may be
denoted
by
(t> ab dt,
where
is for <j> ab
the given metals a function of the
mean temperature
the current sets from
of the junctions, and is taken as positive when A to at the hot junction. It is called
the thermoelectric power of the two metals at temperature t. It follows from II. that if the temperatures of the junctions be tQ and tlt where t^ 1 is finite, the electromotive force is
$ ab dt which
}
for the
given metals
is
a function of
tQ
and
rf
Again,
VOL.
I.
if
we take any
particular metal for a standard, and
242
denote
it
by the
suffix
o, it
[246.
follows from I. that the electromotive
force for the couple in which the metals are temperatures of the junctions t and 1} is
and
Z?,
and the
r
Jt
't
If the reference to the standard be understood, we may call the thermoelectric power of the metal A. And in that case <j) a
the thermoelectric power of the couple formed of the metals
and
with junctions at temperatures ri

*^
and
tf
is
^0
It
is
usual to take lead as the standard metal.

functions
The
$ a and
<f) b
may
be positive or negative, and for
the same metal

tive at others.
may
be positive at some temperatures and negafor
It
is
deduced from the experiments of Professor Tait that
each metal
perature;
ature,
-j~
that
has a constant value independent of the temis,

<p a
at
/3,
where
is
the absolute temper-
same metal. Hence if t and x be the lower and upper temperatures of a circuit of metals A and A, and
a, ft
are constants for the

tf
Also
if
T be
the neutral temperature at which
<b aa
>=
0,
and
is
proportional to
as stated in IV.
we may
246.] Adopting a method originally suggested by Thomson, represent the thermoelectric powers of different metals
at different
temperatures by a diagram.
Let
the
abscissa
246.]
243
represent absolute temperature, and for any given metal let the ordinate represent its thermoelectric power, that is, the thermo-
power of a couple composed of that metal and lead, with the temperatures of the junctions infinitely near that denoted by the abscissa.
electric
It follows then from the constancy of
that the locus of
d>
at
is
a right line inclined to the axis of x at the angle tan" 1 -^-
and that
for any given abscissa, as that corresponding to 50 C., the difference between the ordinates of any two metals represents the thermoelectric power of a circuit of the two metals at that
temperature. In the annexed diagram atures below 50 C. lead is

,
we
see that for temper-
positive to iron and negative to copper ; from 50 to 284 C.
jj
ZERO CENT
50C
positive to iron and negative to lead ; from 284 to 330 iron is positive to copper
copper
is
and negative to lead; 330 lead is positive to and negative to iron. rally, if for any two
above
copper
GeneFig. 36.
metals
t,
NM be
M'N'
the difference of the ordinates at temperature
and
at temperature t', and if be the neutral point, the thermoelectric power of the couples
E
is
with the junctions at

graphically area
and
t'
represented
by the
whether
Fig. 37-
MEN-M'EN',
M'N'
be at temperature below or above E.
So long as the lower temperature represented by altered, the difference between MEN and M'EN' has
MN
its
is
un-
greatest value when the higher temperature is at E, the neutral point. It becomes zero when the mean temperature of the junctions
is
the neutral temperature.

Further,
if
M'N' and
M"N" be taken
E 2
at equal distances from
244
DISSIPATION OF
of
it,
ENERGY
[247.
E on either side
results agree
MEN-M'EN'= MEN-M"EN".
These
with IV.
247.] Next, let us consider a circuit of three metals
AB, BC,
and CA, the junction A being at temperature t and C at temperature 3 2

,
t ly
B at temperature
2
We may
imagine three lead wires
AD^B,
BD
C,
and
CDZ A
connecting the junctions, and forming three distinct circuits.
The electromotive force of the circuit ABC is the sum of the electromotive
forces of the three circuits
ABÂ,
BCD2 B, CAD3 C,
Fi
8
together with that of the circuit composed of the three
lead wires
AD
BJ) 2 CD^ A.
But, by the law of Magnus, the electromotive force of the

latter circuit
is
zero.
Hence the electromotive

r^
<i>
force of the circuit

rt3
ABC is
dt+
Jtz
<f> b
dt
/*!
<t> c
dt.
Jts
force
In
like
manner we can express the electromotive
due to
any
circuit of different metals
with unequally heated junctions.
may suppose further a circuit composed of alternate 248.] wires of two metals only, A and B, and each alternate junction at the lower temperature tlt and every other junction at the
higher temperature t2 If there be n pairs, the total electromotive force of such a
.
We
circuit
is,
by the
last article,
The pairs are said to be joined in series. By this means the electromotive force of a thermoelectric couple can be multiplied at pleasure. Such an arrangement is called a thermoelectric pile.
Of
the energy of the current in a Thermoelectric Circuit.
249.]
current.
Energy, as alove shown, is necessary to maintain the In the case of thermoelectric circuits, now considered,
250.]
IN THERMOELECTRIC CURRENTS.
245
no energy is supplied from without, nor are there, so far as we know, any chemical actions between the metals, or between them and the surrounding medium, from which the requisite energy
can be obtained.
current
energy required for maintenance of the the conversion of part of the heat of the supplied by metals into another form of energy, namely, that of the electric
is
We
infer that the
current.
work.
But
This might conceivably be employed to do external if not, it will be reconverted into heat by the
resistance of the circuit.
As in the working of a heat engine, the entropy of the system must be diminished by the process, that is, there must be
equalisation of temperature. It is found that at the neutral temperature for any two metals a current passing the junction has no heating or cooling effect.
The
Peltier effect changes sign at that point.
if a couple be formed with the hot junction at the neutral temperature, the cold junction is nevertheless heated, although the heat cannot be derived from the cooling of the hot
But'
junction. It is evident, therefore, that the current itself
must have a
heating or cooling effect. For instance, in an iron and copper circuit, with the hot junctions at the neutral temperature, either
a current in iron from hot to cold must cool the iron, or a current in copper from cold to hot must cool the copper, or both these
effects take
place.
And
it
may
be inferred that the heat so
gained or lost is compensated by a change in the potential of It was this consideration that led Sir W. Thomson the current.
to the discovery of the electromotive force in unequally heated portions of the same metal.
250.]
The method adopted by some
heat generated, as unit current passes from potential Va to potential 7b , is always 7a Fb whether the fall of potential be gradual as
,
Mecanique de
Joubert, Legons sur VElectricite et le la Ckaleur] is as follows.
writers (Mascart and Magnetisme ; Briot, Theorie

