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A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. Most compound nouns
in English are formed by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives.
For example:
The words tooth and paste are each nouns in their own right, but if you join them together
they form a new word - toothpaste.
The word black is an adjective and board is a noun, but if you join them together they form
a new word - blackboard.
In both these example the first word modifies or describes the second word, telling us what
kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is. And the second part identifies the
object or person in question.
Compound nouns can also be formed using the following combinations of words:-
A good dictionary will tell you how you should write each compound noun.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Compound nouns
o 1.1 Types of compound nouns
o 1.2 Analyzability (transparency)
o 1.3 Sound patterns
• 2 Compound adjectives
o 2.1 Solid compound adjectives
o 2.2 Hyphenated compound adjectives
• 3 Compound verbs
o 3.1 Hyphenation
o 3.2 Phrasal verbs
o 3.3 Misuses of the term
• 4 See also
Since English is a mostly analytic language, unlike most other Germanic languages, it
creates compounds by concatenating words without case markers. As in other Germanic
languages, the compounds may be arbitrarily long. However, this is obscured by the fact
that the written representation of long compounds always contains blanks. Short
compounds may be written in three different ways, which do not correspond to different
pronunciations, however:
• The ‘solid’ or ‘closed’ forms in which two usually moderately short words appear
together as one. Solid compounds most likely consist of short (monosyllabic) units
that often have been established in the language for a long time. Examples are
housewife, lawsuit, wallpaper, etc.
• The hyphenated form in which two or more words are connected by a hyphen.
Compounds that contain affixes, such as house-build(er) and single-mind(ed)(ness),
as well as adjective-adjective compounds and verb-verb compounds, such as blue-
green and freeze-dry, are often hyphenated. Compounds that contain articles, such
as mother-of-pearl and salt-and-pepper, are also often hyphenated.
• The open or spaced form consisting of newer combinations of usually longer words,
such as distance learning, player piano, lawn tennis, etc.
Usage in the US and in the UK differs and often depends on the individual choice of the
writer rather than on a hard-and-fast rule; therefore, open, hyphenated, and closed forms
may be encountered for the same compound noun, such as the triplets container
ship/container-ship/containership and particle board/particle-board/particleboard.
In addition to this native English compounding, there is the classical type, which consists
of words derived from Latin, as horticulture, and those of Greek origin, such as
photography, the components of which are in bound form (connected by connecting
vowels, which are most often -i- and -o- in Latin and Greek respectively) and cannot stand
alone.'
In general, the meaning of a compound noun is a specialization of the meaning of its head.
The modifier limits the meaning of the head. This is most obvious in descriptive
compounds, also known as karmadharaya compounds, in which the modifier is used in an
attributive or appositional manner. A blackboard is a particular kind of board, which is
(generally) black, for instance.
Both of the above types of compounds are called endocentric compounds because the
semantic head is contained within the compound itself -- a blackboard is a type of board,
for example, and a footstool is a type of stool.
• Can you paraphrase the meaning of the compound "[X . Y]" to A person/thing that
is a Y, or ... that does Y, if Y is a verb (with X having some unspecified
connection)? This is an endocentric compound.
• Can you paraphrase the meaning if the compound "[X . Y]" to A person/thing that is
with Y, with X having some unspecified connection? This is an exocentric
compound.
Exocentric compounds occur more often in adjectives than nouns. A V-8 car is a car with a
V-8 engine rather than a car that is a V-8, and a twenty-five-dollar car is a car with a worth
of $25, not a car that is $25. The compounds shown here are bare, but more commonly, a
suffixal morpheme is added, esp. -ed. Hence, a two-legged person is a person with two
legs, and this is exocentric.
On the other hand, endocentric adjectives are also frequently formed, using the suffixal
morphemes -ing or -er/or. A car-carrier is a clear endocentric determinative compound: it
is a thing that is a carrier of cars. The related adjective, car-carrying, is also endocentric: it
refers to an object, which is a carrying-thing (or equivalent, which does carry).
These types account for most compound nouns, but there are other, rarer types as well.
Coordinative, copulative or dvandva compounds combine elements with a similar meaning,
and the compound meaning may be a generalization instead of a specialization. Bosnia-
Herzegovina, for example, is the combined area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but a fighter-
bomber is an aircraft that is both a fighter and a bomber. Iterative or amredita compounds
repeat a single element, to express repetition or as an emphasis. Day-by-day and go-go-go
are examples of this type of compound, which has more than one head.
