The Convergence of Patterns in The City: The Effects of Architectural Morphology

PAPERREF#8167 Proceedings:EighthInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposium Santiago,PUC,2012
THECONVERGENCEOFPATTERNSINTHECITY:(Isolating) theeffectsofarchitecturalmorphologyonmovementand activity
AUTHOR:
ViniciusNETTO UniversidadeFederalFluminense(NEPHUUFF),Brazil email:v1n1netto@yahoo.co.uk RenatoSABOYA UniversidadeFederaldeSantaCatarina(UFSC),Brazil email:rtsaboya@gmail.com JulioVARGAS UniversidadeFederaldoRioGrandedoSul(UFRGS),Brazil LucasFIGUEIREDO UniversidadeFederaldaParaba(UFPB),Brazil email:lucasfigueiredo@gmail.com CssioFREITAS EscolaNacionaldeCinciaEstatstica(ENCEIBGE),Brazil email:cassiofpa@terra.com.br MaraPINHEIRO UniversidadeFederalFluminense(NEPHUUFF),Brazil email:mairasoares.arq@hotmail.com PatternConvergence,Dissonance,StreetNetworks,ArchitecturalTypology,UrbanVitality UrbanStructureandSpatialDistribution
KEYWORDS: THEME:
Abstract Ourpaperintroducesthetheoreticalandmethodologicalgroundsforanewapproachtoproblemsofinternal relations between urban patterns in the city creation process. The first problem relates to the conditions ofconvergenceof patterns of accessibility, location, density and pedestrian movement distinct material processeswhosedeepmutualimplicationsseemtotieandmixthemintheformofthecityitself.Approaches tourbanmorphologyandgrowthasdifferentasspacesyntaxandspatialeconomicsarebasedonthecentral propositionthatpatternsoverlapintime,anaxiomthatallowsthemtoshow,forinstance,howaccessibility affectslocationormovement.Wechallengesuchteleologicalperspective,arguingthatconvergenceislikely to always contain dissonance between patterns, deeply entrenched in the collisions of materialities and temporalitiesofdistincturbanprocesses,amongothercontingencies.Furthermore,dissonancemayhelpto explain recognizable differences in pattern correlations. We introduce a methodology to assess levels of convergence/dissonanceinurbansystemsintime,orhowpatternsrelateascitiesgrowandchange. The second problem addresses a specific set of pattern relations. States of noncomplete convergence between street networks and movement may reveal potential roles played by other patterns such as architecturalmorphologiesacentralbutmostlyunexaminedquestion.Thepaperunfoldsamethodaimed atidentifyingtheeffectsofarchitecturaltypologiesonlocalsocioeconomicprocesseswithpotentiallarge
Proceedings:EighthInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposium Santiago,PUC,2012
scale effects independently from the effects of the street network. We apply the approach in an empirical study in twentyfour areas in Rio de Janeiro. Such methodology allows to assess more precisely what has beendefined,sinceJacobsseminalwork,asurbanvitality,asetofsocialandmicroeconomicqualitiesin citiesandgobacktoaquestionthatpuzzlesthearchitecturalimagination:canbuildingsaffecttheirurban surroundings? Would distinct architectural morphologies have distinct effects over local socioeconomic processes?Or,doesarchitecturemattertourbanvitality? 1INTRODUCTION Thispaperintroducesthetheoreticalandmethodologicalfoundationsforanewapproachtoproblemsof internalrelationsofpatternsinthecitycreationprocessarguablysomeofthemajorproblemsinurban studies.Thefirstonereferstothepotentialconvergencebetweenthem,atheoreticalaxiominapproaches to urban form and growth as different as space syntax and spatial economics: the strong apparent overlapping of patterns of accessibility, location, density and pedestrian movement (emphasised in space syntax studies). These differentiated material processes have deep mutual implications that seem to synthesizethemintheformofthecityitself,akeytheoreticalfindingthattakestheformofacentralaxiom inthesetheoriesandallowthemtoexplain,forinstance,howaccessibilitypatternsoverlapwithlocationor movement patterns. Theoretical definitions point to a strong convergence of distributions of activity location, architectural densities and accessibility levels in cities (either based on metrical distance, as in spatialeconomics,orgeometricalpropertiesofurbangrids,asinspacesyntax).Infact,convergenceseems taken to a point where whole dimensions (such as activity location or architectural densities) are seen as fullydependentonaccessibilitylevelsinherenttogridpatterns,servingatbestasmultipliereffects.Thatis notnecessarilythecase.RapidlygrowingcitiessuchasRiodeJaneiro,asweshallseebelowmayhave fastshiftsintheiraccessibilitycoreswithslowerchangesindensitypatterns.Weakerdensitiesinaparticular areawithhighaccessibilitymayreducemovementlevelsallowedbythegrid;orspecificarchitecturaltypes could offer poor support for retail activities potentially demanded by pedestrians. In these scenarios, movementpatternsmaybebiasedbyarchitecturalmorphologyandactivitylocation;accessibilitylevelsmay notcorrespondwithagglomeration.Nevertheless,spatialeconomicsshowsusthateconomicactivitiesare geared to agglomeration in the form of cities as a way to overcome distance. Space syntax works consistently pointed out that accessibility patterns overlap substantially with pedestrian movement patterns.Buttheyseemtodosorenderingthetensionsbetweenpatternsunproblematic.Wewouldliketo challengethesetheoreticalpositionsarguingthatastrongoverlappingofurbanpatternscouldonlybethe case in cities whose growth and dynamics already reached the point of fullfledged convergence and proposing a closer examination of how these materially distinct patterns interrelate. We devise here foundations for an approach to the convergence/dissonance of patterns of different materialities, and a method to investigate its level, recognizing that changes operate in different urban dimensions. These dimensions are all related in how we appropriate and produce cities and how they change, but not immediatelyso:theyaremediatedbyhumanpracticeanddistinctmaterialitiesatplay.Wehopetoshow that, despite a potential trend to alignment in such dimensions, taking the form of actual structures, dissonanceindifferentlevelsatdifferenttimesisalwaysalreadyatwork,preventingfullconvergence andtherebyrendering(assumptionsof)ateleological,naturalalignmentproblematic. However,suchanideaposesfurtherquestionslike,isthatpointreachable?Ifcitiesarealwayschangingas newactivitiesarecreatedandlocationpatternschanged,densitiestransformedthroughnewbuiltforms
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how could it be reached? How would such city look like? Would older cities find stronger internal convergence? We introduce below a methodology to address this problem, and assess levels of convergence/dissonanceinurbansystemsanditsbehaviour(ratherthanprogression)intime. Thisfirstsetofhypothesesisaconditionforasecondproblemarelationofspecificpatternsstillpoorly explored in theory and largely unconscious in practice: the possibility of identifiable effects of distinct architectural morphologies over local social processes, with potential largescale outputs. In fact, this problemisimpliedintheconvergenceofpatternsattheheartofwhatHillier(2001)callsthecitycreation process:howdoesarchitecturalmorphologyrelatetothevitalityofpubliclifeinstreetsandtheactivities they support? Could it have effects over the appropriation of space copresence, movement, social interactionandmicroeconomicexchange?Thesearenottrivialquestions:asweshallseebelow,relations between such phenomena and the patterns emerging from their interaction involve entirely different materialities.Theyalsoinvolvedifferenttemporalities:streetnetworkstakedecadesorcenturiestoreach stability, whereas movement patterns may take minutes to emerge. In other words, the hypothesis of convergenceofpatternsthecityasasystemofsystemsofdifferentmaterialities,apatternemergingfrom therelationofemergingpatternsimpliesarelationofarchitecturalformtopatternsofuseofspace. Notwithstanding, this research is an attempt to respond to a timely problem in cities in the developing world, but also elsewhere: the progressive dissolution of parts of the urban fabric through the growing production of buildings more and more inwardoriented i.e. detached from the street, surrounded by fences and walls, impervious to public activities such as retail. Nonsystematic observations have led architects and planners to fear that dissolution of certain built form patterns would lead to a similar dissolution in the social use of streets (e.g. reasons for pedestrians to walk their neighbourhoods, or for microeconomicexchangestocomeintobeingindifferentareas).Itseemstobehappeningatanalarming pace,withpotentiallydisastrousconsequencestocitiesingeneral,andtotheperformanceofmorphology asasupportforlocalizedsocialactioninparticular.Wepresentheretheunfoldingofasecondmethodology this turn, developed to isolate the effects of distinct architectural typologies from the effects of other urban patterns, i.e. in a way to render the relations between spatial and social variables more fully identifiable.ThepaperbringsinitialresultsfromanongoingempiricalstudyintwentyfourareasinRiode Janeiro. Such an approach is designed to address a classic question perhaps one that has puzzled the architecturalimaginationmorethanany:canbuildingsaffectwhathappensaroundthem?Woulddistinct architecturalmorphologieshavedistincteffectsoverlocalsocialandeconomicprocesses?Ormorebroadly: doesarchitecturemattertothevitalityofstreetsandpubliclifeinthecity? 2THECONVERGENCEANDDISSONANCEOFPATTERNSINTHEFORMOFCITIES We point out four patterns as simultaneous processes with different time frames always in progress, consolidationandchangeinthehistoryofacity(figure1). a) The production, growth and structuration of street networks internally differentiated into hierarchies articulating blocks and buildings and the network of interaction among the activities they support in timeahighlydurableandstablestructure(temporality4);1
SeethecaseoftheCityofLondonintheappendixtoHillierandNetto(2002). 3
b) The progressive production and substitution of built forms, up until the emergence of a pattern of distribution of architectural densities (see Wheaton, 1982) and potential dominance of particular typologies.Thetemporalityofbuiltformproductionandreplacementisslow(temporality3).Builtform densitiesarelargelydependentonsystemicurbantensionsandsocioeconomicprocessesanddemands, whichinturnexpressandsupportaplethoraofactivities; c) The occupation of such architectural hardware finds its own pattern of distribution, or location. Activitieshaveavariablestability,lastingfromdaystoyears,evencenturies.Mostactivitiesvanishin timeorchangelocation.Nevertheless,thetemporalityofemergenceofalargescalelocationpatternis slow(temporality2);
d) The use of streets andpublic open spaces for socioeconomic interaction has todowith the interface with buildings and their activities, including retail and services. Patterns of actions and interactions unfolding in a city are recognizable as movement patterns connecting activity places and allowing actionstoemergeassocialaction.Thetemporalityofemergenceisfastsimilarpatternsofpedestrian movement come up everyday and adapt quickly and fluidly to changes in location or in the street network(temporality1).
Figure1Relationsofurbanpatternsofdifferentmaterialities,rolesandtemporalities.
Each pattern may be seen as an emergence in its own right. They have distinct roles, from the material conditionsofthedailycontinuityofactionsinthefluxofsocialreproductiontospatialproduction.Assuch, they have a dual relation to each other, being influenced by them on the one hand, and changing and shapingthemontheother.Therelationofaccessibilitytoarchitecturaldensityandlocationisnearlyself evident:distancewouldstimulateagglomeration,shapingurbangrowthaspeopleflowintoactivityplaces producinglocationanddensitypatterns,expandingtheurbangridasreflectionsoftheirneedstoovercome distanceinordertoproduceandinteract.Thisisshownbyaremarkablylargenumberofspatialeconomic studies,fromVonThnenandAlfredWebertoPaulKrugman.Suchapproachesshowtheconvergenceof
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accessibilitypatternsassessedthroughmetricdistanceswithlocationandspatialconcentration.Ofcourse the influence of spatial structure on accessibility and movement was further clarified by space syntax studies.Worksinthisfieldshowtheconvergenceofaccessibilityandmovementpatternsassessedthrough graphbased topological and geometric measures (with correlations around 0.6 see Hillier et al, 1993; Hillier and Iida, 2005). Some works pointed out the influence of the grid on activity location (Hillier et al, 1993;Hillier,2001).Afewworksinconfigurationalstudiesreinforcethecomplexconvergenceofcentrality andlandvaluewithimpressiveresults(correlationsupto0.9seeKrafta,1994;SpinelliandKrafta,1998). Themutualinfluencebetweenpatternswouldbealreadyactiveinurbanperipheralgrowth,astheyseemto shapeeachotherintorecognizableurbanstructures. Thus, the idea of urban systems made out of relations of (materially and temporally) different processes certainly finds support. We suggest that these processes come into being both as recognizable individual patterns mutually related in some level of convergence: a metapattern emerging in the form of the city itself. Convergence implies alignment between processes and their specific components, materialities and temporalitiesininternalimplicationsthatfeedfromeachotherandleadthemintorecognizablestructures. By convergence we do not mean an equilibrium state. Tensions are at play but we would be better equipped to assess them once pattern relations are objectified. By alignment we mean a tendency of certain states in one pattern to match specific states in other pattern(s). The most obvious metapattern includes high accessibility areas (temporality 4), highdensity areas (temporality 3), intense retail and diversifiedactivities(temporality2)andhighratesofpedestrianmovement(temporality1).Farfrombeinga onewaysetofinfluences,spreadingfromtemporality4through1,though,thesepatternsinteractinmore complexways.Areaswithhighcopresenceofpedestrians,forinstance,tendtoattractretail,whichthen forcelandpricesupandconsequentlyforcedeveloperstointensifythelanduse,ifpossible.Highintensityof landuseandmovementmaybeadrivingforcetomodificationsinthegrid,despiteitsmorestablenature.2