It is assumed that the
in a single metal, or abrupt as at the junction of two metals. the case, the electromotive force of a couple formed That
being
246
GENERAL SYSTEM OF LINEAR CONDUCTORS.
[251.
t Q
of metals
and
respectively,
B whose hot and must be

Q
to
cold junctions are at
^ and
H,-H + Jf\cra -<r

where
b )dt,
and
are the Volta contact differences of potential at
the junctions.
When
tl
becomes
infinitely small, this
becomes
dH
that
IS,
(pab
-jT-
"a
"b
Further,
if
the current be infinitely small,
we may regard such
a circuit as a reversible Carnot cycle. Then, if 6 Q be the heat absorbed at temperature t, taken as negative when heat is
evolved,
/T
for the entire cycle.
dt
=
becomes
When ^
ô
becomes
infinitely small, this
And
the contact difference between two metals
is
zero at their
neutral temperature. are now in a position to treat a more general case 251.] of a system of linear conductors than that considered in Art. 215, in which the wires were supposed to be all of the same metal
We
and
at the same temperature. In that case, the potential of all the wires which meet in any electrode as is the same at the
common
extremity P, and may be designated, in the case of each When the wires are not of wire, by the common symbol Vp the same metal, we may suppose that instead of being in
.
immediate contact with each other at the electrode P, each
is
251.]
GENERAL SYSTEM OF LINEAR CONDUCTORS.
247
in contact with a small wire or disk of
some standard metal at
that point.
were the potential of this connecting metal at P, then the potential of any other wire as PA of metal (), + x(^P )> where x( a ^p) suppose, at the extremity P would be
If
Vp
represents the contact electromotive force from the metal (a) to the standard metal at temperature tp similarly if Fq were the
-,
potential of the connecting metal at the electrode Q, where the temperature is tq the potential at the extremity Q of the wire
,
PQ
would be Pg + x(^)'
extremities
^ n estimating the currents therefore
in terms of the potentials
common
of
we may regard the potentials of the all wires at any electrode as equal
any wire as
provided we
increase the electromotive force in
PA
by the quantity
xK)-xK)The Thomson
effect
treated of in Art. 243 will produce a

ftp
/
similar increase of electromotive force of the form
vdt,
Jtq
which may be expressed in the form

If therefore
battery, if
Epq
any, in the course of the wire the current in that wire will be
be the electromotive force arising from a PQ, the expression for
and similarly
for each of the
Of
course the wire
PQ
may
remaining wires. itself be composed of dissimilar
metals, or
may
consist of
two wires communicating with the
which cases the requisite liquids of an interposed battery, in corrections are obvious.
CHAPTEE
XIV.
POLARISATION OF THE DIELECTRIC.

ARTICLE 252]. IN the preceding chapters we have endeavoured
to explain elect rostatical phenomena by the and Green as the result of direct attraction
method
of Poisson
and repulsion at a distance, according to the law of the inverse square between the positive and negative electricities, or electric fluids. As explained at the outset, in Chaps. IV and V, we do not assert the actual
existence of these fluids.
statical relations
two fluids
We assert merely that the electrobetween conductors are as they would be if the existed, and conductors and dielectrics had the properties
them
in those Chapters.
attributed to
Faraday and Maxwell made an important step in advance. They assume all non-conducting space to be pervaded by a medium, and refer the force observed to exist at any point in
the electric
field,
to the state of the
not to the direct action of distant bodies, but medium itself at the point considered.
Faraday was led by his experimental researches to believe in the existence of certain stresses in the dielectric medium in
presence
dielectric
of electrified
bodies.
Maxwell shews that
if
the
consist of molecules with equal and opposite of electricity on their opposite sides, or, as we expressed charges it in Chapters and XI, polarised, these stresses would in fact
medium
exist.
Electricity, Second Edition, Chap. V. There would be at every point in the medium a tension along the lines of force, combined with a pressure at right-angles to
See Maxwell's
them, and by such tensions and pressures all the observed phenomena may be accounted for without assuming the direct
action of distant bodies on one another.
It
is
true, as
Maxwell
says, that some action must be supposed between neighbouring molecules, and that we are no more able to account for that
than for action between distant bodies.
And
if
only electro-
H XJNTVr
X^C4LIF03N^^
253.]
statical
249
phenomena were concerned, it would be perhaps of little importance whether we attributed them to direct action of distant bodies or to a medium, so long at least as the electric fluids and
medium were equally hypothetical, and had no other duties to perform than to account for the phenomena in question. The advantage of Maxwell's hypothesis is that it connects the
the
phenomena of
electricity and magnetism with those of light and radiant heat, both being referred to the vibrations of the same medium. There is, in fact, in the phenomena of light, inde-
pendent evidence of the existence of Maxwell's medium, whereas there is no independent evidence of the existence of the two
fluids.
The medium
as a vera causa than the
therefore has better title to be regarded two fluids have.
No
treatment of the subject can, in the present state of know-
ledge, be more complete than Maxwell's own in Chapters II and of his work, and it is necessary to study those chapters in order
properly to understand his views. The whole subject of statical electricity has also been treated very fully from Maxwell's point
Electricity in the Encyclopaedia BritanNinth Edition, by Professor Chrystal. It may, however, nica, be of some advantage to obtain the same results from a slightly
different starting-point.
of view in the article
'
'
253.] In Chap. XI we had occasion to treat of a particular case of a polarised medium, a medium, namely, in which are interspersed little conductors polarised under the influence of given forces.
If the induced distribution on the surface of any conductor be
denoted by $, the quantity
xtydS, taken over
all
the con-
direction
ductors in unit of volume, was defined to be the polarisation in x per unit of volume.
We will now adopt a rather more

