Sample Research Report

The Effects of Daily Life on Stress Levels

by Chad Clippingdale & Shannon Birk

Abstract
Daily hassles, life experiences, and work are all predictors of stress, while sleep, exercise, and social support have been found to reduce stress. To replicate these findings, thirty participants, 15 males and 15 females (mean age of 30.4) were surveyed with a variety of questionnaires. Significant positive correlations were found between stress and the factors of daily hassles, life experiences, and work hours, while social support and stress were significantly negatively correlated. However, expected relationships between sleep and stress, and between exercise and stress, were not significant.

Introduction
Stress is a part of everyday life (Weiten, 2001). We experience stress each day, sometimes positively and sometimes negatively. Without stress life would be dull; however, we must learn to cope with all forms of stress to prevent it affecting our psychological and physical health (Weiten, 2001). Kohn, Lafreniere & Gurevich (as cited in Weiten, 2001) found that routine daily hassles can have a significant effect on our mental health. Although minor hassles alone may not be stressful, many hassles may build up and overwhelm an individual, causing stress. Also, Holmes & Rahe (as cited in Weiten, 2001) and others have found that changes in life, positive or negative, require adjustment. During this time of adjustment, one may be more susceptible to stress. More changes in one's life may increase one's susceptibility to stress. However, not all life experiences are stressful. Social support is very important to reducing stress (House, Landis & Umberson, 1988). Having someone to listen and give empathy helps to justify our feelings and makes us feel better. According to Davis, Morris & Kraus (1998), there is an inverse correlation between social support and mental health. Exercise and getting a good night sleep are also very important to coping with stress. Exercise provides an opportunity to release frustrations and increases resistance to stress, while sleep deprivation decreases it. When deprived of sleep, one might under-perform on cognitive tasks, which itself may increase stress levels (Weiten, 2001). Work stress is another important factor that has been the subject of much research. Weiten (2001) noted that "pressure has turned out to be more strongly related to measures of mental health than the SSRS" (p. 534), a measure of life change. A heavy workload, a hectic work schedule, a poor work environment, and low job security are all factors that can cause stress at work (Weiten, 2001). When one spends longer hours exposed to these factors, stress levels may become greater.

This study was designed to replicate past research and investigate the correlations between stress and daily hassles; social support; life experiences; exercise; sleep; and work levels.

Method
Participants There were 30 participants in this study, 15 men and 15 women. Ages ranged from 13 to 59. The mean age was 30.4. Participants were attending school, work, or both. Materials Information was gathered using the Hassles Scale (Delongis, Folkman, & Lazarus, 1988), Life Experiences Survey (Sarason, Johnson, & Siegel, 1978), Stress Test (Weiten, 2001), and Social Support Scale (Weiten, 2001). Participants were also asked to report their average hours of work or school per week, average hours of sleep per night, and average hours of exercise per week. Procedure Each participant was asked to complete the questionnaire package. Confidentiality was emphasized and participants were asked not to include their names. The researchers then scored the tests and correlated the results using the Pearson product-moment correlation.

Results
Pearson product-moment correlations were computed to measure the relationship between stress levels and the other factors studied. The following table presents the findings.

Table 1
n = 30 Correlations between Stress & Various Stress Factors Factors Daily Hassles Social support Life experiences Weekly exercise Hrs of sleep Hrs of work ** p <.01, * p <.05 Daily hassles, life experiences, and hours of work were all significantly correlated with stress. This indicates significant positive relationships exist between these factors and stress levels. As hassles, life experiences, or work hours increase, so does stress. The correlation between social support and stress was r = -.35 (p<.05), indicating a significant negative relationship between the two. (That is, lower levels of social support are associated with higher levels of stress, and vice versa).

Stress .47** -.35* .42* -.08 -.21 .39*

However, the correlations between exercise and stress (r= -.08) and between sleep and stress (r = -.21) were not significant.

Discussion
The finding of a significant positive correlation (r = +.47, p < .01) between daily hassles and stress levels supports Kohn et al.'s research on the stress effects of daily hassles (as cited in Weiten, 2001). One hassle by itself may be small and insignificant, but when hassles start to build up they may cause a great deal of stress. The finding of a negative correlation (r = .35, p < .05) between social support and stress also supports past research (Davis, Morris & Kraus, 1998; House, Landis & Umberson, 1988). Social support can be very important in reducing stress because it allows people to talk about, and have others listen to their problems. The significant positive correlation (r = +.42, p < .05) between life experience and stress also supports Holmes & Rahe's research (as cited in Weiten, 2001) that the more changes in life one has, the more susceptible to stress one becomes. The significant positive correlation (r = +.39, p < .05) between work hours and stress supports Weiten's (2001) research on the subject. The work environment can be a very stressful place and the more time one spends there, the higher their stress levels may become. However, the absence of the expected inverse correlation between exercise (Brown, 1991) and stress was unexpected. Brown has shown that exercise can be beneficial to reducing stress levels. Perhaps more participants were needed in order to show an accurate correlation. Social desirability bias (Weiten, 2001) may also have been a factor. The participants may have reported the amount of exercise that they believed to be socially acceptable instead of the amount of exercise they actually did. The negative correlation between sleep and stress was not significant (r = -.21). A stronger, more significant correlation was expected. A good night's sleep is essential to resisting stress. One reason for these results might be that hours of sleep in this survey were all around eight hours, while stress levels were scattered over a much larger range. Again, the small sample size might be a factor; more participants might increase the accuracy of the results.