Figure2Hypothesisofconvergenceofrecognizablepatternsinthecity:interrelationsandmutualdependenceswouldleadto progressiveconvergenceintime.Firstphaseshowsatheoreticaldistinction;phasetwoshowsurbanprocessesshapingeachotherin time;phasethreeshowspatternalignmentalreadyvisible.
SeeSasskias(1998)findingsregardingtheevolutionofurbanlayoutsbasedonoriginallylargerectangularblocks. 5
Letushaveacriticallookathowtheserelationshavebeenportrayedintheorymorespecificallyinspace syntax. The idea that the morphology of street networks would have effects on movement patterns is a centralproposition.Thegridisseenasthestrongforceingeneratingandshapingmovementpatternsin thecity(Hillieretal,1993).Suchrelationshipisextendedtoapointwhereanassumptionarisesandtakes the form of a theoretical axiom. According to the theory, location and growth would be driven by the extension of the grid and not by the location of new activities. However, growth and location are deeply relational processes potentially active in shaping the extension of streets themselves. A step further, the ideaofthegridastheoriginalforceshapingurbandynamicsalsoassumesthatdistinctpatternssuchasthe distributionofbuiltformandlocationconvergealmostinanunproblematicalignmentwiththatofthegrid, their effects reduced to multiplier effects of the latter. Behind this assumption lie risks of a nondynamic understandingofthedifferentmaterialitiesandprocessesatplayinthecitycreationprocess.Assumingthat theeffectsofconvergencebelongtoaparticularmaterialrealmorprocessrenderstheroleofotherrealms or processes invisible, and reduces the complexity of urban dynamics. The complex tension of mutual dependence and conflict between patterns with different materialities is downplayed. Furthermore, contingency is not addressed as a key substantive issue, as the emphasis on the grid assumes that urban patterns relate unproblematically to oneanother. Of course similar critical observations may be drawn to worksinspatialeconomics. An active relation described in these terms looks indeed like a teleological process: cities seem geared to pattern.Inthissense,wecertainlyacknowledgethaturbanprocessesaredeeplyintertwined,andthereby shouldshapeeachothertoaconsiderableextent.Iftheyemergeasrelatedprocessesproducedbyactions materiallyaccumulated,theideaofcitiesgearedtoacertainlevelofvisibleconvergenceofpatternsdoes makesense.Changesinonepatternmayindeedleadtochangesinothers.Aswehaveseen,thatisbotha generalfindingandanunderlyingaxiominconfigurationalstudiesandspatialeconomicsalike,andthebasis foranyhypothesisofeffectsofurbanformonsocialprocesses.Ifthatisthecase,wewouldliketofurther explore here the complexities involved in the emergence of a generalized pattern the city made of materiallyandtemporallydistinctpatterns,andtheconditionsofanyalignment.Citiesasmaterialprocesses are results of convergence at least partially, as they imply one another but to which extent? Convergence,ifitweretohappen,isaprocessthattakesalongtimetobecomerecognizabledecadesof production of a spatial hardware aligned with a social software of activities and actions and use of built forms and public spaces. But what would count as forces of convergence and dissonance? What are the contingenciesatplay? Aspecificurbanprocesscannotfullyprojectitselfintoothers,howeverintrinsicallyrelatedinurbanization and,morebroadly,insocialreproduction.Thepassagefromactionandmovementtochangeinlocationand builtformpatternsismediatedbydifficultiesinsocialorganization(theemergencefromindividualactions toarrangementsorsetsofinstitutionalizedactivities)andmaterialproduction(fromnewactivitiestonew builtforms).Thepassagefromthesocialsoftwareoforganizedactionandactivitytothehardwareofbuilt formsmeansnotonlyeconomiceffort,buttheproductionofrigid,durablestructureswhichtakelongtime to take part in the urban system and, once there, are likely to remain. Furthermore, materially distinct processesarealsoindependent:actionschangeconstantly,andspatialdecisionsindailylifesuchasplaces togoandhowtogettherechangewiththem.Accesstospatialinformationispartialanddependsonactors sociallydifferentiatedcapabilities.Spatialproductionisalsosubjecttosimilarissues:individualdecisionslike finding the most interesting locations to produce new buildings based on partial information and misinterpretation of potentials of location in terms of density and architectural choices (say, either benefitingpoorlyfromlocationoroverestimatingit)shapeurbanization.Urbanprocessesgetapartallthe time in dissonance and tension only to tie over and over again by the socioeconomic and material
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requirements of convergence. There is noise in every step. Urban dynamics are full of contingencies embedded in how social systems relate to spatialities: oligopolistic decisions over new areas for urban expansion;thestabilityofmaterialitiesofstreetnetworksandbuiltformsintimefollowedbycriticalityand phasetransitions(Krafta,NettoandLima,2011);topdowndecisionsinplanningaddingnewtransportation systemsorcontainingtrendsinlanduse,fixingbuiltformsormisunderstandingpotentialsintheirrelation withotherurbanprocesses;andsoon.Akeyissuehereishowtoassesscontingencyandmutualinfluence or causality in the convergence/divergence of urban patterns synthesized in the city itself. Thus, full convergence could be never completely achievable: complex interactions and different materialities and their distinct levels of stability will both entail convergence and prevent full convergence. One of the key tasksathandhereishowtoassesswhatisthereinbetweenpatterns,preventingfullconvergence,amajor issue right at the heart of urbanization one based on very essential material conditions for societies to emerge through joint action in spite of dissonance forces. Time is clearly an issue: cities, as autopoietic systems,seemtotakearatherlongtimetoemergeandreachminimallevelsofinternalstructurationable to cope with relations both in location and collective action. A proper investigation of this problem, however,requiresspatialandhistoricalanalysisofalargenumberofurbanareasandcities.
Figure3RiodeJaneiro:residentialdensitiesandaccessibility(integrationRR).
Convergenceislikelytoalwayscontaindissonancebetweenpatterns,deeplyentrenchedinthecollisionsof materialities and temporalities of distinct urban processes and the plurality of decisions and tensions betweenactorsappropriatingspacesthatmediatethem.Completeconvergencewouldonlybepossiblein an open horizon of time or in an ideal world. If such hypothesis makes sense, this conceptual framework suggests possibilities for a methodology able to indicate the stage of convergence of patterns in different areas or cities and allow the analysis of their behaviour in time. Convergence would generally imply a progressivealignmentobservableindifferentstagesindifferenturbanareasorcities.Inotherwords,areas or cities with different times of urbanization may be in different stages along the path of convergence between those four urban processes. For example, a two hundred years neighbourhood may have its density distribution aligned with the accessibility hierarchy across the area, whereas a much more recent area with similar accessibility levels may have dissonance in such relation. If that would be the case, dissonancesinpatternrelationscouldbeexplainedhistoricallyatleastinpart.Also,fastchangesinone particularpattern(likeaccessibility)mayreverberatethroughouttheurbansystemincyclesofdissonance.
Weexplorebelowathoughtexperimentonconvergencebringingtherelationbetweentimeofurbanization and patterns of accessibility, location, density and movement in different areas in a theoretical city. The hypothesisofurbanconvergencemaybeexaminedthroughsetsofcorrelationsbetweenthedistributionsof levelsofaccessibility(Acc),densities(Dens),pedestrianmovement(PM),andthenumbersanddiversityof activitiesonthestreetlevel(Act),alongwithtimeofurbanization(Age)indifferentareas.Suchcorrelations could help clarifying states of pattern convergence. Coefficients of determination relate pairs of variables representingthefourprocessesinsixseparateareaswithurbanizationtimesrangingfrom30to440years old.Pairsmaybeputtogetherinamatrixinordertoshowexplicitlyconvergencestates(figure4,left).Data maybesynthesizedinacorrelationofpreviouscorrelationsinordertoshowconvergencelevelsforevery area(figure4,right).Inbothcases,theevolutionarycharacteroftheseinterrelatedprocessesmayrequirea nonlinearadjustment,astheypossiblyadapttochangesinoneormorepatterns.Adaptationlevelsmaybe grasped in distinct curves, generating a metascore through multiple regressions, showing the overall convergencebehaviourofpatternsofdistinctmaterialities.
Figure4Urbanconvergenceintime:comparisoninpairsbetweenlevelsofaccessibility,density,activityandmovement(normalized) insixhypotheticalareaswithinasamecitywithurbanizationrangingfrom30to440years.
Figure 5 shows the level of accessibility, activity, density and movement in a number of axial lines in an urbansystem(adjustedtothesamescale),allowingacomparisonoftheirvariationandtheassessmentof their convergence and dissonance. Figure 6 emulates the convergence state for a whole city in time, synthesizingstatesofconvergencemeasuredforanumberofdecades.Italsoshowswhatwouldhappenifa single pattern changed much faster than others (as Rio de Janeiros expansion in the 1950s, changing its accessibilitycore),orifdensitieschangedquicklyincertainareasasurbansystemsreachperiodsofrapid changecombiningouter(expansion)andinner(density)growth,throwingtheurbansystemindissonance. Theprocessmayhappeninwavesorcycles,consistentwithdescriptionsofselforganizedcriticality.Datais ofcoursetheproblemhereespeciallyonmovementsinceaccessibilitymaybeassessedthroughaxial maps of different periods, and density and land use through census or recorded data. Results may show whetherconvergenceisorisnotanevolutionaryprocess.
Figure5Astronglyconvergentsystem:levelsofaccessibility,density,activityandmovement(normalized)distributedinaxiallines, plottedfromthemosttotheleastaccessibleline,showingtheconvergencescenarioinatheoreticalurbansysteminagivenpointin time. Figure6Convergenceanddissonanceinterplayintimeasahypotheticalurbansystemoscillatessay,inrapidexpansionaround 1950,shiftingitsaccessibilitycorewhileotherpatternstakelongertochangeandadapt.
Challengingtheconvergenceofpatternsfrequentlyseenasunproblematicandteleological,ourhypothesis isthatconvergenceislikelytoincreaseandfallincyclesintime,withouteverbecomingcomplete,dueto bifurcationsbetweenpatternsastheychangemotivatedbyothers,andaccordingtotheirownmaterialities andspecifictimesofproductionandhowtheyimplyandintertwinewithoneanother. AnEmpiricalStudy We analysed the distribution of components that operate as systems in their own right, but whose emergence depends on mutual relations, in an empirical study of 24 areas randomly selected in Rio de Janeiro (further addressed in the second part of this paper). We assess the distribution of (a) location, represented by retail activities (in principle sensitive to locational differences and hungry for locational advantages), (b) density, broken in two: architectural density (built area per plot area) and density of economicunits(numberoffamiliesandmicroeconomicactivitiesoccupyingthegroundlevelsofbuildings, measured as the proportion of retail regarding residential, services and institutional activities in units per 100m segment); (c) pedestrian movement (number of pedestrians passing through); while keeping their variationsagainst(d)accessibility(measuredin250segmentsofaxiallinesthroughintegration),slicedin20 levels from which we chose three different and nearly constant levels (high, medium and low) in Rio. Intensitieswerenormalizedinindexes,andplottedinachart.Thechartisagraphicrepresentationofthe varyingintensitiesofurbancomponentsineverysegment,orderedasafunctionofdecreasingaccessibility inthosethreelevels(figures79).