sation.
general definition of polari-
Let us conceive
a region containing
an
infinite
number
of molecules, conductors or not, each containing within it, or on its surface, a quantity of positive, and an equal quantity of negative, electricity.
let there
Let P be a point in that region, and about P be taken a unit of volume, containing a very great number of the molecules in question. Let us further suppose
250
[253.
that throughout this unit of volume the distribution of the molecules in space, as well as the distribution of electricity in
individual molecules,
may
as in the immediate neighbourhood of P.
be regarded as constant, and the same Let $ dx dy dz be the
quantity of electricity of the molecular distributions within the
element of volume dxdydz.

the unit of volume
is
Then \\\$dxdydz throughout we

will define
/
zero; and
/ /
x$ dxdydz
taken throughout the unit of volume to be the polarisation in direction x at P.
Let
I] Ixfydxdydz
ax
and
z.
let
vy
a s have corresponding
meanings
for the axis of y
and
If a plane of unit area be drawn through parallel to the And the of yz> it will intersect certain of the molecules. plane
reasoning of Chap.
(Art. 190) shews, that the quantity of electricity belonging to these intersected molecules which lies on the positive side of that unit of area is a-x Similarly if the
.
XI
plane were parallel to az, or xy, the quantity of electricity of the intersected molecules on the positive side of the unit of area would be (T y or tr a in the respective cases.
If the direction-cosines of the normal to the plane were m, n, the quantity of electricity of the intersected molecules lying on the positive side of the unit of area would be lo- x mo-y + n(r
,
ls
For, by definition, the polarisation in the direction denoted by

I,
m, n
is
or
(lx
+ my + nz)
<f>
dx dy dz,
that
is,
=
that
is,
x<f>
dxdydz + m III
a-
y<j>
dxdydz + n
z$ dxdydz
',
Hence
a-xt
a-
y}
and
o-
are components of a vector.
If the distribution be continuous, so that o-x , a- and v z do not vy change abruptly at the point considered, the same reasoning as employed in Chap. XI shews that the amount of the distri-
2 5 3-]

is
251
bution within the elementary parallelepiped dxdydz
where
9
~~
dax
dx
,
oand v z change abruptly at the y point in question, there will be over the unit of area a supero-x
,
Should the values of
or quasi-superficial distribution a-x a'x where <rx and <r'x are the values of <rx on opposite sides of the plane, with similar expressions for the planes parallel to those of xz and xy.
ficial
,
Also, as
we have seen
in Art. 190, the potential T, of such a
polarised distribution at
equation
any point x, y^ z, is determined by the rr<rdS C T T p doc' dy dz'

x, y, z
where r
is
the distance of the point
from the
superficial
element dS, or the solid element clx'dy'dz', as the case may be. Hence it appears that such a system of polarised molecules as
we
and
as
are supposing gives rise to localised distributions with solid superficial densities of determinate values throughout given
result
regions and having the same potential at every point of the field
would
from such
if
localised distributions.
electric field
Conversely,
we had an
with given localised
charges, we might substitute for it a system of polarised molecules in an infinite variety of ways, the physical properties of which, so far as we are concerned with them, would be in all
respects identical with those of the given localised charges. For if p and o- were the densities, solid or superficial, at
any
point in the supposed system of given charges, and if the polarisation and arrangement of the molecules were such that (o^, o- y ,
and
0-3
being as above defined),

d(T x
d<r y
d(rz
at each point of the field, then we should have the same density at each point as is given by the localised charges, and the
at each point would also be the same as in the case potential of the localised charges, being determined by the equation
F== /T
JJ
+ /YT JJJ
252
As

ar
[ 2 53-
the values of
x9
o^,
condition (A) these quantities variety of ways.
a z are subjected to only one equation of may clearly be chosen in an infinite

a-x
Among
sider only
*
all
the possible values of
<r
and
tr,
we
shall con-
JL
"
21
dx
4w
(Ty
~~
JL
47T
'
^1
dy*
JL
4^r
'
IT
dz
'
These relations will satisfy (A) identically, since by Chap. Ill
for all points
-',-.,
And
also
where
AV dV dV
-7>
-=-
d#
>
-7-
ds
vary continuously.
ZK-o-'sHw^-o-'^ + ^s-cr's) 1 .dV dV .dV dV
dV
dV'
=r
(T
over surfaces of discontinuous values of these coefficients.