References
Brown, J. D. (1991). Staying fit and staying well: Physical fitness as a moderator of life stress [Abstract]. Journal of Psychology and Social Psychology, 60, 555-561. Davis, M. H., Morris, M. M., & Kraus, L. A. (1998). Relationship-specific and global perception of social support: Associations with well-being and attachments. Journal of Psychology and Social Psychology, 74, 468-481. Delongis, A., Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). The impact of daily stress on health and mood: Psychological

and social resources as mediators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 486496. House, J. S., Landis, K. R. & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science, 241, 540-545. Sarason, I. G., Johnson, J. H., Siegel, J. M. (1978). Assessing the impact of life changes: Development of the Life Experiences Survey. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 943946. Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: Themes and variations (2nd Cdn. ed.). Toronto: Wadsworth.

Introduction The government of the United States of America is charged with among other roles the responsibility to ensure that its citizens receive adequate services. Such include good health care and education. Special emphasis has been to these two sectors since they are the backbone of the economy. Provision of quality education to students makes the country achieve significant progress. This is because when people study they are able to get jobs and thus become independent. This further ensures that poverty is eradicated before it takes a toll on the nation. The educated group of citizens also contributes to nation building through useful engagements other than engaging in malicious activities such as theft. They are able to provide labor in the various sectors; both government and private. Federal Initiatives relating to testing It is for this reason that the government initiates certain decisions and policies which directly affect testing in education in the U.S.A. Testing is important because it defines the students level of understanding of a particular matter. The government has initiated policies to this effect since it is a sensitive matter that requires care when being administered. Testing has both advantages and disadvantages. Such initiatives include the No Child Left Behind initiative, adequate yearly progress and FCAT in Florida (Wilberforce, 2005). Continue Reading Comments Off Oct 21 2011

Research paper on Worker Attitude and Job Satisfaction

Published by admin under Example of Research Papers Thesis Statements: Attitude and Job Satisfaction: A worker attitude towards work is directly linked to the job satisfaction; a worker who is satisfied with his job performs better and excels at what he does. It is therefore imperative for a company to understand the attitude of its workers and measure the job satisfaction of its employees, as job satisfaction is essential for productivity.

Introduction Worker attitude and job satisfaction deals with how an organization behaves. It involves the management directing employees into improving organizational and personal effectiveness. It plays an enormous role in determining the attitudes of employees and their job satisfaction. When an employee is happy, it is usually because they are satisfied with their work. This also improves the quality of their work. Attitude and job satisfaction may not fall completely on the management but also on the employees. If employees enjoy their work, they will not need external motivation from management, but instead the satisfaction they attain from completing their work will motivate them (Robbins, 2004). Job satisfaction is an individuals contentment with their work. Its effect on productivity is either positive or negative. The relationship between job satisfaction and job productivity is however not consistent. An individual may still obtain high job productivity without having the satisfaction in the work. This happens mostly when money is their motivation. Another motivator is improving in his or her work in order to receive a promotion. Other employees may increase their productivity due to the satisfaction they get from their work. A reason for job satisfaction may also come from an employee getting a good salary. It improves job satisfaction as long as an employee has knowledge of the fact that they get fair payment for their efforts at the end of the day. Continue Reading Comments Off Oct 14 2011

Comparison Research Paper Example

Published by admin under Example of Research Papers Research Paper on Comparison between the Greek and the American Cultures: Culture is a broad yet very important aspect of the society and without it no community or group can claim to have any form of identity. Culture can be viewed from a variety of angles each interrelated to the other. It mainly comprises the aspects of religion, business and economic activities, duty towards others, food, dress code, language, music and dance, etiquette, entertainment, and family values among others. These aspects collectively define a group. The speech aims at providing a clear description of some aspects of the Greek culture and providing vivid comparison between the Greek and the American culture (Adams and Strother-Adams 23). Elements which are used to achieve his include the aspects of weddings, clothing and gift giving. Weddings Greek weddings basically commenced when darkness struck. Chariot being the main form of transport carried the bride who at the time stood on the chariot. The girl would set on the journey from her family home to her future husbands home wearing a veil. Behind the chariot would be the brides family who trekked and carried gifts to the grooms home. Since it would be dark, the acquaintances of both the bride and the groom would provide lighting ahead of the chariots (Adams and Strother-Adams 18). Similarly, their friends would use torches to provide the light. Since they believed darkness encouraged evil spirits, the friend while leading the way played some music in a bid to scare the supposed spirits. Continue Reading