Analyzability may be further limited by cranberry morphemes and semantic changes. For
instance, the word butterfly, commonly thought to be a metathesis for flutter by, which the
bugs do, is actually based on an old bubbe-maise that butterflies are petite witches that steal
butter from window sills. Cranberry is a part translation from Low German, which is why
we cannot recognize the element cran (from the Low German kraan or kroon, "crane"). The
ladybird or ladybug was named after the Christian expression "our Lady, the Virgin Mary".
In the case of verb+noun compounds, the noun may be either the subject or the object of
the verb. In playboy, for example, the noun is the subject of the verb (the boy plays),
whereas it is the object in callgirl (someone calls the girl).
A black board is any board that is black, and equal prosodic stress can be found on both
elements (or, according to psycholinguist Steven Pinker, the second one is accented more
heavily.) A blackboard, the compound, may have started out as any other black board, but
now is a thing that is constructed in a particular way, of a particular material and serves a
particular purpose; the word is clearly accented on the first syllable.
Sound patterns, such as stresses placed on particular syllables, may indicate whether the
word group is a compound or whether it is an adjective-+-noun phrase. A compound
usually has a falling intonation: "bláckboard", the "Whíte House", as opposed to the phrases
"bláck bóárd". (Note that this rule does not apply in all contexts. For example, the stress
pattern "whíte house" would be expected for the compound, which happens to be a proper
name, but it is also found in the emphatic negation "No, not the black house; the white
house!"
There are some well-established permanent compound adjectives that have become solid
over a longer period, especially in American usage: earsplitting, eyecatching, and
downtown.
However, in British usage, these, apart from downtown, are more likely written with a
hyphen: ear-splitting, eye-catching.
Other solid compound adjectives are for example:
• Numbers that are spelled out and have the suffix -fold added: "fifteenfold",
"sixfold".
• Points of the compass: northwest, northwester, northwesterly, northwestwards, but
not North-West Frontier.
• "acetic acid solution": a bitter solution producing vinegar or acetic acid (acetic +
acid + solution)
• "acetic-acid solution": a solution of acetic acid
• "old English scholar": an old person who is English and a scholar, or an old scholar
who studies English
• "Old English scholar": a scholar of Old English.
• "De facto proceedings" (not "de-facto")
If, however, there is no risk of ambiguities, it may be written without a hyphen: Sunday
morning walk.
From a morphological point of view, some compound verbs are difficult to analyze because
several derivations are plausible. Blacklist, for instance, might be analyzed as an
adjective+verb compound, or as an adjective+noun compound that becomes a verb through
zero derivation. Most compound verbs originally have the collective meaning of both
components, but some of them later gain additional meanings that may predominate the
original, accurate sense. Therefore, sometimes the resultant meanings are seemingly barely
related to the original contributors.
Compound verbs composed of a noun and verb are comparatively rare, and the noun is
generally not the direct object of the verb. In English, compounds such as *bread-bake or
*car-drive do not exist. Yet, we find literal action words, such as breastfeed, taperecord and
washing instructions on clothing as for example hand wash.
[edit] Hyphenation
Compound verbs with single-syllable modifiers are solid, or unhyphenated. Those with
longer modifiers may originally be hyphenated, but as they became established, they
became solid, e.g.,
English syntax distinguishes between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs. Consider the
following:
I held up my hand.
I held up a bank.
I held my hand up.
*I held a bank up.
The first three sentences are possible in English; the last one is unlikely. When to hold up
means to raise, it is a prepositional verb; the preposition up can be detached from the verb
and has its own individual meaning "from lower to a higher position". As a prepositional
verb, it has a literal meaning. However, when to hold up means to rob, it is a phrasal verb.
A phrasal verb is used in an idiomatic, figurative or even metaphorical context. The
preposition is inextricably linked to the verb; the meaning of each word cannot be
determined independently but is in fact part of the idiom.
English has a number of other kinds of compound verb idioms. There are compound verbs
with two verbs (e.g. make do). These too can take idiomatic prepositions (e.g. get rid of).
There are also idiomatic combinations of verb and adjective (e.g. come true, run amok) and
verb and adverb (make sure), verb and fixed noun (e.g. go ape); and these, too, may have
fixed idiomatic prepositions (e.g. take place on).