It appears then that such a system of polarised molecules not only produces at all points in space the same potential as the system of volume and superficial distributions for which
it
was substituted, but
also
causes
the distributions themalso that the
selves to reappear.
It can be
the same in the two cases.
shewn For the
energy
is
is
polarised
medium
in
a state of constraint, because the separated electricities are not allowed to coalesce and neutralise each other. Work has been
done upon
it
in producing- this state.
In ordinary experiments
is
the constrained state of the dielectric
duction of charged bodies, and the work
produced by the introis the work done in
* With the distribution of polarisation assumed in the text, if a small cylindrical region be described in the medium whose generating lines are parallel to the force at the point and infinitely smaller than the linear dimensions of the bounding planes, the force at any point within the cylinder is that arising entirely from the polarisation of the molecules completely included within the cylinder, and the total force from all the rest of the molecules is zero. If the polarisation were magnetic, this result would be expressed by saying that the law of magnetisation is such that the magnetic induction at every point is zero.
253-]

1
253
charging' them, but according to this theory the energy resides, not in the charged bodies, but in the dielectric.
The energy in unit volume see Chap. V, that is,
of the polarised system
is
2
,
+ h
The energy of the
entire system estimated in the
same way
is
throughout the whole of
dielectric space.
energy of the originally given system according to the ordinary theory, as shewn in Chap.
But
this is also the expression for the
X.
The two systems
We may
thesis.
dielectric, it
are therefore for all purposes equivalent. conceive that the molecules of all dielectrics are
capable of assuming such polarisation as required for this hypoIf, as we have hitherto supposed, vacuum be a perfect
becomes necessary
for the hypothesis to conceive it
as permeated by a non-material ether, the molecules of which are capable of such electric polarisation. And if the existence of such an ether be assumed, it may be that in case of other
dielectrics,
the electric polarisation resides in the ether rather
than in the molecules of the substance.
We may further
suppose that the essential property of con-
ductors, as distinguished from dielectric media or insulators, is that their molecules are incapable of sustaining electric polarisations, or that the substances of
conductors are impermeable by
the supposed ether, and therefore that no electric force and no free electricity can exist within them.
We
is
might thus construct a theory of
electrostatics founded
on the polarisation of the
dielectric, just as the ordinary theory founded on the property of conductors. In the ordinary theory the electromotive force at any point is
the space differential of a function 7, which is constant throughat out any conductor, and satisfies the condition V 2 F+4irp=
Assuming points where there is free electricity of density p. that no case of electrostatic equilibrium has yet been discovered, which can be proved to be inconsistent with the ordinary theory,
all
254
it
STRESSES IN POLARISED DIELECTRIC.
[254.
follows that the supposed dielectric polarisation must, when there is equilibrium, be the space differential of a function F,
which
is
the dielectric, and

dielectric.
constant over and within every closed surface bounding 2 4 itp at all points in the satisfies V
T+
The Stresses in the
Dielectric.
fied
of an electri254.] If any closed surface 8 separate one portion system from the other portion 2 as, for instance, if the whole
jî
be inside, and the whole of S, then this hypoan explanation of the phenomena without assuming any direct action between E2 and E. For if the polarisation
of
thesis suggests
U of E2 outside
,
be given in magnitude and direction at each point in
given at each point on S. Then we know that if charge of every conductor within S be given, and
electrification within
'
dv the form and

if all fixed
S, -=-
is
S be
given, V has single and determinate
value at
all points within S. It follows that all electrical
phenomena within
S,
which in the
ordinary theory are due to the action of 2 are on the polarisation hypothesis deducible from the given polarisation, that is the
,
given value of -=- at each point on

>
dV
8.
might then always substitute for the external system E2 a certain polarisation on 8, without affecting the equilibrium of An example of this substitution has already been given lm
(Art. 58) for the case
We
where S
is
an equipotential T>
density
is
surface.
For
then a distribution over
S whose
we
--
exerts the
same
47T
force as the external system at
any point within
S.
If
S be not
*
:
equipotential
obtain a corresponding result as
follows
Let
Yl be
the potential of the external,
T2
that of the internal
system, and V V^ + T2 the whole potential. The whole force in direction x exerted by the external on the
internal system is
throughout the space within

* This investigation
is
8.
taken from Maxwell's Treatise, Second Edition, Chap. V.
254-]
255
But
and within
S
whole force
is
V F =V
2
2
F.
Hence
tlie
The
If
object
is
to express this in the form of a surface integral

Z, such that
over S.
we can
find three functions X,
J",
dx
dx
dy
da
then evidently, by Green's theorem,

-
V
This
is
over the surface S.
the required surface integral.
Let us assume
dVdV
dVdV
dx dy
Then
**
satisfy the condition.
The
stress
quantities p xx p yy &c. are the six components of the on the surface S due to the polarisation of the dielectric. If S be an equipotential surface, we have
, ,
dV
dx
p. Rl
dV
dy
= _ Rm dV =
,
dz
Rn,
256
where
2 54-
is
the normal force, and therefore
The ^-component of stress
is
then
that
is
R
O7T
1.
Similarly the y- and ^-components are
That
force
is,
the stress
is
normal to 8 and
t
is
equal to that of the