Comments Off Oct 04 2011

Research Paper on Poor Organizational Communication

Published by admin under Example of Research Papers Example Research Paper on Poor Organizational Communication: Executive Summary Broadways Production Limited has failed over the five-years of its operations to compete with similar companies in the market. In the endeavor to identify the root of the problem, I conducted a study that narrowed down to the problem of communication between and amongst the companys departments. Lack of a department of communication in the company has facilitated to poor and very little communication between and amongst departments, thus triggering division among the staff and consequent demoralization as well as poor production and distribution. Establishment of an effective structure of communication should play a very significant role in enhancing the companys productivity as well as improved distribution, thus enabling the company to have an equal platform in competing with its competitors. With establishment of a department of communication with the necessary human and material resources, the company is able to enhance the day-to-day activities, thus creating a prosperous future for the company. Definition of the Problem Among the most central aspects of any organization is communication. Baker has observed that traditionally, managers spent majority of their time within organizations dealing with one aspect of communication or another. The success of any organization has much to do with the effective of its communication. However, in the contemporary society, the service workers of many organizations have exceeded production workers, thus communication has become more central to them than among the managers. The production process cannot be successful without effective collaboration between and amongst the various departments of an organization. Team work is central between and amongst diversified functional levels, and it can only be enhanced if an organization has an effective system of communication (Baker, 2002, p. 1). Moreover, the world is experiencing numerous changes in communication technologies, thus triggering a dire need for all organizations to update their system to enable them stand-out in the competitive global market. Continue Reading Comments Off Sep 26 2011

Research Proposal on E-Commerce vs Web Store Front

Published by admin under Example of Research Papers,Main category E-Commerce vs. Web Store Front Research Proposal: With the advent of internet technology, organizations have greatly improved in certain ways.

One of the most important facets of the computer and internet technology that have undergone rapid change is the E-commerce (Umar, 2004). Ecommerce or electronic commerce is the act of doing business over the internet through the aid of remote computers linked to each other to form a network. Specifically, it allows the users to transact business over the internet, where very little or no physical contact between the two parties is involved (Umar, 2004). Companies throughout the modern world are increasingly changing from traditional in-store format due to the increased opportunities with online business, as well as reduced cost of doing business (Umar, 2004). Currently, most retail businesses maintain a web storefront, while others have completed deviated from their physical location and moved permanently to the online business location. Traditional Versus Online Shopping It is not necessary that the word shopping have the meaning of exchange of goods and services in a specific physical location, as it was the common definition (Columbus, 2009). For instance, it was the only way for the shopper to leave the physical location and visit to the physical market or store in order to shop. However, in the modern world, shopping has greatly been revolutionized primarily through the internet technology. However, there are facets of this revolution that has brought in certain weaknesses with the shopping method, which are not common with traditional in-store method of shopping (Umar, 2004). Continue Reading Comments Off Sep 22 2011

Research Paper on Measurement in Financial Recording

Published by admin under Example of Research Papers Measurement in Financial Recording research paper: In the recent past there has been a strong a desire and need for reforms in the manner in which accounting of financial instruments and statements is done. This has come as a result of a number of developments in the market. These developments have mainly been characterised by diverse financial innovations, which have blurred the establishment of a clear distinction between the existing financial instruments. Consequently, this has contributed to developing markets for those instruments that have been traditionally considered as non tradable and illiquid (Enria et al, 2004). There has also been evident disappearance of the rationale of the existing diverse accounting treatment that is related to securities, banking and insurance services. This is because they all cover and serve similar economic function. There have been two major approaches which have been recommended in the previous decade as being essential in line with measurements in financial accounting. The first recommendation is anchored on methods of valuation in accordance to past transaction which is referred to as Historical Cost analysis. Second argument is based on the current existing market value, which is referred to as Fair Value Accounting. The Historical based approach has been a fundamental part of Americas accounting systems. Through this approach, assets are always presented on a balance sheet, in terms of their value at the time when they were being acquired, which is essentially the use of purchase cost. Continue Reading Comments Off