Figure7Segmentswithinafixed,highaccessibilitylevel(nearto1)showinglowdensitylevels.Intensitiesvaryandpeakshavesome overlapping.(AreasinnorthRio:Madureira,Riachuelo,PilaresandMeier). Figure8Segmentswithmediumaccessibilityandhigherdensitiesofretail,economicunits,builtareaandpedestrianmovement(PM). Intensitiesseemtofrequentlypeaktogether,butalsowithdifferentlevels.[Areas:Porto(downtown),Humait,Flamengo,Botafogo (south),Barra,Recreio(west),Tijuca,Graja,TaquaraandPechincha(northRio)].
We may observe the different intensities and distributions of other urban components, displaying a somewhat similar behaviour in distributions already visible in accessibility level 11. However, if there is a certainconvergenceinthepeaksandlows,thereisalsodissonanceintheintensityofpeaksandpeaksthat donotoverlap.Areasinthehighaccessibilitylevel(figure9)showmoreconvergenceregardingvariations andintensities.
Figure9Lowaccessibilitylevel(range7,from0to20)contrastswithhigherdensitiesofretail,economicunits,builtareaand pedestrians,withcloservariationsalbeitwithsomestrongdiscrepancies(suchasbetweenarchitecturaldensityandotherpatternsin segment55).[AreasmainlyinsouthRio:Urca,Gvea,Leblon,IpanemaandCopacabana;SantaTereza(downtown);Jo(west);and Anil,FreguesiaIandII(northRio)].
As implied above, we call such less than perfect relations between distinct urban phenomenal layers dissonance.Therearesomevisibleformsofdissonance:
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Variationsinintensitiesdonotfolloweach,withdistinctdirectionsintheircurvesofdistribution,amounting intovisiblydifferentpatternsandindicatingthattheintensitiesofdistinctcomponentsdonotreflecteach other. Differencesofintensities,whenlayersorpatternshavesimilarvariationsintheircurveofdistribution,but differencesinhowhigharetheirpeaks. Qualitative differences that bring distortion to their relation to other patterns say, nonreflected proportionsbetweenresidentialandretaildensities. The association of certain components may also bring effects over patterns, implying more than proportional differences between patterns say, why pedestrian movement would vary with higher or lowerlevelsthanexpected. Theextensionofdissonance:howmanypatternsshowevidentdifferencesindistribution. Ruptures in the relation of patterns say, as residential densities that should be reflected in the intensificationofretail,butfindotherforcesgettingintheway,liketendenciestoresidentialsegregation apparentinwalledfaadesandcontrolledaccesstogroundlevelsinbuildings. Now let us return to the graphic depiction of intensities of urban components. Overall, there is a strong dissonancebetweenaccessibilityandotherpatterns(figure10).Areaswithintheaccessibilityrange17have ahigherdissonance,withlowdensitiesandhighaccessibility,reversingintheloweraccessibilitylevel,with highdensitiesandlowaccessibility.Whatcouldexplainsuchextraordinarydifference?
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 50 100 150 200 250
Convergence / Dissonance of Urban Pa erns
ACC
RETAIL
ECON DENS
ARCH DENS
PM
Figure10Thesetofsegmentsanalysedin3of20rangesofaccessibility,showingextraordinarydifferencestodistributionsinother patterns.Fixingaccessibilitylevels,patternsofbuiltform,activityandpedestrianmovementrevealsimilaritiesbutalsodifferences thatseemtoeludetheoreticalattentionandresistusualexplanation.
Thisclearcutapproachthrowslightonthecomplexitiesintherelationofpatternsinthecity,broughtabout by their specificities. First, we cannot consider accessibility patterns as a dimension capable of providing sufficientexplanationstothecomplexitiesoftheurban.Second,acommonaxiominspatialtheoriesisbased ontheassumptionthatproximityandaccessibilityaremajorforcesshapingurbanpatterns(emphasesvary from location to pedestrian movement). Convergence is assumed as visible patterns, such as densities (spatial economics) or the grid itself (space syntax). Some form of temporal evolution as distinct urban componentsrelatetoeachotherandshapeemergent,visiblepatternsofcoursewouldbeimplied(figure 11). If that were the case, would the different times of urbanization of different cities or areas reveal differentlevelsofconvergence?Wouldolderareasdisplaymoreconvergenceofpatterns?Third,contextual
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conditions are key issues, meaning possible contingencies, from local practices to their spatialities. In Rio, geography actively shapes urban patterns. Amenities such as proximity to the sea have brought extraordinary densities to quite segregated areas in the first half of the Sec. XX (areas in the 7th range); recentradicalsuburbanizationhasdrawntheaccessibilitycoreinitsdirectionmainlyinthe1980s(areasin the17thrange).
Figure11Pearsonscorrelationsbetweenpairsofurbanpatternsshowacomplextendencytoincrease,startingwith20years(areas likeBarrainwestRioandPechinchainthenorth).CorrelationspeakinCopacabana,withinterestingdecreaseinareasaround120 yearsold(HarbourandSantaTereza)seemtobegoingthroughdissonance,perhapsduetohigheraccessibilitythandensity(incaseof stabilizedbuiltform),beingundertransformationorapproachingcriticality.Itfollowsanewincreaseintheoldestareasanalysed (BotafogoandFlamengo).
Sodissonanceandconvergencerelateintime,asthecomplexinterplayofintraurbandensificationthrough builtformsubstitutionandperipheralgrowth,whilecertainareasreachstabilityandothersdecay.Areasor whole cities may go through fast change. Criticality may bring the system to convergence, as built forms begintobesubstitutedinchainreactionsuptohigherdensityandactivitypotentials(seeKrafta,Nettoand Lima, 2011). Dissonance is expected also as differences in the intensities of distribution of urban components.A perfectoverlapping ofpatterns would only be possible in a liquid world, where materially differentsystemscouldshapeoneanotherallthetime.Itwoulddemandconstantchangeinspacesandin thearrangementsoforganizedpracticeassetsofurbanactivitiesperformedinbuildingsandplaces,which would constantly need to change location and densities, in turn dependent on a perfect diffusion of informationandoptimaldistributioninurbanspace.Thatwouldonlybepossibleifagentswereomniscient andcapableofcompletecoordinationoftheircollectiveactions,andcapableofshapingthephysicalworld accordingly. Of course each one of these conditions is ontologically impossible. These distinct urban processesfailtofullyprojectthemselvesintoeachotherinexorably. The unfinished condition of convergence to which urban systems are tied to explain why the grid pattern cannotcorrelatecompletelywithmovementoranyotherstructure:materialandorganizationaldifferences inotherpatterns(dissonances)areatworkaffectingmovementlevels.Andherewereachasecondmajor question. If, amongcontingencies,bifurcations of patterns or collisions of materialities, there were causal relations leading to convergence, densities or architectural morphologies should have effects over other patterns(aswellasbeinganaccumulatedprojectionoftheireffects).Theeffectsofarchitecturecouldhelp toexplaindissonance.Ifwecouldfindandisolatethem,wecouldgetclosertoananswertothequestionof
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whatistheroleofarchitectureinurbanprocessesingeneral,andinmateriallyfragilepatternsofthesocial software in particular. We suggest that, rather than seen unproblematically, the relationship between patternsinthecitycreatingprocessshouldbeheldasakeytheoreticalproblem.Thissectionofferedthe groundsofatheoryofsuchrelationship.Wehavearguedthatthepossibilityofastrongrelationbetween configurationandsocioeconomicprocessesdependsonthelevelofconvergence/dissonanceofanumberof differenturbanpatternsintime.Thehypothesisofconvergenceofpatternsintheformofthecityallowsan investigationintotheeffectsandroleplayedbyarchitectureinlocalsocioeconomicprocessesanotherkey questioninthestudyofsocietyspacerelations.Butonlyifwewereabletodistinguishthemfromtheactual effectsofthegrid. 3.BEYONDSTREETNETWORKS:THEEFFECTSOFARCHITECTURALMORPHOLOGY A methodology developed to identify the effects of architectural morphology leads to what has been defined,sinceJacobsseminalwork,asurbanvitality,asetofqualitiesthatwouldleadtoproperlevelsof dispositionofsocialandmicroeconomicqualities.Ofcoursewemustdefinepreciselywhatisurbanvitality. We approach it through notions of sociality and microeconomic life, and take levels of static and pedestrianuseandinteractioninpublicspaces,andthenumbersofretailandcommercialactivitiesastheir proxies(figure12).
Figure12Relationsbetweenvariablesinthehypothesisofeffectsofarchitecturalmorphologies
Thehypothesisofdistincteffectsofdistinctarchitecturalpatternsoversocialprocessesaroundthemhasin factbeenaratherintuitivenotionsharedbymanyarchitectsandplannersfordecades.Itislatenttherein Jacobscriticismofmodernistarchitectureanditsdetachmentfromthechannelsofstreets.Weexplorethis possibility addressing architectural characteristics on an analytical basis: differences in the position of buildings, continuity of faades in blocks and distance from pedestrian lanes (figure 13). Other variables include activities (especially those which rely heavily on accessibility and movement), density (number of
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unitsperarea)andsoon.Weaddressedsuchurbanelementsandmodelledtheirrelationsinawaytofind out whether architectural differences matter or not in urban vitality i.e. either confirm the possibility of effectsandverifytheirextent,orrejectusualintuitionsthatbuildingsmayhavetodowithwhathappensin their urban surroundings. Either way, that would mean helping to solve a central puzzle in architectural practiceandintheurbanperformancedebate.
Figure13DifferentmorphologiesinRiodeJaneiro:theCBD,JardimOceanicoandBarradaTijuca,respectively.(Images:GoogleStreet ViewandGoogleEarth)
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Wedefinedthreetypesofbuildingsbasedonusualmorphologicalvariationsandplanningprescriptions:(a) contiguous buildings with no setbacks on the sides of the plot; (b) detached buildings with large setbacksinrelationtotheplotsboundaries;(c)hybridtypesorbuildingswithnosetbacksinthefirstone ortwofloorsanddetachedupperfloors(figure8).Wealsoassessotheraspectsofbuildingmorphologyin relationtodependentsocioeconomicvariables.
Figure14Threearchitecturaltypes:a)contiguousbuildings;(b)detachedbuildings;(c)hybridtypes.