-n
R acting on
S be
the surface electrified to a density J
If
at right angles to
it
stress in
any element of
/
an equipotential surface, thus, in this case,
we
find the
,dV
dx
+m
dV
dy
+n
dV =
dz
...............
(1)
Now
8 IT {lpxx H-
mpxy + npxa }
dVdV
o?c
3dy
+2w
(2),
dVdV
T--Jdx dz
..
(2)
dV
Multiplying (l) by 2
Sir {tyxx
and subtracting from

x!}
we
obtain
+ mp.xy + np
=-lR*.
area are
Hence the components of tension perunit
If therefore these stresses exist at every point of the surface
/S,
no matter how they arise, they produce on the interior system EI exactly the same effect as, according to the theory of action at
255-]
SUPERFICIAL CHARGE ON A CONDUCTOR.
257
a distance, would be produced by the attraction and repulsions due to the external system Ez
.
255.] According to the theory of dielectric polarisation as explained in Art. 253, the so-called charge on a conductor is to
be regarded as the terminal polarisation of the dielectric as belonging in fact not to the molecules of the conductor, but to the adjacent molecules of the dielectric. (Maxwell's Electricity^
;
Art. 111.)
So long
as
we
it
equilibrium,
is
are dealing with a system at rest and in statical indifferent for all purposes of calculation
dielectric or
whether we regard the charge as belonging to the

to the conductor.
It
solid
is
however possible to induce in any conductor or other body the state which in the ordinary theory is called a
charge of electricity; and it is possible to move the body in this state from place to place through air without destroying its charge. It should seem therefore that although the electric
force at
any point in
air
may
of the
medium
at the point,
be due to the polarised state and not to direct action of the
charged body, and although the polarised particles be always

those of the dielectric, yet the ultimate cause of the may be in the body and not in the dielectric.
phenomena
And
this
appears to be Faraday's view, where he says (1298), 'Induction appears to consist in a certain polarised state of the particles
into
which they are thrown by
the
'
electrified
body sustaining the
action?
Certain experiments have been appealed to as shewing that the electrification, whatever it be, is in the dielectric and not
in the conductor.
If,
for instance, a plate
of glass be placed
between and touching two oppositely charged metallic plates, and these be then removed, it will be found that they exhibit If they be replaced and scarcely any trace of electrification.
connected by a wire, a current passes of the same or nearly the same strength as if no removal had taken place. See Jamin, Cours de Physique, Leon 36.
similar result
was obtained by Franklin with a Leyden

s
jar,
the metallic coatings of which were moveable.

VOL.
i.
258
256.]
MAXWELL'S DISPLACEMENT THEOEY.
[256.
Up
it
fluid theory
because
to this point we have not dispensed with the twoand the law of the inverse square in electric action, is only by the use of that theory that we have proved
is
the properties of our medium. All that we have done introduce a somewhat different conception of an electric and the distributions of which it is composed.
If any advance
is
to
field,
to be made, it
as follows
:
must be
in the steps of
Faraday and Maxwell
observe that in the polarised medium the relation between the force at any point and the polarisation at the point is given 4770-,,., &c. by the equations JT
We
These equations are of the same form as those which express the relation between the force existing at any point in an elastic body in equilibrium and the molecular displacement at the
point.
In treating of elastic bodies we regard these relations as ultimate facts based on experiment. We might then regard the
corresponding equations for the dielectric as ultimate facts, without resorting to the two fluid theory for their explanation. We might regard the dielectric as an elastic medium capable of
being thrown into a state of strain, and presenting when in that state the phenomena which we call electric force and electric
distribution.
257.] According to the theory in this form, no action is exerted by the electricity in any part of the dielectric on that in any other part, unless the two are contiguous. might thus dispense with the notion of action at a distance, on
We
which the ordinary theory

of the
is
founded.
Another
characteristic
ordinary theory
it
is
the instantaneous nature
of the
actions with which
For, according to that theory, if any change take place in electrical distributions in any one part of space, the corresponding change takes place at the same instant in every other part however distant. The subdeals.
stitution of the
medium
for the direct action
between distant
bodies, suggests that these corresponding electrical changes may not take place at the same instant, but that electrical influence
may be
propagated from molecule to molecule through
the
258.]
ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT.
259
medium with a
of the theory.
are
certain velocity. And herein lies the strength For, as Maxwell discovered, if electrical effects
propagated with finite velocity through an insulating medium, such velocity is the same as that of light, or so nearly the same as to leave no room for doubt that the two classes of
phenomena
are physically connected.