Sep 03 2011

Human Resource Organizational Research

Published by admin under Example Essays,Example of Research Papers,Sample Essays,Sample Research Papers 1.0 Introduction Member of staff satisfaction and empowerment are fundamental components to businesses in most industries (torraco 85). the industry of construction has an assortment of types of members of staff, varying from administrators and senior managers to on-site overseers and manual workers (beardwell and claydon 53). this study was carried out to achieve a better perceptive regarding the essentials and levels of contentment and empowerment of on-site overseers in the housing industry of construction. an on-site overseer in the housing industry of construction is liable for synchronizing and organizing members of staff, supplies, equipment, making financial arrangements, planning, indentures, and the wellbeing of members of staff and the populace in general (holbeche and springett 12). they are also members of staff most recurrently professed as liable for the triumph or malfunction of any task. trailing a detailed assessment of the correlated writing, a questionnaire was structured to find out the levels of satisfaction and empowerment of on-site controllers. this opinion poll was overseen in the form of an interview and it was revealed that a noteworthy correspondence subsisted amid satisfaction and empowerment. 2.0 Structure of the interview Questions Subjects 1 to 10 were planned to find demographic information concerning the on site controllers. demographic queries that were incorporated in the study aimed at the onsite controllers age, sex, nuptial standing, edification, industry familiarity, incidence with precedent and current administrators, career title, present position of the profession, and sum of built-up units the interviewees company put up per annum. subjects 11, 14, 20, and 28 classified whether the members of staff feel esteemed by the company. subjects 17, 19, and 26 classified if members of staff got adequate training to execute the allocated tasks. subjects 22 and 25 classified the members of staff level of expectations and assurance in administrators and executives. queries 12, 21, and 24 classified if members of staff had the ability to under take the requisite tasks. subjects 13, 15, 18, and 23 classified if members of staff had any contribution or involvement in choosing how their work necessities will be accomplished. subjects 16 and 27 classified if members of staff are held responsible and answerable for their doings by acme administration. the 18th subjects obliquely measured the on-site controllers intensity of satisfaction and empowerment. subject 29 and 30 were straight queries permitting the members of staff to document their level of satisfaction or empowerment. lastly, queries 31, 32 and 33 were accustomed to identify the highest five fundamentals on-site controllers thought led to member of staff satisfaction and empowerment. the main questions, which were 11-30, were accustomed to appraise conduct and point of view of the members of staff. Aforementioned to conducting the interview, deakin universitys institutional review board was made contact with, and authorization was approved to carry out this study. the institutes boards key rationale is to protect the civil liberties and interests of human study issues. consistent with university guiding principles, any study considered to seek information from individual subjects must be pre-commended by a review commission.

3.0 Findings Continue Reading Comments Off Aug 30 2011

Banking and finance Interest rate risk

Published by admin under Example Essays,Example of Research Papers,Sample Essays,Sample Research Papers INTEREST RATE RISK IN THE BANKING BOOK: EMBEDDED OPTIONS IN RESIDENTIAL MORTGAGES Interest rate risk is associated with the fluctuations in the interest rates. Interest rate risk therefore can be defined as the change in the portfolio value that a bank obtains as a result of the unexpected changes in the interest rates. The interest rate risk can also be termed as one of the ways that an individual or the bank can make profits and the value of the shareholder can gain therefore banks accept interest rate risk as a normal part of their banking business. However, for banks taking an excessive interest rate risk could threaten banks earnings and capital base. This is because the fluctuations in the rate of interest normally alter with the earnings of the bank. This means that it changes its net interest income, the level of other incomes that are associated with the interest rate and operating expenses. This will in overall alters the value of the assets as well as liabilities. Often change when interest rates changes. Furthermore interest rate risk affects a bank earnings directly as, there may be changes on active and passive interest rates plus changes on market values of assets and liabilities as well as indirectly, due to changes on business volumes. Thus, to effectively manage the risks is very much essential in order to ensure that the earnings and the value of the bank is maintained in its expected position or increases as required. Therefore, banks typically split interest rate risk into two components: traded interest rate risk and non-traded interest rate risk. The non-traded interest rate risk is often referred to as interest rate risk on the balance sheet or in the banking book and therefore includes all commercial banking activities in the banking sector. Both refer to the potential impact of adverse movements in interest rates but they follow different accounting rules. The underlying principle for separating these portfolios is that while the banking portfolio follows traditional accounting rules of accrued interest income and accrued interest costs, trading on the other hand relies on market values (market-to-market) of transactions. Continue Reading Comments Off Aug 16 2010