Independentspatialvariables:buildingandplot ARCHITECTURALTYPE CONTIG DETACHED HYBRID PLOT:FRONTBOUNDARY FENCE WALL OPEN
BUILDINGANDPLOT
PLOTWIDTH
FAADEWIDTH
FRONTAL SETBACK
UPPER FLOORS AREA[m2]
PLOT [m2]
AREA
FAADE|HEIGHT|DENSITY WINDOW DENSITY [GROUND] WINDOWS DENSITY [UPPER]
GARAGE ENTRANCES
DOOR DENSITY [GROUND]
STOREYS
UNITS
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Proceedings:EighthInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposium Santiago,PUC,2012 Independentanddependentsocioeconomicvariables:buildingandplot ACTIVITY:GROUNDANDUPPERLEVELS RESIDENTIAL RETAIL SERVICE RETAIL+SERV INSTITUT
Dependentsocialvariables:pedestrianbehaviour PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENT INTERACTINGGROUPS MOVING STATIC STATICINDIVIDUALS
Our hypothesis is that, properties like accessibility and density being equal, type (a) would respond more adequately to both sociality and microeconomic life in the local scale, as they respond directly to public spaces and allow an intense relation between activities and pedestrians through contiguous faades. Our hypothesisalsopointstothepossibilitythattype(b)wouldhaveoppositeeffectsto(a)asafunctionofhow largearethesetbacksfromtheplotslimits,distancesbetweenbuildingsandfrombuildingstopedestrian lanes. These factors would affect pedestrian levels and bring difficulties to retail activities, with potential largescaleeffectsregardingurbanperformance,includingcardependence.Themoredominant(b)isinan urbanarea,thelesspedestriansandretailactivitieswouldbefound.Type(c)wouldhaveslighterpositive performancethan(a),asitsconfigurationandfaadeshavemixedcharacteristics. 3.1.Pathsintotheeffectsofarchitecture The research into the effect of a particular urban pattern requires a methodological experiment into possibilitiesofisolatingthemfromothers.Awareofthecentralhypothesisofspacesyntaxtheorythegrid asthestrongforcewehaveputthetheorytouseinaratherreversedway,i.e.inawaytoaddressexactly what it deals with unproblematically (convergence/dissonance, multiplier effects, and the effects of architecture). We look for more than proportional differences between variations of dependent, socioeconomicvariablesandindependentspatialvariables,asinthemmaybefoundeffectsofarchitectural morphologies.Wediscussnowanumberofpathsintotheiridentification. (a)Differentialofaccessibility (b)Analysisofaggregatedeffects (c)Accessibilityranges (d)Statisticalvariance a.Differentialofaccessibility(DAc) A first possibility is a form of compensating differences in accessibility levels. The way to do so would be finding the average accessibility levels in areas under study and redistribute differences over dependent variablessuchaspedestrianmovement(PM),generatingproxies.Proxiesarecompensatedvariables;ifthe gridwastheonlyactiveforceinshapingotherpatterns,i.e.iftherewasperfectprojectionofonepattern intoanother,theseproxiesshouldbeperfectlyequal(ofcoursethatcouldhardlybethecase).Variationin proxies would show effects of other patterns, such as the distribution of architectural densities and
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typologies.Suchmethoddependsonacausalrelationbetweengridandmovement,andimpliesinterfering withdependentvariablescollectedempiricallyandconvertingthemintoproxies,whichwouldeliminatethe validityofresults,servingatbestasasignofeffectsofpatternsotherthanthegrid. b.Analysisofaggregatedeffects The effects of architectural morphology over local socioeconomic processes may be recognizable only as aggregated effects emerging from scale. The intensities of socioeconomic variables in urban areas with dominanceofdifferenttypescouldbecompared.Comparativestudiescouldshowwhetherthedominance of a type coincides with consistent intensities in socioeconomic variables. Of course accessibility and densitiesarestillissues,soareasshouldeitherhavesameorsimilarlevelsorbemonitoredstatistically,in ordertoachievepropercomparisons.Ifvariationsareconsistent,factorsofrelationbetweenthemcouldbe foundasstrongsignalsofsociospatialrelationandurbanconvergenceonepotentiallyusefulforfurther researchandplanning. c.Accessibilityranges Athirdwayintoassessingimpactsofarchitecturaltypologyonurbanvitalityisbasedonthedefinitionof rangesofaccessibilityfoundinanumberofareasinacity.Withineveryrange,thevariationinbuiltform typesandsocioeconomicvariableswouldbestatisticallymonitored. d.Statisticalvariance A final alternative was to build a regression equation for each dependent variable using our independent variablesasitsterms.Thismethodhastheadvantageofsimplifyingthesampleselectionandallowingfor theinclusionofasmanyindependentvariablesasconsideredtheoreticallyrelevant.Thesevariables(along withaccessibilityproxiesanddensity)canthenbetestedfortheirsignificanceinexplainingthevariationsin thedependentvariables.However,usingalltheurbansystemaspopulationfromthemostintegratedto themostsegregatedstreetstendstobringagreatervarianceindependentvariables.Differencesinvitality tendtobeveryhighinthesesituations.Thisvariance,inturn,requiresaverylargesampleifresultsareto bestatisticallysignificant. From these methodological possibilities, we explore below the third path, in connection with statistical techniquespointedoutabovethesimplerandapparentlymosteffectivewaytoverifyourhypotheses,but notfreefrommethodologicalchallenges.Wediscussnowanumberofdilemmas,startingwithdifficultiesin isolatingaparticularratioofaccessibilitysinceaccessibilityisarelationalpropertyoperatingatanumberof scales and ratios simultaneously. Other problems include choosing between different measures of accessibility(integrationorchoice);theentityofrepresentationofstreetmorphology(axiallines,continuity linesorsegments);accessibilityratios,andhowtoisolatetypologyfromdensity. 4.ISOLATINGARCHITECTURALVARIABLES:ACCESSIBILITYRANGES In order to test our hypotheses, we devised a method to select samples of spaces based on similar accessibilitylevels,allowingustoassessvariationsinarchitecturalmorphologyandtheirpotentialinfluence onmovementandotherfeaturesrelatedtourbanvitality(staticuseofstreets,interactionlevelsinpublic spaces, diversity in activities) in these areas. The idea is quite simple: supposing we have a typical linear relationship between accessibility and movement, we can see that not all variation in movement is
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explainedbyaccessibility(figure15).Thatwouldonlybetrueifwehadperfectcorrelationbetweenthetwo variables,whichalargenumberofstudieshaveconsistentlyshownnottobethecase.Thus,ifweselecta narrow range of accessibility values, we see that it corresponds to a not so narrow range of movement values. Differences in accessibility and movement are more than proportional. This greater variation in movementisnotexplainedbyaccessibilityalone,thussuggestingthat(a)dissonancesbetweenpatternsare atwork,and(b)otherurbanfeaturesmayplayaroleinexplainingthem.Therefore,ifweanalysestreets andtheirmorphologiesfromtheparticularsetwithinsuchnarrowaccessibilityrange,wecanassumethat differences in movement are nearly accessibilityfree limited, of course, by the efficacy of the method employed to describe accessibility. That way, we can compare the variations in movement rates with variations in typological characteristics and examine if a correlation can be found, while minimizing the effectsofstreetconfiguration.
Movement
Figure15Conceptschemeforaccessibilityrangesasamethodforisolatingtheeffectsofthegridonmovement,oneakeyfeatureof urbanvitality.
Inotherwords,wearetryingtomaintainkeyindependentvariablesconstant(namelyaccessibility,butalso densitylevels,asweshallseebelow)whileexaminingvariationsintypologyandvitalityinordertoseeifany pattern of correlation emerges. While the overall logic of this method is simple, other important methodologicalquestionsmustbeaddressedsotheproblemcanbeadequatelyhandled.Thesequestions arediscussedbelow. Howtodescribeandneutralizeaccessibility? Controllingmethodologicallytheinfluenceofaccessibilityinurbanvitalityfeaturesisofcoursenotaneasy task, since it is pervasive, potentially combined with other urban patterns and partially immersed in contingencies.Spacesyntaxmeasuresseemedtobeparticularlyadequatetoolshere,sincetheyhavebeen successfulinprovidingadetailedaccountofspatialdifferentiationinavarietyofsituations,andatthefine scale we were interested in. But this led to a dilemma: which measure should be used? A survey of the literature does not show obvious advantages for neither integration nor choice, measures most used to represent accessibility, in what regards their ability to postdict movement. Hillier and Iida (2005) show a
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slightadvantagetothefirst,butthebestcorrelationswereachievedbyvariousintegrationradii,makingit impossibletoknowbeforehandwhichofthemwouldyieldthebestresults.Havingsimilarcorrelationsto movement patterns, the problem turned to substantive and operational implications to our research problem. To examine these aspects, several maps were produced using the two measures and their variations (radii and spatial units axial line or segments). A striking difference between integration and choice measures became immediately apparent when they were classified in ranges. While integration ranges tend to manifest themselves as clusters of lines, choice ranges are scattered all over the urban system (figure 16). This makes sense when we examine each measure in detail. Integration is concerned withproximity,representedasthemeantopologicaldepthofanodetoallothernodesofthesystem.Thus, twolinesconnectedtoeachothercannothavemeandepthsdifferingbymorethan1step.So,eveninan extremesituationwherewehaveadeadendlineconnectedtoahighlyintegratedone,thefirstwillnotbe muchdeeperthanthelatterand,therefore,itwillbealmostascloseasthemoreintegratedoneinrelation toallotherlines.Choice,ontheotherhand,isconcernedwiththroughmovement,sincealinewithhigh choicevalueindicatesthatthislinefallsinagreatnumberofshortestpathsbetweenallpairsoflinesinthe system.Thus,thedeadendstreetcitedabovewouldhaveaverylowchoicevalue,becauseitdoesnotfallin anyshortestpath.Themoreintegratedlineitisconnectedto,ontheotherhand,ismorelikelytofallon many shortest paths, and therefore have a high choice value. Differences in choice values between two adjacentlinescanbeandoftenaremuchhigherthanthedifferencebetweenintegrationvaluesforthe samelines.
Figure16Integrationorchoice?Mapsa,b,cshowtop5%quantilesforhigh,mediumandlowchoicevalues;d,e,fshowtop5% quantilesforhigh,mediumandlowintegrationvaluesinRiodeJaneiro.Thelineswithhighestchoicemeasurescovermostofthe urbansystem,whereastheintegrationcoreismuchmoreconcentratedonaparticulararea.Whenwelookatthemediumandlow levels,thedifferenceremainsthesame:lineslosecontinuityandaredistributedthroughoutthesystem,whileintegrationkeeps clustersoflinestogether.