elastic
medium, if thrown by any forces into a on removal of those forces immediately recover its original condition. There is a time of relaxation. Certain phenomena, such as the residual charge of a Leyden jar
state of strain, does not
Again, an
Maxwell's Electricity, Chap. X), lend countenance to the supposition that a dielectric medium influenced by electric forces does not immediately, on the removal of those forces, recover its
(see
original condition.
258.]
We
proceed to consider the meaning of the term
electric
displacement as used
by Maxwell,
for
which purpose we must
revert to the conception of the two-fluid theory. If through any point in the medium of polarised particles a plane be drawn perpendicular to the v direction of the re-
per unit area of that plane, of the electricity on the particles intersected by that plane and on the positive side of it according to It's direction is,
sultant force
or,
at that point, the density
as
we have
seen,
determined by the equation
In Maxwell's view, any

tric is
field of
electromotive force in the dielec-
accompanied by a strained state of the particles of the dielectric or of the pervading ether, a displacement or transfer
T)
of positive electricity equal to - - per unit area of surface of the

particles taking place
from each particle to the adjacent particle
on the positive
side,
along with an equal displacement of negative
electricity to the adjacent particle
on the negative
side.
The
or
electricities
do not coalesce or neutralise each other
within each particle, but a polarised state is set up throughout the field, each particle being in a strained state owing to the
260
it,
[259.
separations of the electricities within

ally represented thus,
the result being graphic-
Fig- 39-
the shaded sides of the particles A,
J5, C,
&c. indicating positive,
and the unshaded sides negative, electrification. According to this view the displacement is the process hy which the polarised
state of the particles has
been brought about.
We
cr.
shall gene-
rally denote the polarisation
by
cr,
It
is
easily seen that in a dielectric
medium/ =
and the displacement by/.
259.] If the field were one of uniform force parallel to a line from left to right across the plane of the
paper, the total displacement or transfer of electricity across all
planes perpendicular to that line would be the same and equal to

-
per unit of area.
If the field were such as corre-
G>
Fig. 40.
sponds to what
trified
is
called
an
elec-
point 0, i.e. a charge within a very small volume about 0, the particles would be polarised as in
the figure, the displacement (sup-
posing no other charge in the field) taking place concentrically from within outwards, and the quantities o-x , a y and a- z being
,
so determined that
d<rx
-j dx
da-,.
dy
^+
"
dcrz *
=
and that
dz
at all points without the small region,
da v
dx
dcr,
dy
is
dz
within that region where p
determined to give the requisite
charge at 0.
260.]
261
The law of resultant polarisation exterior to may in this ease be determined, and the consequent law of force, if it be assumed that the resultant polarisation a is symmetrical about
the point with which sensibly coincides. if this be assumed we must have For
a-
=
<r a
(r)
and in the
direction of r the distance of each point from 0. Therefore

<r x
<f>
(r)
or
^
(r)
do-,,
(f>
(r)
Therefore since
d(T x
-âx
d(T y
-=-^-
-=*-
ay
az
= 0,
or
<Kr)
260.] If in any polarised
;jr
field
we
-
describe a closed surface
and
find the integral
If-
over that surface where
is
know
the angle between that the result
is
and the normal to 8 at each point, we is the total quantity of the 9 where
S; that is to say, the whole quantity of the electricity lying without the surface S on all the molecules intersected by S would be -M, and the whole quanelectricity situated within
S to the adjacent external in other words the total quantity of particles, electricity within any closed surface whatever is unalterable. The electricity behaves in all respects like an incompressible
tity of the electricity displaced across
9
would be
+M
all space, and the introduction of any quantity closed region is accompanied by an efflux of a correinto any sponding quantity from that region. have so far supposed the whole region to be dielectric or
fluid
pervading
We
non-conducting, but the introduction of conducting substances does not affect the result. The special property of conductors is that their molecules are incapable of polarisation, or that the
substances of conductors are impermeable by the other whose molecules may be thus polarised.
262
[261.
Suppose now that our closed surface S was intersected by a conductor C, and let us
replace S by another closed surface made up
of the
portion,
of
external
41.
to
(?,
and
another surface S'QS'
with that of the conductor and external to indicating the continuation of S within C.
very nearly coinciding it, the dotted line
The
integral
/ /
taken over this new closed surface
will, as before,
be equal to all the original mass of the included since the charge on the conductor must be zero on electricity, the whole ; and since there is no polarisation within C we have as before the total quantity of electricity transferred across the
original by displacement equal to the mass within it, the only difference being that instead of such transference being throughout molecular, as it is in the dielectric, it is a transference in
mass across the conductor.