Alcoholism Research Paper

Published by admin under Example of Research Papers Example research paper on Alcoholism: Alcohols importance in our social history is significant. Even more significant is the abuse of alcohol and the how alcoholism has effected modern society. However, before the word

alcoholism was ever spoken, alcohol was used for many purposes such as settling battles, giving courage in battles, celebrating festivals and wooing lovers. The history of alcohol can be traced all the way back to the Egyptians. In Egyptian burials, it was used to help the deads journey to the afterlife. There is also evidence that the Babylonians, around 1600 BC, knew how to brew 20 different types of beer. It was also around this time that alcohol was tied to abuse. The Babylonians made their laws include punishments against drunkenness. The Greeks and the Romans drank mostly wine, and they loved it so much that they worshipped Dionysus, the god of wine. When they worshipped, the Greeks and Romans would become extremely intoxicated. Their writings are full of warnings against drinking too much. In 55 BC, the Romans introduced beer, right before alcohol become important in religious cultures. Continue Reading

A Proposal to Research the Storage Facility for Spent Nuclear Fuel at Yucca Mountain Roger Bloom October 1997

Introduction Nuclear power plants produce more than 20 percent of the electricity used in the United States [Murray, 1989]. Unfortunately, nuclear fission, the process used to create this large amount energy, creates significant amounts of high level radioactive waste. More than 30,000 metric tons of nuclear waste have arisen from U.S. commercial reactors as well as high level nuclear weapons waste, such as uranium and plutonium [Roush, 1995]. Because of the build-up of this waste, some power plants will be forced to shut down. To avoid losing an important source of energy, a safe and economical place to keep this waste is necessary. This document proposes a literature review of whether Yucca Mountain is a suitable site for a nuclear waste repository. The proposed review will discuss the economical and

environmental aspects of a national storage facility. This proposal includes my methods for gathering information, a schedule for completing the review, and my qualifications.

Statement of Problem On January 1, 1998, the Department of Energy (DOE) must accept spent nuclear fuel from commercial plants for permanent storage [Clark, 1997]. However, the DOE is undecided on where to put this high level radioactive waste. Yucca Mountain, located in Nevada, is a proposed site. There are many questions regarding the safety of the Yucca Mountain waste repository. Researchers at Los Alamos National Laboratory disagree over the long-term safety of the proposed high level nuclear waste site located in Nevada. In 1994, Charles Bowman, a researcher at Los Alamos, developed a theory claiming that years of storing waste in the mountain may actually start a nuclear chain reaction and explode, similar to an atomic bomb [Taubes, 1995]. The stir caused by theory suggests that researchers have not explored all sides of the safety issue concerning potentially hazardous situations at Yucca Mountain. Bowman's theory that Yucca Mountain could explode is based upon the idea that enough waste will eventually disperse through the rock to create a critical mass. A critical mass is an amount of fissile material, such as plutonium, containing enough mass to start a neutron chain reaction [Murray, 1989]. Bowman argues that if this chain reaction were started underground, the rocks in the ground would help keep the system compressed and speed up the chain reaction [Taubes, 1995]. A chain reaction formed underground could then generate huge amounts of energy in a fraction of a second, resulting in a nuclear blast. A nuclear explosion of this magnitude would emit large amounts of radioactivity into the air and ground water. Another safety concern is the possibility of a volcanic eruption in Yucca Mountain. The longterm nuclear waste storage facility needs to remain stable for at least 10,000 years to allow the radioactive isotopes to decay to natural levels [Clark, 1997]. There are at least a dozen young volcanoes within 40 kilometers of the proposed Yucca Mountain waste site [Weiss, 1996]. The proximity of Yucca Mountain to these volcanoes makes it possible to have a volcanic eruption pass through the spent fuel waste repository. Such a volcanic eruption could release damaging amounts of radioactivity to the environment.

Objectives I propose to review the available literature about using Yucca Mountain as a possible repository for spent nuclear fuel. In this review I will achieve the following two goals: (1) explain the criteria for a suitable repository of high-level radioactive waste; and (2) determine whether Yucca Mountain meets these criteria.

According to the Department of Energy (DOE), a repository for high-level radioactive waste must meet several criteria including safety, location, and economics [Roush, 1995]. Safety includes not only the effect of the repository on people near the site, but also people along the transportation routes to the site. In my research I will consider both groups of people. As far as location, a waste site cannot be in an area with a large population or near a ground water supply. Also, because one of the most significant factors in determining the life span of a possible repository is how long the waste storage canisters will remain in tact, the waste site must be located in a dry climate to eliminate the moisture that can cause the waste canisters to corrode. The economics involved in selecting a site is another criterion. At present, the Department of Energy (DOE) has spent more than 1.7 billion dollars on the Yucca Mountain project [Taubes, 1995]. For that reason, much pressure exists to select Yucca Mountain as a repository site; otherwise, this money would have been wasted. Other costs, though, have to be considered. For instance, how economical is it to transport radioactive waste across several states to a single national site? I will try to account for as many of these other costs as possible. After explaining the criteria, I will assess how well Yucca Mountain meets those criteria. In this assessment, I will not assign a numerical score for each criterion. Rather, I will discuss qualitatively how well Yucca Mountain meets each criterion. In some situations, disagreement exists among experts as to how well Yucca Mountain meets a criterion. In such cases, I will present both sides. In this assessment, only Yucca Mountain will be considered as a possible site. Although many sites in the United States could meet the DOE's established criteria, I will consider only Yucca Mountain because the DOE is considering only Yucca Mountain [Taube, 1995].