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The use of different radii in integration measures had similar results. Local integration ranges were more scatteredoverthesystemthanmoreglobalones(figure17).Moreover,thisconcernabouttheradiustobe adoptedraisedanewaspectoftheproblem:analysisshowedthatnosingleradiuswouldbeabletofully account for configurational influences on movement rates, since at every location there is always the influenceofmultipleaccessibilityradiiactingsimultaneously.Ifweweretominimizeproperlytheeffectsof gridrelatedaccessibilitypatterns,weshouldexaminemorethanoneradiusandoneaccessibilitylevel.
Figure17Theproblemofaccessibilityradii:(a)IntegrationRR;and(b)R3.
The third dilemma concerned the selection of the spatial entity axial lines, continuity lines or segments (figure18).Althoughcontinuitylinesarepowerfulindetectingthemoreglobalstructureofthesystem,they arelessadequatetocapturethelocalpatchworksweareinterestedin.Theothertwospatialentitiesare morecloselyrelated,withsegmentsbringingslightlymorefragmentedresults.
Figure1Theproblemofspatialentities:differencesinclusteringbasedonaxiallines,segmentsandcontinuitylines,respectively (integrationRR)
So,wehavethreedilemmassharingasameunderlyingissue:thedegreeofclusteringorscatteringofspatial unitsanalysedwithinasameaccessibilityrange.Thiscouldleadtotwomethodologicalapproaches.Onthe
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one hand, we could have populations (and samples, consequently) closer to each other, in a way that resemblesaneighbourhoodlikepatternoflocations.Ontheotherhand,wewouldhaveascatteredsetof locations from which to draw the sample, and thus would end up with a disperse set of streets to be analysedquiteindependentlyfromitsneighbourhood.Inthissense,ourconcernwithtypologicalinfluences onurbanvitalityinvolvesadegreeofsynergyamongadjacentlocationsinmotivatingtheappropriationof public spaces, both for movementrelated and static pedestrian use and activities. Our hypothesis is that architectural morphologies in general, and typological dominance in particular, may play a role in stimulatingbothto/fromandthroughmovementbyofferingmoredestinationpointsandapathwithmore vibrant and diversified sets of activities and interactions in public spaces. Therefore, our set of proxies to accessibility includes integration as measure, axial lines as spatial entities, and a radius equivalent to the meandepthofthemostintegratedaxiallineinanurbansystem(RRintegrationseeHillier1996).Local accessibilityradiimustbeexplicitlyconsideredasanindependentvariableanditsinfluenceondependent variables can be tested statistically as degrees of significance in the regression equation. This way, accessibility patterns are held as constant as possible within a number of ranges, allowing us to focus on localcharacteristicsinarchitecturalandurbanmorphologies. Whichaccessibilityranges? Inordertostudytheeffectsofarchitecturalmorphologyonurbanvitality,weselectedthreeRRintegration rangesfromwhichtodrawthesamples,representinghigh,mediumandlowaccessibilitysetsofstreets.The preciserangemaybechosenaccordingtothepresenceofarchitecturaltypologiesofinterestintheirsets, aslongastheassociatedrangeofvaluesiskeptnarrow,inordertoavoindharmingthevalidityofresults andallowcomparisons.If,ontheonehand,itseemsclearthathighlyintegratedareashavethepropertyof establishingasynergywithcertaintypesofbuildingstocreateandsustainvitality,ontheotherhanditis unclear whether low integration areas can reach urban vitality even if they have supposedly adequate typologies.Inotherwords,theremaybeathresholdofintegrationabovewhichthetypologymaycreate vitality. However, the opposite may also prove to be the case: architectural types may not materialize potentialforvitalitygeneratedbyaccessibilityasfarassupportforactivitiesisconcerned.Thisseemstobe a growing problem in Brazilian cities now. If this complementary hypothesis is correct, the potential for vitality latent in the grid may or may not emerge, depending on typological characteristics. The selected rangesinourstudyofRiodeJaneirocanbeseenonfigures19and20.
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Figure19High(red),Medium(blue)andLow(green)integrationaxiallines.
Figure20Histogramforthedistributionofstreetsaccordingtointegrationvalues:percentilesweredefinedinrangesof5%invalues, generating20categoriesbasedonnaturalbreaks.RiodeJaneirohasalongtailofsegregatedstreets,whichledtochoosetheseventh rangetorepresentlowintegration.
Thismethodshouldallowustoexaminewhethertheoverallaccessibilityofanareamayinterferewiththe potential of architectural types and their morphological characteristics to foster urban vitality. The final definitionofthesetofaxiallinestobeincludeddealtwithotherindependentvariables:otherthingsbeing equal, denser environments tend to have higher movement rates, as it implies more potential users, pedestriansandactivitiesforthesameamountofpublicspace.Weoptedforamethodstatisticallyableto
22
relateaccessibilityrangeswithfactorialdesign,enablingtheselectionofaxiallinestiedsimultaneouslywith densityrangesasguidesforsamplingareasforempiricalstudy(figure21).
Figures21Densityvariation:red[high];orange[medium];yellow[lowdensity]insectorsfromthe2010Census (source:IBGE).
4.RIODEJANEIRO:ASSESSINGTHEEFFECTSOFARCHITECTURALFORMONURBANVITALITY In order to define the set of axial lines to be analysed empirically, we divided areas defined through accessibility ranges in sectors with a minimum number of segments, and picked randomly a sample statistically appropriate. Although we opted for axial lines for measuring accessibility, our unit of informationisbrokendowntosegments,allowingustorelatethemtodensitysectors.Ourstudyinvolves twentyfour areas in Rio de Janeiro. A number of segments should be analysed in each combination of accessibilityanddensityranges(figure22).
Figure22AreasinRiodeJaneiroarrangedincombinationsofdensityandintegration(RR)levels.
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Figure23Selectedaccessibilityranges(axiallines)overlappingresidentialdensitypatterns(underlyingcensustracts).Ontheright, thetwentyfourrandomlyselectedareasforempiricalstudy.
Sampledareasshouldalsocontainthearchitecturaltypesunderanalysis,leadingustoexcludesomeofthe areas.Lowdensitiesmeetalargenumberoflowintegrationsegmentsinthesampleareas,justasmedium densities meet medium integration they are signs of natural convergence. The fact that we could find withinouraccessibilityrangesonlyninesegmentswithhighdensityandhighintegrationshowdissonance betweenpatternsespeciallyinnewerareasinnorthRio,wheretheaccessibilitycorehasmovedtodueto fasturbanexpansion.Afinalmap(figure23)depictstheintersectionofallthreevariables.Wepresentnow preliminary results from these twentyfour areas, with 250 segments. We analysed 1574 plots within the accessibilityrange7(1121contiguous,310detached,24hybridtypes,with248,21and9retailorservice activitiesontheirgroundlevel,respectively);1772plotswithinrange11(1358contiguous,225detached,51 hybridtypes,with230,34and9retailorserviceactivities);828plotswithinrange17(580contiguous,200 detachedand3hybridtypes,with115,13and0retailandserviceactivities).Consideringthepossibilityof differences in dissonance levels active in different accessibility ranges, we kept the statistical analysis in rangesandalsoconsideredthedatasetasawhole.Dataisstillrawatthemomentwesubmitthispaper. Nevertheless,ouranalysisshowsinterestingtrendsofurbanvitalityvariablesregardingarchitecturaltypes andtheirfeatures.Table1summarizesthematrixof43architecturalandsocioeconomicvariablesanalysed forrange7.
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Proceedings:EighthInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposium Santiago,PUC,2012 Pedestrianvariables PM Archtype Contig Detach Hybrid Continuity Frontsetback Wall Fence Open Doordens Windowdens Archdens Econdens PM Staticgroups Staticindiv 0.321 0.336 0.098 0.411 0.418 0.472 0.190 0.623 0.680 0.723 0.468 0.648 1 0.548 0.628 Static groups 0.321 0.462 0.145 0.421 0.384 0.501 0.087 0.582 0.437 0.501 0.355 0.356 0.548 1 0.776 Static indie 0.406 0.414 0.061 0.462 0.394 0.460 0.111 0.555 0.500 0.683 0.376 0.500 0.628 0.776 1 Activity Resid1 0.405 0.439 0.205 0.305 0.264 0.467 0.142 0.584 0.525 0.453 0.280 0.346 0.678 0.640 0.564 Retail1 0.291 0.316 0.147 0.351 0.385 0.453 0.271 0.659 0.611 0.487 0.372 0.390 0.796 0.671 0.598 Retail+ Service1 0.414 0.442 0.169 0.368 0.278 0.491 0.190 0.642 0.568 0.511 0.341 0.413 0.736 0.652 0.618 Diversity 0.419 0.449 0.179 0.262 0.204 0.442 0.092 0.397 0.395 0.338 0.221 0.236 0.326 0.500 0.459 Architecturaltype Contig 1 0.983 0.051 0.453 0.309 0.423 0.237 0.276 0.545 0.285 0.059 0.158 0.321 0.439 0.406 Detach 0.983 1 0.132 0.453 0.331 0.418 0.217 0.285 0.562 0.289 0.075 0.158 0.336 0.462 0.414 Hybrid 0.051 0.132 1 0.021 0.134 0.010 0.102 0.060 0.112 0.035 0.092 0.008 0.098 0.145 0.061
Faade Plot: front boundary Doors and windows Densities Pedestrian variables
Table1:Accessibilityrange7(lowintegrationvalues)Pearsonscorrelationcoefficientfor101segments.
TheelevenareasinthisrangearemostlyinsouthRio,includingtheiconicCopacabana,IpanemaandLeblon, butalsofournewerareasinthewest.Itisveryinterestingtonoticethatdetachedandcontiguousbuildings have a nearlysymmetrical and inversecorrelation withpedestrian variables and microeconomic activities, contiguous types being systematically coincident with socially positive distributions. Other features like faadecontinuity,smallerfrontalsetbacks,openfrontboundaries,doorandwindowdensities,alongwith architectural density (built area per plot area) and economic units density (number of families and businesses per 100m segment) also tend to coincide systematically with PM variables and activities. Also, activities such as retail and retail plus service on the ground level (proportion of presence per segment, measuredinpercentages)haveinterestingrelationswithPMvariables(0.796forretailandPM;0.671for static interacting groups and retail), whereas residential activities on the ground level show negative correlations. A measure of microeconomic diversity3 applied shows similar behaviour in the segments analysed(0.326withPM;0.5withstaticinteractinggroupsand0.459withstaticindividuals).Architectural types seem to show consistent behaviour with architectural features namely, contiguous buildings correlatepositivelywithdoordensity(0.545),andnegativelywithfrontalsetbacks(0.309)andfrontalwall (0.423). Detached buildings show inverse correlations with the same features, whereas the hybrid type shows a nearly neutral behaviour. Most importantly, architectural features show interesting correlations with pedestrian and activityvariables (0.723 for window density and PM; 0.680 for door density and PM; 0.659 for open plots and retail; 0.623 and 0.582 for open plots, PM and static interacting groups respectively; 0.683 for window density and static individuals). In turn, frontal walls show negative correlationswiththesevariables.Aswehaveseen,areaswithinthisaccessibilityrangealsodisplayastrong convergenceofurbanpatterns.Wewerenowabletoassessitmoreindetail.
Weusedanentropyindex,ameasureofheterogeneityregardingtheproportionofdifferenttypesofactivity,varyingfrom0(full homogeneityonlyonetypeofactivityinthesegmentunderanalysis)to1(fullheterogeneity,wherethesegmentisoccupiedbyall typesofactivitiesinthesameproportion). 25