This transference by displacement differs from that by coninasmuch as when the force ceases the state of strain
also,
duction,
and the displacement cease
and
all
things return to their
original condition, there being no permanent transfer. 261.] Recurring again to the simple illustration of the field of uniform parallel force, suppose the force, remaining uniform, to
C, vary from time to time, then the state of the molecules A, &c. in Fig. 1 also varies, the shading becoming darker as the
,
force increases,
and lighter as it diminishes. If the displacement at any instant were /, it is clear that this variation of the force and consequently off would produce
a transference of electricity across any plane perpendicular to
the force in
all
-~respects analogous to a current of intensity dt
along the lines of
force.
For example, suppose the field to be that of the dielectric between the plane armatures of a condenser, and suppose these armatures
262.]
to be connected
263
by a wire. Then a discharge would take place the wire from left to right the effect of this discharge through would be to diminish the displacement within the dielectric
;
from
left to right, or to produce a counteracting displacement from right to left, inasmuch as the positive charge of the lefthand and the negative charge of the right-hand armature
would diminish at the rate u per unit time, through the wire.
Therefore
if
u were the current
we should have -~
Cvt
-f
u equal
to zero, or a closed
current would flow through the whole apparatus of dielectric, armatures, and wire. And this is what is supposed to take place
in every case of transference
by conduction.
262.] Hitherto, throughout this chapter, we have treated our dielectric as being what may be called a pure dielectric with In the case of impure dispecific inductive capacity unity.
electrics like those treated of in
Chap. XI, we
may
either, as in
what has preceded, retain the conceptions of the two fluids with distant action, or adopt Maxwell's more simple conception of a
displacement connected with the force by a law regarded as an ultimate fact (Art. 256).
the former hypothesis we may, as is done in Chap. XI, assume the intermixture of small conductors. In the figure annexed let the plane of the paper be
On
supposed parallel to the axis of as, and let the line AB be the intersection with that plane of a plane drawn
through any point P in the medium perpendicular to that axis, and let the dotted line be the intersection
with the same plane of the paper of a surface as nearly
as possible coincident with the aforesaid plane perpendicular to a?, but so drawn as not to intersect any small
^
ri S- 4 2 -
If
conductors, this surface will not differ sensibly from the plane. ax be the density per unit area of this surface of the elec-
tricity
it
if
upon the polarised dielectric molecules intersected by and lying to the right or positive side of the surface, and or and o-a be corresponding quantities for planes through P y
and xy respectively,
it
parallel to xz
follows from
what has
264
[262.
been already proved that the density /> of actual charge in the medium at P is determined by the equation
d(T x
d(T y d(r z
dx
dy
dz
capacity,
But
if
be the
that
specific
inductive
we know from
Chap.
XI
for
whence we may, as in the preceding case, choose as our solution ox a y) and a-,,, and their resultant o-, the equations
,
vx
= K dV -y4?7
<r
dx
= -K dV -74-77
"
ay
K = T- dV T~
'
and
a-
K
. .
477
dz
477
The
polarisation
o-,
as before, measures the displacement at
any
follows from Art. 193, Chap. XI, that the total dispoint, over any closed surface is equal to the total quantity placement of electricity within the surface, as in the case of pure dielectric
and
it
media.
According to Maxwell's point of view, we should ignore the analysis of the action on the inverse square hypothesis altogether, and regard the equation
ff
=_^. B 477*
or
f=.R
477*
where /
relation
is
the displacement, as an ultimate fact expressing the
between force and displacement in any isotropic medium, with the requisite modifications for heterotropic media, in which
=
when the
-\r
-45;*
*= ~^- Y
V
~V
'
"*
~^- Z
Z
,
r?
'
axes are principal axes; and since are z x y not equal, the resultant displacement will not in generally this case be necessarily coincident with the resultant force R.
,
K K K
f
T7-
The equation
values between
=.
.72, if
be capable of assuming
all
1 and co, expresses the relation between force and displacement in all bodies, the lower limit (l) corresponding to air or rather to vacuum, and the higher limit (-f oo) to
conductors.
263.]
ELECTEIC DISPLACEMENT.
is,
;
265
as
263.] In ideally perfect insulators, there
we have
said,
no permanent transfer arising from displacement the force ceasing, the polarisation and displacement also cease, and any passage of on the cessation of the an equal rebound or retransfer of electricity across the by same plane backwards. Such perfect insulators do not exist in
electricity across a plane is succeeded
force
nature.
tration,
when
Kecurring, for instance, to our uniform force illusthis force or the corresponding polarisation of the
A, B, C, &c. particles reaches a certain intensity, the particles become incapable of retaining their state of strain, and the +
and
electricities in
each particle intermix.

is
Across any plane
perpendicular to
left to right,
and
transfer of positive electricity from of negative from right to left ; in fact a tem-
there
porary current, and each particle returns to its unstrained state. If however R were maintained constant, there must be a renewed
is
displacement to the same extent as before, so that we have what equivalent to a permanent transfer of electricity, a current
from left to right, the intensity of the current u being the rate at which the electricity is transferred in each particle across any transverse section, and which is connected with the force 1\
TJ
by the equation u
If the
force
if r
be the resistance within each particle.
corresponding and equal displacement

fast as
o-
remained constant the polarisation a- or the f must be renewed as
it
-n
is
destroyed, so as always to satisfy the equation
in other words, there
must be a continually recurring
displacement or transfer from particle to particle equal per unit of time to the quantity u *.
Again, suppose that the diminution of polarisation or transfer current u was absolutely impossible, i.e. that the insulation was
perfect but that the force varied, producing therefore a variable
* The actual historical displacement or transfer at any time must be distinguished from the instantaneous displacement or polarisation; this latter is the transfer or displacement which the state' of the field requires in accordance with the above theory, and is what would take place if there were no conduction the former, in case of conduction, is the sum of the continually renewed instantaneous displacements, required for the polarisation of the field which have taken place up to the instant considered.
;
VOL.
I.
266
[264
The result is equivalent to polarisation cr or displacement f. a transfer of positive electricity from left to right at the rate per
unit of time of -~at If both the conduction current u and the variable force, and
consequently variable
f coexisted,
the resultant effect would be
equivalent to the current of intensity u
+ -~ dt
264.]
We have already
considered the case of a condenser with
plane armatures connected by a wire, and have seen that the discharge current u in the wire is accompanied by an equal and
opposite current -j- in the dielectric, but in point of fact the u/t
process which, in this case, takes place almost instantaneously is in effect, though much more slowly, always going on throughout
the dielectric.
For no substance
is
absolutely and completely
non-conducting, the molecular constraint is continually giving way, there is a continual passage of electricity from the positive
to the negative
If polarisation throughout the medium. the force, and current, r the resistance,
armature causing a diminution of force and u be the conduction
f the
displacement at
any
instant,
we
have, as
shewn
in Art. 261,
where
=X
T
and
/=
K
>
R.
4-7T
Therefore
= /.
and
X=X
X
Kr
,
f being the initial values of /and X. These equations express the law of decay of the efficiency of condensers.
265.]
and
According to Maxwell's doctrine, as we have already
said, all electric currents flow in closed circuits.
265.]
to the case of the
267
Let us recur
which we have hitherto regarded as at and suppose the charge to be unity.
charged particle of Art. 259, rest within the medium,
If it move from one position to another we have in effect a current of electricity from to (7. But from another point of view the effect is the same as if the particle in the first position
were annihilated, and another