Plan of Action This section presents my plan for obtaining the objectives discussed in the previous section. There has been an increase of interest in the nuclear industry concerning the Yucca Mountain site because of the January 1,1998, deadline for the DOE. Several journal articles and papers discussing the possibility of Yucca Mountain as a spent fuel repository in our near future have surfaced as a consequence of that interest. These articles and books about the dangers of nuclear waste should provide sufficient information for me to complete my review. The following two paragraphs will discuss how I will use these sources in my research. The first goal of my research is to explain the criteria for determining whether a nuclear waste repository is suitable. For example, will the rock structure be able to withstand human invasion in the future [Clark, 1997]? What will happen if the waste containers corrode and do not last as long as predicted? Will the natural setting contain the waste? To achieve this goal, I will rely on "Background on 40 CFR Part 197 Environmental Standards for Yucca Mountain" [Clark, 1997], the DOE Yucca Mountain home page [1997], and the book Understanding Radioactive Waste [Murray, 1989].

A second goal of my literature review is to evaluate Yucca Mountain meets those criteria. I will base my evaluation on the sources mentioned above as well as specific Environmental Protection Agency standards. I also intend to research the validity of possible environmental disasters, such as the explosion theory. To accomplish this goal, I will rely on the paper presented by Clark [1997], and on the book Blowup at Yucca Mountain [Taubes, 1995]. Because engineering students are the primary audience for my proposed research topic and may not be familiar with the history of nuclear waste, I will provide a background on past methods used for waste storage. People in the nuclear field with some knowledge of the waste problem facing the industry may be a secondary audience.

Management Plan This section presents my schedule, costs, and qualifications for completing the proposed research. This research culminates in a formal report, which will be completed by December 5, 1997. To reach this goal, I will follow the schedule presented in Figure 1. Since I already possess literature on the subject of Yucca Mountain as a nuclear waste site, most of my time will be spent sorting through the literature to find key results, and presenting those results to the audience.

Figure 1. Schedule for completion of the literature review. The formal presentation will be on October 27, and the formal report will be completed by December 5.

Given that all my sources are available through the University of Wisconsin library system, there is no appreciable cost associated with performing this review, unless one takes into consideration the amount of tuition spent on maintaining the university libraries. The only other minor costs are photocopying articles, creating transparencies for my presentation, printing my report, and binding my report. I estimate these expenses will not exceed $20.

I am a senior in the Engineering Physics Department at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, majoring in nuclear engineering and physics. I have taken several classes related to nuclear waste, economics, and environmental studies. I believe that these courses will aid me in preparing the proposed review. For further information about my qualifications, see the attached resume.

Conclusion More than 30,000 metric tons of nuclear waste have arisen from U.S. commercial reactors as well as high level nuclear weapons waste, such as uranium and plutonium [Roush, 1995]. This document has proposed research to evaluate the possibility of using Yucca Mountain as a possible repository for this spent nuclear fuel. The proposed research will achieve the following goals: (1) explain the criteria necessary to make a suitable high level radioactive waste repository, and (2) determine if Yucca Mountain meets these criteria. The research will include a formal presentation on November 11 and a formal report on December 5.

References Clark, Raymond L., "Background on 40 CFR Part 197 Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for Yucca Mountain," Proceedings of the 1997 Waste Management Conference (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997).

Kerr, R., "New Way to Ask the Experts: Rating Radioactive Waste Risks," Science, vol.274, (November1996), pp. 913-914. Murray, Raymond L., Understanding Nuclear Waste (Battelle Press, 1989). Roush, W., "Can Nuclear Waste Keep Yucca Mountain Dry-and Safe?" Science, vol. 270, (December 1995), pp. 1761-1762. Taubes, G., "Blowup at Yucca Mountain," Science, vol.268, (June 1995), pp. 18361839.
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A Proposal to Review How Geophysical Precursors Can Help Predict Earthquakes

Christopher Gray February 1995

Introduction Throughout the world, devastating earthquakes occur with little or no advance warning. Some of these earthquakes kill hundreds of people. If the times, magnitudes, and locations of these earthquakes could be accurately predicted, many lives could be saved. This document proposes a review of how monitoring geophysical precursors can help in the short-term prediction of earthquakes. The proposed review will discuss the physical principles behind the monitoring of three common precursors and evaluate how accurate each monitoring is in predicting earthquakes. Included in this proposal are my methods for gathering information, a schedule for completing the review, and my qualifications.