3
There are interesting differences from now on: higher accessibility levels coincide with lower correlation levelsregardingarchitecturaltypesandfeatures.
PM Archtype Contig Detached Hybrid Faade Plot: front boundary Doors and windows Densities Pedestrian variables Continuity Frontsetback Wall Fence Open Doordens Windowdens Archdens Econdens PM Staticgroups Staticindiv 0.037 0.063 0.275 0.061 0.191 0.413 0.216 0.164 0.225 0.354 0.239 0.571 1 0.412 0.464 Pedestrianvariables Static groups 0.198 0.241 0.222 0.172 0.244 0.426 0.013 0.372 0.368 0.271 0.263 0.278 0.412 1 0.509 Static indiv 0.087 0.046 0.374 0.084 0.004 0.321 0.158 0.137 0.081 0.425 0.319 0.406 0.464 0.509 1 Resid1 0.231 0.132 0.309 0.217 0.245 0.473 0.059 0.452 0.144 0.020 0.031 0.238 0.484 0.286 0.362 Activity Retail1 0.262 0.115 0.446 0.288 0.306 0.346 0.081 0.225 0.001 0.024 0.078 0.327 0.440 0.157 0.319 Retail+ Service1 0.209 0.120 0.278 0.226 0.305 0.453 0.117 0.486 0.102 0.067 0.029 0.188 0.413 0.268 0.367 Diversity 0.005 0.084 0.212 0.047 0.155 0.414 0.068 0.409 0.268 0.070 0.147 0.260 0.528 0.378 0.385 Architecturaltype Contig 1 0.938 0.358 0.620 0.567 0.190 0.202 0.336 0.337 0.148 0.291 0.066 0.037 0.198 0.087 Detach 0.938 1 0.012 0.511 0.502 0.282 0.091 0.318 0.322 0.210 0.371 0.180 0.063 0.241 0.046 Hybrid 0.358 0.012 1 0.410 0.283 0.214 0.339 0.110 0.104 0.138 0.160 0.296 0.275 0.222 0.374
Table2:Accessibilityrange11(mediumintegrationvalues)Pearsonscorrelationcoefficientfor104segmentsin10areas,mainlyin westandnorthwestRio,butalsotwointhesouth.
ArchitecturaltypeshavenotfoundsignificantcorrelationswithPMvariablesinareaswithinrange11,with anexceptionforthehybridtype;correlationswithactivityvariablesdecreased,asdidarchitecturalfeatures suchasdoorandwindowdensities.Theseareashavestrongerdifferences,possiblyrelatedtodissonances foundbetweenitspatternsorsetsofurbancomponents.Areasinthelastaccessibilityrangeexamined,17, showsomewhatsimilarresults,withtheexceptionofarchitecturalandeconomicunitdensities,whichshow significantrelationswithactivities.
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Proceedings:EighthInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposium Santiago,PUC,2012 PM Archtype Contig Detached Hybrid Faade Plot: front boundary Doors and windows Densities Pedestrian variables Continuity Frontsetback Wall Fence Open Doordens Windowdens Archdens Econdens PM Staticgroups Staticindiv 0.061 0.40 0.115 0.203 0.105 0.459 0.144 0.387 0.173 0.178 0.271 0.282 1 0.403 0.511 Pedestrianvariables Static groups 0.284 0.284 0.110 0.317 0.392 0.322 0.128 0.490 0.139 0.280 0.187 0.090 0.403 1 0.581 Static indiv 0.202 0.218 0.025 0.411 0.245 0.352 0.046 0.446 0.423 0.038 0.076 0.001 0.511 0.581 1 Resid1 0.255 0.259 0.094 0.349 0.187 0.541 0.088 0.534 0.287 0.095 0.154 0.068 0.684 0.356 0.529 Activity Retail1 0.245 0.268 0.020 0.254 0.164 0.444 0.199 0.317 0.158 0.134 0.023 0.101 0.565 0.315 0.384 Retail+ Service1 0.333 0.344 0.089 0.391 0.181 0.559 0.118 0.526 0.306 0.074 0.071 0.061 0.652 0.375 0.533 Diversity 0.302 0.302 0.119 0.257 0.168 0.524 0.072 0.530 0.338 0.072 0.109 0.090 0.598 0.312 0.501 Architecturaltype Contig 1 0.963 0.442 0.379 0.316 0.273 0.165 0.469 0.469 0.199 0.339 0.317 0.061 0.284 0.202 Detach 0.963 1 0.188 0.396 0.320 0.284 0.166 0.483 0.427 0.182 0.333 0.331 0.40 0.284 0.218
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Hybrid 0.442 0.188 1 0.076 0.073 0.083 0.027 0.120 0.268 0.134 0.130 0.066 0.115 0.110 0.025
Table3:Accessibilityrange17(highintegrationvalues)Pearsonscorrelationcoefficientfor44segmentsinnorthRio.
These areas have high integration values which are incompatible with their density levels,5 a sign of dissonance in these recently expanded areas already captured in our pattern analysis. Considering 250 segmentsinthethreerangesasawhole,however,resultsstillholdinterestingrelations.
PM Archtype Contig Detached Hybrid Faade Plot: front boundary Doors and windows Densities Pedestrian variables Continuity Frontsetback Wall Fence Open Doordens Windowdens Archdens Econdens PM Staticgroups Staticindiv 0.189 0.234 0.149 0.268 0.279 0.431 0.041 0.454 0.407 0.592 0.440 0.622 1 0.495 0.587 Pedestrianvariables Static groups 0.338 0.363 0.061 0.317 0.321 0.420 0.092 0.484 0.343 0.393 0.323 0.311 0.495 1 0.698 Static indie 0.229 0.269 0.128 0.266 0.222 0.352 0.067 0.399 0.282 0.548 0.374 0.443 0.587 0.698 1 Resid1 0.132 0.201 0.243 0.062 0.040 0.479 0.070 0.524 0.301 0.256 0.168 0.297 0.578 0.465 0.449 Activity Retail1 0.074 0.174 0.268 0.067 0.067 0.392 0.072 0.441 0.272 0.268 0.249 0.342 0.642 0.470 0.485 Retail+ Service1 0.153 0.214 0.214 0.091 0.022 0.482 0.122 0.569 0.298 0.251 0.208 0.313 0.592 0.473 0.488 Diversity 0.233 0.282 0.160 0.160 0.165 0.426 0.026 0.394 0.334 0.176 0.140 0.216 0.363 0.402 0.370 Architecturaltype Contig 1 0.964 0.216 0.517 0.368 0.338 0.023 0.312 0.438 0.226 0.122 0.128 0.189 0.338 0.229 Detach 0.9644 1 0.049 0.469 0.368 0.380 0.076 0.310 0.433 0.257 0.151 0.174 0.234 0.363 0.269 Hybrid 0.216 0.049 1 0.222 0.097 0.124 0.195 0.036 0.050 0.094 0.096 0.157 0.149 0.061 0.128
Table4:Pearsonscorrelationcoefficientfor24areasand250segmentsinRiodeJaneiro.
Somecorrelations(especiallyinvolvingthehybridtype)havepvalueshigherthan0.05. Averagearchitecturaldensities:40.38(accessibilityrange7);38.72(range11)19.95(range17).Averageeconomicunitdensity:1.04; 0.96;0.44;buildingheight:4.39floors;3.65;1.79.Averageactivitydiversity:0.37;0.43;0.43.Averagewindowdensity:1.26;1.30;0.50. AveragePM:16.50;13.68;7.19pedestrians/2.5min.