1. "complex verb", a type of complex phrase. But this usage is not accepted in
linguistics, because "compound" and "complex" are not synonymous.
2. "verb phrase" or "verbal phrase". This is a partially, but not entirely, incorrect use. A
phrasal verb can be a one-word verb, of which compound verb is a type. However,
many phrasal verbs are multi-word.
3. "phrasal verb". A sub-type of verb phrase, which have a particle as a word before or
after the verb.
Double-click on any word and see its definition from Cambridge Dictionaries Online.
While there are different ways that compound nouns can be formed (using adjectives,
prepositions, apostrophes, etc.), we are going to concentrate here on the noun + noun form:
There are three different ways to form this type of compound noun:
"the closed form, in which the words are melded together, such as firefly …keyboard …
notebook;
and the open form, such as post office … history book … mineral water."
Just exactly how and why these three forms exist is not exactly clear, but it seems likely
that the process will begin with two words, become hyphenated after a time, and then
eventually end up as just one word. It is curious that even good dictionaries sometimes
disagree with how compound nouns should be spelt!
In these noun + noun structures, the first noun behaves similarly to an adjective, in that it
describes or modifies the second noun:
Another issue to consider is pronunciation. Most noun + noun structures have the main
stress on the first word:
Compare a maths book; a geography book; a physics book, which are all books commonly
found in schools, to a book about pollution, NOT a pollution book.
We have provided a very basic explanation of this use of compound nouns, an area of
grammar that many people consider to be amongst the most difficult.
For further information, and some quizzes, please see the following web sites:
Definition
In English, words, particularly adjectives and nouns, are combined into compound
structures in a variety of ways. And once they are formed, they sometimes metamorphose
over time. A common pattern is that two words — fire fly, say — will be joined by a
hyphen for a time — fire-fly — and then be joined into one word — firefly. In this respect,
a language like German, in which words are happily and immediately linked one to the
other, might seem to have an advantage. There is only one sure way to know how to spell
compounds in English: use an authoritative dictionary.
How a word modified by an adjective — "a little school," "the yellow butter" — is different
from a compound word — " a high school," "the peanut butter" — is a nice and
philosophical question. It clearly has something to do with the degree to which the
preceding word changes the essential character of the noun, the degree to which the
modifier and the noun are inseparable. If you were diagramming a sentence with a
compound word, you would probably keep the words together, on the same horizontal line.
Modifying compounds are often hyphenated to avoid confusion. The New York Public
Library's Writer's Guide points out that an old-furniture salesman clearly deals in old
furniture, but an old furniture salesman would be an old man. We probably would not have
the same ambiguity, however, about a used car dealer. When compounded modifiers
precede a noun, they are often hyphenated: part-time teacher, fifty-yard-wide field, fire-
resistant curtains, high-speed chase. When those same modifying words come after the
noun, however, they are not hyphenated: a field fifty yards wide, curtains that are fire
resistant, etc. The second-rate opera company gave a performance that was first rate.
Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are hyphenated when compounded with
other modifiers: the highest-priced car, the shorter-term loan. But this is not always the
case: the most talented youngster. Adverbs, words ending in -ly, are not hyphenated when
compounded with other modifiers: a highly rated bank, a partially refunded ticket, publicly
held securities.
Sometimes hyphenated modifiers lose their hyphens when they become compound nouns:
A clear decision-making process was evident in their decision making. The bluish grey was
slowly disappearing from the bluish-grey sky. This is not always so, however: your high-
rise apartment building is also known as a high-rise.
When modifying a person with his or her age, the compounded phrase is hyphenated: my
six-year-old son. However, when the age comes after the person, we don't use a hyphen.
My son is six years old. He is, however, a six-year-old.
For hyphenated forms, the pluralizing -s is usually attached to the element that is actually
being pluralized: daughters-in-law, half-moons, mayors-elect. The Chicago Manual of Style
says that "hyphenated and open compounds are regularly made plural by the addition of the
plural inflection to the element that is subject to the change in number" and gives as
examples "fathers-in-law," "sergeants-in-arms," "doctors of philosophy," "and courts-
martial" (196). The NYPL Writer's Guide puts it this way: "the most significant word —
generally the noun — takes the plural form. The significant word may be at the beginning,
middle, or end of the term" (396). And then we get examples such as "attorneys at law,"
"bills of fare," chiefs of staff," notaries public," assistant attorneys general," "higher-ups,"
"also-rans," and "go-betweens."