Justification of Proposed Review On the morning of April 18, 1906, the population of San Francisco was awakened by violent shaking and by the roar caused by the writhing and collapsing of buildings [Hodgson, 1964]. The ground appeared to be thrown into waves that twisted railways and broke the pavement into great cracks. Many buildings collapsed, while others were severely damaged. The earthquake caused fires in fifty or more points throughout the city. Fire stations were destroyed, alarms were put out of commission, and water mains were broken. As a result, the fires quickly spread throughout the city and continued for three days. The fires destroyed a 5 square-mile section at the heart of the city [Mileti and Fitzpatrick, 1993]. Even more disastrous was the Kwanto earthquake in Japan that devastated the cities of Yokohama and Tokyo on September 1, 1923 [Hodgson, 1993]. In Yokohama, over 50 percent of the buildings were destroyed [Bolt, 1993], and as many as 208 fires broke out and spread through the city [Hodgson, 1964]. When the disaster was over, 33,000 people were dead [Bolt, 1993]. In Tokyo, the damage from the earthquake was less, but the resulting fires were more devastating. The fires lasted three days and destroyed 40 percent of the city [Hodgson, 1964]. After the fire, 68,000 people were dead and 1 million people were homeless [Bolt, 1993]. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake and the Kwanto earthquake were two of the most famous and devastating earthquakes of this century. These earthquakes struck without warning and with disastrous results. If earthquakes could be predicted, people would be able to evacuate from buildings, bridges, and overpasses, where most deaths occur. Some earthquakes have been successfully predicted. One of the most famous predictions was the Haicheng Prediction in China. In 1970, Chinese scientists targeted the Liaoning Province as a site with potential for a large earthquake. These scientists felt that an earthquake would occur there in 1974 or 1975. On December 20, 1974, an earthquake warning was issued. Two days later, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck the Liaoning Province; however, further monitoring suggested a larger earthquake was imminent [Mileti and others, 1981]. On February 4, 1975, the Chinese issued a warning that an earthquake would strike Haicheng within 24 hours [Bolt, 1993]. The people in Haicheng were evacuated,

and about 5.5 hours later, a magnitude 7.3 earthquake shook the city of Haicheng. If the people hadn't been evacuated, the death toll could have exceeded 100,000. Using geophysical precursors, the Chinese have predicted more than ten earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 5.0 [Meyer, 1977]. For example, the Chinese predicted a pair of earthquakes of magnitude 6.9 that occurred 97 minutes apart in Yunnan on May 19, 1976 [Bolt, 1993]. Despite these successes, the Chinese failed to predict the earthquake that struck the city of Tangshan on July 27, 1976; this earthquake killed 250,000 people and injured 500,000 more [Bolt, 1988]. This earthquake wasn't completely unexpected, but the Chinese believed it to be a few years away. Other earthquakes have been predicted, but the predictions didn't have enough precision for warnings to be issued. For example, in 1983, a young geophysicist predicted that an earthquake of magnitude 8 would strike Mexico City within four years [Deshpande, 1987]. Two years later, an earthquake of magnitude 8 did strike Mexico City. Because the prediction was not more precise, no warning was issued and the earthquake took the population of Mexico City by surprise. Other predictions have turned out to be false warnings. For example, an earthquake warning was issued in August 1976 near Hong Kong [Bolt, 1988]. During the earthquake alert, people slept outdoors for two months. No earthquake occurred.

Objectives I propose to review the available literature on how geophysical precursors can be used for short-term predictions of earthquakes. In this review, I will achieve the following three goals: 1. explain three commonly monitored geophysical precursors: ground uplift and tilt, increases in radon emissions, and changes in the electrical resistivity of rocks; 2. show what happens to each of these precursors during the five stages of an earthquake; and 3. discuss how each of these precursors is used for short-term earthquake predictions. Geophysical precursors are changes in the physical state of the earth that are precursory to earthquakes. In addition to monitoring geophysical precursors, there are other strategies for predicting earthquakes-in particular, analyzing statistical data on prior earthquakes. Analyzing statistical data on prior earthquakes, however, is solely a long-term prediction technique [Bolt, 1993]. For that reason, I will not consider it. In my review, I will discuss three common geophysical precursors: ground uplift and tilt, increases in radon emissions, and changes in the electrical resistivity of rocks. Earthquakes occur in five stages as there is a build up of elastic strain within faults in the earth, followed by the development of cracks in the rocks, then the influx of water into those cracks. The fourth stage is the actual rupture of the fault and the release of seismic waves. The fifth stage is the sudden drop in stress in the fault. In this stage, aftershocks occur. During these five stages, the geophysical precursors follow distinct patterns. For instance, the ground uplift and tilt increases during the second stage as the volume of rock increases.