5 4
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We also analysed the sample using Spearmans rank correlation coefficient, a nonparametric measure whereXandYarerelatedbyanymonotonicfunction.Notsurprisingly,correlationsincrease.
PM Archtype Contig Detached Hybrid Faade Plot: front boundary Doors and windows Densities Pedestrian variables Continuity Frontsetback Wall Fence Open Doordens Windowdens Archdens Econdens PM Staticgroups Staticindiv 0.289 0.364 0.277 0.424 0.467 0.641 0.114 0.573 0.408 0.500 0.485 0.550 1 0.626 0.578 Pedestrianvariables Static groups 0.397 0.435 0.117 0.420 0.485 0.506 0.003 0.534 0.336 0.410 0.371 0.370 0.626 1 0.683 Static indiv 0.230 0.285 0.170 0.316 0.346 0.458 0.057 0.482 0.321 0.276 0.237 0.294 0.578 0.683 1 Resid1 0.242 0.304 0.227 0.203 0.248 0.508 0.019 0.550 0.314 0.212 0.174 0.248 0.620 0.507 0.546 Activity Retail1 0.178 0.226 0.174 0.181 0.210 0.386 0.035 0.445 0.303 0.183 0.157 0.264 0.506 0.424 0.493 Retail+ Service1 0.260 0.318 0.217 0.245 0.241 0.512 0.060 0.586 0.333 0.200 0.185 0.261 0.621 0.484 0.567 Diversity 0.246 0.306 0.214 0.207 0.244 0.414 0.049 0.485 0.348 0.212 0.601 0.260 0.601 0.495 0.468 Architecturaltype Coting 1 0.962 0.105 0.590 0.519 0.435 0.027 0.474 0.400 0.347 0.409 0.248 0.289 0.397 0.230 Detach 0.962 1 0.128 0.575 0.536 0.486 0.007 0.505 0.404 0.460 0.459 0.318 0.364 0.435 0.285 Hybrid 0.105 0.128 1 0.028 0.083 0.181 0.154 0.115 0.141 0.235 0.279 0.290 0.277 0.117 0.170
Table5:Spearmansrankcorrelationcoefficientacrossdifferentaccessibilityranges.
Spearmanscorrelationsrevealsignificantcorrelationsalsoforareasinaccessibilityrange7,withthehighest level of pattern convergence in Rio. Within this range, architectural types seem to respond well to pedestriandistribution,apparentlyoperatinginthedissonancesofaccessibilitytootherurbanpatterns.
PM Archtype Contig Detached Hybrid 0.543 0.568 0.104
th
Pedestrianvariables Static groups 0.556 0.577 0.159 Static indiv 0.550 0.569 0.118 Resid1 0.535 0.579 0.190
Activity Retail1 0.446 0.467 0.151 Retail+ Service1 0.521 0.572 0.208 Diversity 0.505 0.530 0.132
Table6:Spearmanscoefficientforthe7 accessibilityrange.Astrongerconvergenceofpatternsisvisibleintheseareas (amongothers,Copacabana,Ipanema,Leblon,inthesouth;Jo,AnilandFreguesisainthenorthwest).
Whatdatatellsusaboutcorrelationsbetweenurbanstructureandlocaldynamicsindifferentaccessibility ranges?Firstly,onecouldunderstandthatcorrelationsdecreaseasarchitecturalmorphologiesmatterlessin higheraccessibilitylevels.However,thereistheproblemoftimeanddissonance:thefactthat,inRio,the core of higher accessibility changed due to recent expansion towards north and west. So we can neither assertthatdistinctlevelsofaccessibilityareforcesatplayinreducingtheeffectsofarchitecture,northat dissonanceisanexclusivefactorinloweringcorrelations.Weneedtoanalysemorecities.
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We also have started experimentations with multiple linear regression analysis, with preliminary results pointingouttocombinationsofurbanvariables,extracting8components,withR2=0.75andR2(pred)=0.67 in relation to pedestrian movement values. From this preliminary analysis, three variables seem to contribute most positively with movement, namely retail on the ground level, window density and integration R3 (also tested as monitoring variable, since we based our method on integration RR as preferredaccessibilitymeasure)14th,27thand4thcolumnsinfigure24,respectively.Otherstrongvariables areretailplusservices,economicunitdensity,buildingheightanddiversityinupperfloors(16th,30th,28th and24thcolumns).ThemostnegativevariablesinrelationtomovementarechoiceRR,residentialactivityon thegroundlevelandgaragedoordensity(6th,13thand25thcolumns).Asitseems,segmentswithhighchoice RRvaluesinRioarenotsoapropriateforpedestrians.Figure25plotsall43variablesanalysed,aggregating thosewithnegativeandpositiveeffectsovermovement.
Figures24and25Preliminaryresultsfrommultiplelinearregressionanalysis.
However,wemustreaffirmthattheseareinitialanalyses.6WeexpecttofurtherexploredatafromRiode Janeiro, and study other three cities in Brazil Porto Alegre, Florianpolis (south Brazil) and Joo Pessoa (northeastBrazil)inordertoreachmoreconsistentandpreciseconclusions. 5.CONCLUSION This paper investigated the nature of relations of patterns in the city. First, it intended to raise questions about major axioms of spatial approaches such as urban economics and space syntax, which correctly assumethatcitiesarepatternsofpatternsoutputsofconvergingsubsystems.Lookingattheemptyspaces inbetweenvisiblyconvergentpatterns,wesuggestthatdissonancesareasconstitutiveofurbandynamics as the unproblematically assumed telos of convergence. They are not mere anomalies waiting to be fixed andaccommodatedintopatterns,butkeypartsoftheprocessaschangesindirectionfreefromtiesor
Previousresultsshowastrongrelationbetweenretailandcommercialactivitiesandcontiguousbuildings.InBarradaTijuca,iconic area with strong dominance of detached highrise buildings (87.5%), only 17.2% of them support retail and commercial activities in their ground levels. In turn, only 12.5% of Barras are contiguous buildings, which support 42.1% of all retail activities in the area, despite the strong dominance of detached buildings. Retail and service are strong proxies for microeconomic life in the city. In this sense,detachedbuildingsseemtocoincidewiththedecreasinglocalpublicactivities. 29
6
telos; variations at play, inherent to the relation of materialities and distinct temporalities of production involvedintheemergenceofurbanstructuresanddynamics.Theyarealwaysthere,partandcounterpartof theverysamesubstanceofpatternanddynamicsofconvergence.Theyareexpressionsofthedifferencesin entities which find the status of systems in their own right; expressions of the impossibility of full synchronization,fullpassagefromactiontocompletelycooperatedjointaction,andfromeveryeventinthe realmofpracticetoitsmanifestationinthephysicalrealmofspace. Second, we studied more closely certain empty spaces in between these relations namely, between architecturalform,urbanstructureandsocialdynamicsthroughamethodologicalprinciplederivedfroma wellknowntheory(theapparentlycausalrelationofaccessibilityandmovementinspacesyntax),usedhere inareversedway:tosomehowneutralizetheeffectsofthegrid.Ourstudy,stillinanearlystage,aimsat investigatingpreciselytheextensionofthesocialeffectsofarchitecture,andthelevelsofcausalityand contingencyinvolved.Resultsassertingornotaroleforarchitectureinlocalsocioeconomicprocessesare equallyimportantinclarifyingachallengingproblemstillpoorlyaddressedonasystematicbasis. Weattemptedtocollidemethodologicallythroughstatisticsalargenumberofurbancomponentsin ordertoseewhatcombinationsmaycorrespondtothechemistryofurbanvitality.Althoughanalysisisstill ongoing,preliminaryresultsseemtopointtoconsistenciesintherelationofcertainarchitecturalfeatures and local socioeconomic variables. It also shows nearly reversed relations between different architectural types and such variables the type more traditionally produced in cities, frequently contiguous, and architectural types that resulted from modernist morphological experimentation. Results suggest that the contiguous type is not an exclusive factor of urban vitality, as it may support both residential and commercial activities (which lower correlations with dependent variables), but is either intimately associatedwithoraconditionforotherarchitecturalfeaturesthatseemtocorrelatewellwithurbanvitality suchasretailandserviceslocatedclosetothestreets,diversityinactivities,densityofwindowsanddoors, absence of frontal walls, architectural and economic unit densities. A next stage in our research is to examine distributions of variables from within these sets say, within the collection of buildings with commercial activities facing the street. The study of combinations of variables may reveal complexes of associatedfeaturesthatcouldbeclosertourbanvitality.Wesearchmorethanincidentaleffectspossibly related to combinations ofspatial features, perhaps as latent causalities only emergent through chains of associationsandcontextsascomplexesofurbanentitiesandproperties.Thatwouldbeasteptowardsthe identification of strings of partial causality in the web of contingency and dissonance: answers to questionslikewhycertainspatialitiesseemfrequentlyassociatedwithcertainlocalsocialdynamics,aform offeedbackmorelikelytobeactiveincertaincombinationsthanothers. This work also intended to explore methodological possibilities in modelling urban processes in a way to isolate specific patterns and features, and support the diagnosis of problems in urban performance concernedwithbuildings,i.e.therelationbetweenurbanprocessesandarchitecturalform,orwhattypes aremoreefficientinsupportingthediversityofactivitiesandusesofpublicspaces,supportingpedestrian movementandreducingcardependenceincitieskeyissuesintheurbansustainabilitydebate. Therearesevereimplicationsthatwouldfollowastudyalongtheselinesinrelationtotheobservationof current trends in cities in Brazil and elsewhere, wheretypes ofarchitectureunrelated to the openness of urban life become dominating over the fabric that holds the connections of our actions together through encounterandcommunication.Wholeareasinourcitiesbecomelessandlesswalkableduetodifficulties imposedbygrowingdistancesandtheprogressivedisappearanceoflocalactivitiesthatsupportdailylife. Perhaps blinded by the visuality of architecture, architects and planners have unconsciously reproduced
30
spatiallytheperversesociallogicofprejudiceandfearwhileignoringthesystemiceffectsofarchitecture. Weareconcernedwithformsofarchitectureresponsibletotheirbuiltenvironmentandthepublicrealm beyondvisuality,andawareofthevitalityoftheirownpresenceinurbanspaceandroleinsociallife. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank Renato Remiro, our most reliable research assistant; Hetecliphe Neto, Nathalia Gonalves, Luisa Seixas, Paula Moreira, Taiana Milward, Thiago da Costa and Samuel Jachetti undergraduate students from Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF) and dedicated observers in our empiricalstudy. WethankCNPqforsupportingthisresearch,andRomuloKraftaforoursustaineddebate.Finally,wethank Larissa Suguri, Vinicius Philot, Bruno Hoelz, Felipe Nascimento, Joo Folie, Marina Paganotti, Daniela Manfredi, Tain Canivelo, Andreia Henrique, Carolina Targino, Michelle Torres, Francisco Meyer, Julia Benayon, Lais Valente, Elenice Lessa, Guilherme Siqueira, Ana Carolina Menescal, Mercedes Leal, Joana Ferreira,LucasFaulhaber,ClaraBuckley,LeonardoDavid,CamilaCardosoandRafaelAlves,undergraduate studentswhotookpartinapilotstudyin2010,partofacourseinUFF. ThisworkisdedicatedtoBillHillier. REFERENCES Hillier, B. (2001) A theory of the city as an object in Proceedings of III International Space Syntax Symposium(GeorgiaTechPress,Atlanta). Hillier, B. and Iida, S. (2005) Network effects and psychological effects: a theory of urban movement. In Proceedingsof5thInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposiumDelft:TUDelft,FacultyofArchitecture. Hillier,B.andNetto,V.M.(2002)Societyseenthroughtheprismofspace:outlineofatheoryofsocietyand space.UrbanDesignInternational,7,181203. Hillier,B.andHanson,J.(1984)Thesociallogicofspace.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. Hillier,B.(1996)Spaceisthemachine.London:CambridgeUniversityPress. Hillier, B., Penn, A., Hanson, J., Grajewski, T., & Xu, J. (1993) Natural movement: or, configuration and attractioninurbanpedestrianmovement.EnvironmentandPlanningB:PlanningandDesign,20,2966. Jacobs,J.(1961)DeathandLifeoftheGreatAmericanCity.NewYork:RandomHouse. Krugman,P.(1991)GeographyandTrade.MITPress,CambridgeMA. Spinelli, J. and KraftaR. (1998) Configurao espacial edistribuiodovalor do solourbano. In: Cadernos IPPUR,anoXII,n.2,RiodeJaneiro,p.83104. Krafta, R., Netto, V.M. and Lima, L. (2011) Urban built form grows critical. Cybergeo: European Journal of Geography.http://cybergeo.revues.org/24787;DOI:10.4000/cybergeo.24787
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Krafta,R.(1994)Modellingintraurbanconfigurationaldevelopment.EnvironmentandPlanningB:Planning andDesign,21,6782. Martin,L.(2000)Thegridasgenerator.ArchitecturalResearchQuarterly,4,309322. Penn,A.,Hillier,B.,Banister,D.,andXu,J.(1998)Configurationalmodellingofurbanmovementnetworks. EnvironmentandPlanningB:PlanningandDesign,25,5984. Wheaton W 1982 Urban spatial development with durable but replaceable capital Journal of Urban Economics125367.
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The Convergence of Patterns in The City: The Effects of Architectural Morphology