similar particle placed
in the
is,
a particle with
second position; that unit
as if
positive
charge were placed in the second position, and a particle with unit
negative charge superadded to the positively charged particle
in the first position. If denote the
0' the
first,
second position, any point in the displacement at space,
P
in direction
is
due to the placing of a negative particle or annihilation of

a positive particle at
is
a displacement
PO.
The displacement
at
due to the positive particle at 0'
a displacement 47T
If
be infinitely near to 0, and 0(7

:
= a, we
if
can find the
equation to the resultant as follows
Let
ZPOO' =
0.
PO =
and
r,
Let OQ = 3 a cos 0. P0'= r-a cos 0, and

r
Then
P(>
= r-3a cos 0,
r2
PQ = ^
e
3acos0
2acos0
r
r-acosd
is
PO
Its
Therefore the resultant

therefore
parallel to
O'Q.
equation
is
dy -~ ax
Therefore
SacosOsinO
a
3 a cos 2
.>
and
y x
= tan a 0.
^= dx
268
The
solution of
which
is
where
for a
c is
is
This
a variable parameter. the equation of a system of closed curves having 00"

tangent.
common
any quantity of positive electricity moving particle is equivalent for the of positive electricity), we have a flow or purpose to a flow
It thus appears that if flows from to (/ (for our
current of electricity at every point in space, in direction forming closed curves with the line 0(7. From which it would seem, as we have already said, that there is no real change of position
of all the positive electricity in space. Or, in other words, either kind of electricity behaves like an incompressible fluid, and the quantity of it within any finite space cannot be increased
or diminished.
If,
for instance, the charge
and
it
move from
on the moving particle be unity, to 0', that is a distance a in unit of time,

If also
the current in 00'
a point in the plane bisecting 0(7 at right-angles, and r be measured from 0, the displacement current from right to left through a ring of the plane
is a.
P be
between the distances
and r + dr from
is
The whole displacement current from right

plane
is
to left through, the
therefore
and
a.
is
therefore equal to the current from left to right in 0(7.
Hence, according to Maxwell's view, all electric currents in nature flow in closed circuits. This theory will be found to lead
to important consequences when mutual action of electric currents.
we come
to deal
with the
THE END,
December 1885.
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THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

FORMERLY FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

FORMERLY FELLOW OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE CAMBRIDGE

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

All rights reserved

the rank of commentaries.

immediate contemplation of experimental to the development of any theory however fasis

cinating, the style is suggestive rather than didactic,

and the mathematical treatment

what unfinished and

into its mathematical consequences,

experimental results is and unreal character of the postulates upon which

explaining and co-ordinating only equalled by the artificial

electrical fluids are physical

only as the basis of mathematical

ment theory of Maxwell.

hoped that the

By such reader may be

able to proceed with the

development of the theory

due course with as

view to brevity and clearness, and with no attempt

any unnecessary modifications of demonstrations

and accordingly the

and Faraday's hypothesis of a comand in Chapter XIV, with reference

to Maxwell's displacement theory.

The value of the

of placing electrical theory

Correction for Cyclosis Deductions from Green's

General Propositions relating to Spherical Harmonics Zonal Spherical Harmonics

Expansion of Zonal Spherical Harmonics Expansion of Spherical Harmonics in general

Equations of Poisson and Laplace

Theorems concerning Potential Application of Spherical Harmonics

by Friction by Induction by Conduction

Further Experiments with Conductors and Insulators

Experimental Proof of the Law of Inverse Square and Fluxes of Force

APPLICATION TO PARTICULAE CASES.

Case of Infinite Conducting Plane

Infinite Parallel Planes;

formly Charged Sphere;

THE THEORY OF INVERSION AS APPLIED TO ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS.

by Inversion The converse Problem

Distribution on Circular Disc at Unit Potential

ELECTBICAL SYSTEMS IN TWO DIMENSIONS.

Definition and Properties of Conjugate Functions Transformation of Electric Field

147-148 148-152 152-154 154-156

Inversion in two Dimensions

Properties of Co-efficients of Potential

166-170 170-171 171-173

Conductors, or the variation in size of Conductors

System of Insulated Conductors without Charge fixed in a field of uniform force

SPECIFIC INDUCTIVE CAPACITY.

Mathematical investigation of Faraday's theory of Specific

Determination of the Co-efficient of Induction in special

THE ELECTRIC CURRENT.

Temperature Determination of the Resistance in special cases Systems of Linear Conductors

........ ...... .... ......

218-221 221-224 224-226

Currents through Heterogeneous Conductors