In my review, I will relate how the three geophysical precursors relate to the five stages of an earthquake and how well this relation can be used to predict the oncoming fault rupture.

Plan of Action This section presents my plan for obtaining the objectives discussed in the previous section. Because of the recent earthquakes in California and Japan, there has arisen a strong interest to predict earthquakes precisely. As a consequence of that strong interest, many books and journals have been written on earthquakes and earthquake prediction. I have gathered five books and several articles on the subject. In addition, there are dozens of books and articles available in the library. These books and articles should provide sufficient information for me to write my review. The following paragraphs discuss how I will use these sources in my research. The first goal of my research is to explain the physical principles behind monitoring geophysical precursors. For example, why does the electrical resistivity of rocks decrease before an oncoming earthquake? Or, what does a sudden increase in radon emissions reveal about the future likelihood of a massive earthquake? The second goal of my research is to show what happens to each of these precursors during the five stages of an earthquake. To achieve these two goals, I will rely on three books that give an overview to earthquake prediction: Earthquakes [Bolt, 1988], Earthquakes and Geological Discovery [Bolt, 1993], and Earthquakes and Earth Structure [Hodgson, 1964]. A third primary goal of the literature review is to cover the accuracy of monitoring each precursor. By accuracy, I mean how well does the method work in predicting the time, place, and size of earthquakes. This discussion will not include many statistics on the predictions of earthquakes, because at present there just haven't been enough successful predictions to validate these types of statistics. Instead, I intend to evaluate the potential accuracy of monitoring each precursor based on the opinions of experts and preliminary data. To achieve this goal, I will rely on two of my most recent sources: The Great Earthquake Experiment [Mileti and Fitzpatrick, 1993] and Earthquakes and Geological Discovery [Bolt, 1993]. Should I require additional sources other than the ones I have, I will search for them in the library system at the University of Wisconsin. Should I not be able to find that information, I will modify the scope of my research accordingly. Because the primary readers for my proposed literature review are engineering students who are probably not familiar with the theories behind earthquakes, I will have to provide selected background information frommy sources. These engineering students already know that earthquakes are devastating. They also know that if earthquakes could be predicted, people would be able to prepare for them and lives would be saved. However, they may not know the different methods of predicting earthquakes. My intent is to inform these students of three methods of predicting earthquakes. A secondary audience for the review would be non-technical readers who either live in earthquake-prone areas or are affected financially when earthquakes occur. My proposed

literature review will provide this group with an unbiased discussion of three methods for earthquake prediction. This discussion, drawing much from overview chapters in Earthquakes, Animals and Man [Deshpande, 1987] and California Quake [Meyer, 1977], will put into perspective how accurate, or inaccurate, the named methods are and what hurdles face engineers who try to predict earthquakes.

Management Plan This section presents my schedule, costs, and qualifications for performing the proposed research. The proposed research project culminates in a formal report that will be completed by December 6, 1995. To reach this goal, I will follow the schedule presented in Figure 1. Because I already possess several books and articles on earthquake prediction, most of my time will be spent sifting through the information, finding the key results, and presenting those results to the audience.

Figure 1. Schedule for completion of literature review. The two triangles represent milestones for the project, the first being the formal presentation on November 11, 1996, and the second being the formal report on December 6, 1996.

Given that I can obtain all my sources for the literature review from the library, there is no appreciable cost associated with performing this literature review. The only costs, which will be minor, are for copying articles, printing the review, and spiral binding the review. I estimate that I can do these tasks for under $10. I am a senior in the Geological Engineering Department at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. In my undergraduate courses I have taken rock mechanics, soil mechanics, geophysics, and stratigraphy, all of which have included the principles of seismology and stress-strain relationships. In addition, I have taken field courses on structural geology that have introduced me to subsurface behaviors. I believe that these courses and my hands-on

experience will aid me in assimilating the proposed literature review. For further information about my qualifications, see the attached resume (not attached on this web site).

References

Bolt, Bruce A., Earthquakes (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1988). Bolt, Bruce A., Earthquakes and Geological Discovery (New York: Scientific American Library, 1993). Deshpande, Prof. B. G., Earthquakes, Animals and Man (Pune, India: The Maharashtra Association for the Cultivation of Science, 1987). Hodgson, John H., Earthquakes and Earth Structure (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall, 1964). Meyer, Larry L., California Quake (Nashville: Sherbourne Press, 1977). Mileti, Dennis S., and Colleen Fitzpatrick, The Great Earthquake Experiment (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993).