Note: some dictionaries will list "attorney generals" along with "attorneys general" as
acceptable plurals of that office. Whether that's a matter of caving in to popular usage or an
inability to determine the "significant word" is unknown.
As a general rule, then, the plural form of an element in a hierarchical term belongs to the
base element in the term, regardless of the base element's placement:
• first sergeants
• sergeants major
• sergeants first class
• colonel generals [Russian]
• lieutenant generals
• lieutenant colonels
• apprentice, journeyman, and master mechanics
• deputy librarians
• deputy assistant secretaries of state
One of the most difficult decisions to make about possessives and plurals of compound
words occurs when you can't decide whether the first noun in a compound structure is
acting as a noun that ought to be showing possession or as what is called an attributive
noun, essentially an adjective. In other words, do we write that I am going to a writers
conference or to a writers' conference? The Chicago Style Manual suggests that if singular
nouns can act as attributive nouns — city government, tax relief — then plural nouns
should be able to act as attributive nouns: consumers group, teachers union. This principle
is not universally endorsed, however, and writers must remember to be consistent within a
document.
This section does not speak to the matter of compounded nouns such as "Professor Villa's
and Professor Darling's classes have been filled." See the section on Possessives for
additional help.
Also, when we combine compound nouns, we would use a hyphen with the first, but not the
last: when under- and overdeveloped nations get together. . . .
Spelling
The following table presents a mini-dictionary of compound modifiers and nouns. Perhaps
the best use of a very partial inventory like this is to suggest the kinds of words that a writer
would be wise either to memorize or to be at least wary of. It is sometimes enough to know
when we should get the dictionary off the shelf.
Notice that African American contains no hyphen, but Italian-American does. There are no
hard and fast rules about this, and social conventions change. (There is no hyphen in French
Canadian.) Some groups have insisted that they do not want to be known as "hyphenated
Americans" and resist, therefore, the use of a hyphen, preferring that the word "American"
be used as an adjective. Some resources even suggest that a term like Italian-American
should be used only when the individual thus referred to has parents of two different
nationalities. That's probably a stretch, but a writer must be aware that sensibilities can be
aroused when using nationalities of any description. Consistency within a document is also
important.
Suspended Compounds*
With a series of nearly identical compounds, we sometimes delay the final term of the final
term until the last instance, allowing the hyphen to act as a kind of place holder, as in
Be careful not to overuse this feature of the hyphen; readers have to wait until that final
instance to know what you're talking about, and that can be annoying.
Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. Most compound nouns
in English are formed by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives.
For example:
The words tooth and paste are each nouns in their own right, but if you join them together
they form a new word - toothpaste.
The word black is an adjective and board is a noun, but if you join them together they form
a new word - blackboard.
In both these example the first word modifies or describes the second word, telling us what
kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is. And the second part identifies the
object or person in question.
Compound nouns can also be formed using the following combinations of words:-
A good dictionary will tell you how you should write each compound noun.
All words of more than one syllable have what is called word stress. This
means that at least one of the syllables is
l o n g e r and louder
than the other syllables.
I. Compound Nouns:
Listen to the following compound nouns. Can you hear the word stress?
audio
bluebird
blackboard
notebook
bookstore
toothbrush
keyboard
In each of these examples, the first part of the compound gets the stress.
Listen to the following noun+noun compounds. Can you hear which part of the
compound gets more stress?
audio
air conditioner
computer programmer
nail polish
french fry
Geiger counter
doctor's office
Similar to the rule for compound nouns, the first part of the compound--here,
the first word--gets the stress. (Note: If the "unstressed" part of the
noun+noun compound is more than one syllable, it will have some word stress.
However, the first part of the compound will get even more stress.)
In phrasal verbs, the preposition gets the word stress. If they have a noun
counterpart, however, it gets the stress on the first part.
IV. Homographs
Homographs are words which are written the same way but which have
different pronunciation. In English, there are many words which have the
same spelling, but whose part of speech changes with the word stress. If you
listen carefully, you will hear that the vowel sounds change depending on
whether they are stressed or unstressed.
audio
VERB NOUN
record record
progress progress
present present
permit permit