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The Convergence of Patterns in The City: The Effects of Architectural Morphology

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PAPERREF#8167 Proceedings:EighthInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposium Santiago,PUC,2012

THECONVERGENCEOFPATTERNSINTHECITY:(Isolating) theeffectsofarchitecturalmorphologyonmovementand activity

Convergence / Dissonance of Urban Pa erns

Figure10Thesetofsegmentsanalysedin3of20rangesofaccessibility,showingextraordinarydifferencestodistributionsinother patterns.Fixingaccessibilitylevels,patternsofbuiltform,activityandpedestrianmovementrevealsimilaritiesbutalsodifferences thatseemtoeludetheoreticalattentionandresistusualexplanation.

UPPER FLOORS AREA[m2]

FAADE|HEIGHT|DENSITY WINDOW DENSITY [GROUND] WINDOWS DENSITY [UPPER]

DOOR DENSITY [GROUND]

Proceedings:EighthInternationalSpaceSyntaxSymposium Santiago,PUC,2012 Independentanddependentsocioeconomicvariables:buildingandplot ACTIVITY:GROUNDANDUPPERLEVELS RESIDENTIAL RETAIL SERVICE RETAIL+SERV INSTITUT

Dependentsocialvariables:pedestrianbehaviour PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENT INTERACTINGGROUPS MOVING STATIC STATICINDIVIDUALS

Figure20Histogramforthedistributionofstreetsaccordingtointegrationvalues:percentilesweredefinedinrangesof5%invalues, generating20categoriesbasedonnaturalbreaks.RiodeJaneirohasalongtailofsegregatedstreets,whichledtochoosetheseventh rangetorepresentlowintegration.

Weusedanentropyindex,ameasureofheterogeneityregardingtheproportionofdifferenttypesofactivity,varyingfrom0(full homogeneityonlyonetypeofactivityinthesegmentunderanalysis)to1(fullheterogeneity,wherethesegmentisoccupiedbyall typesofactivitiesinthesameproportion). 25

Table6:Spearmanscoefficientforthe7 accessibilityrange.Astrongerconvergenceofpatternsisvisibleintheseareas (amongothers,Copacabana,Ipanema,Leblon,inthesouth;Jo,AnilandFreguesisainthenorthwest).

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