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REDUCTION OF Escherichia coli COUNTS IN WATER USING A SUNLIGHT CONCENTRATOR

John Nicholi L. Jamero Eric Vincent Q. Magno Lean Louiel A. Peria

A Research Paper Submitted to the Faculty of the Philippine Science High School Southern Mindanao Campus In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements in Research 2

March 2012

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL The research paper entitled REDUCTION OF Escherichia coli COUNTS IN WATER USING A SUNLIGHT CONCENTRATOR, prepared and submitted by John Nicholi L. Jamero, Eric Vincent Q. Magno and Lean Louiel A. Peria in partial fulfilment of the requirements in Research 2 is hereby accepted,

NELSON H. ENANO, JR. Research 2 Adviser

Approved by the Scientific Review Committee:

CROMWELL M. CASTILLO Member

SHARON M. DEJARME Member

Accepted as partial fulfilment of the Requirements in Research 2:

_______________________ ARLYN A. DACANAY Research 2 Coordinator

________________________ DELIA C. LEGASPINO Director

ABSTRACT A homemade solar concentrator device was used for disinfecting water. This device was tested for efficiency (a water disinfection capability) in the experiment, and its disinfection capability was compared to water exposure to sunlight. Three trials were conducted in the experiment, placing 1 litre glass bottles inside and another outside of the solar concentrator. For each trial, water samples were collected from a common deep well source. Baseline E. coli count was determined prior to exposure of the water sample to the device. Rapid testing using 3M petrifilms were used to determine the final E. coli count after two hours of exposure of the two bottles inside and outside the solar concentrator. Results showed baseline E.coli counts of the water samples recorded the following: 122, 78 and 118 for trials 1 to 3 respectively. Results of E. coli counts from water samples after 2 hours of exposure to sunlight using the solar concentrator recorded 12, 4 and 2 respectively while water samples exposed to sunlight without using the solar concentrator recorded 98, 47 and 87 respectively. The mean percent reduction of bacterial counts in the water exposed to intensified sunlight (94.44%) was shown to be significantly greater than the mean of the percent reduction in bacterial counts in the water exposed to non intensified sunlight (28.56%). The result of the study is a new solar concentrator that could be used for disinfecting water. Further experimentation may provide more accurate and reliable information about its ability to disinfect water. But the solar concentrator could then be used in poor communities needing clean water, since the study demonstrated its ability to disinfect water.

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS Above all, we would like to give our thanks to God, without whom everything would be impossible. Firstly, we would like to thank the teachers who had contributions to the study and extended their patience countless times. To Ms. Carolyn Villanaba, thank you for the help and your genuine concern in our experiment. To Mrs. Agnes Golvin, thank you for assisting us in the research laboratory. To Mrs. Suzanne Mendoza, Ms. Sharon Dejarme and Engr. Cromwell Castillo, thank you for imparting your knowledge for the betterment of our study. To Engr. Nelson Enano, thank you for being our very trusty and considerate adviser. We also give our thanks to our next-of-kin especially Florence Bantilan-Alzate and others whose helpful comments, insightful advice and insistent follow-ups

augmented our nascent writing and analytical abilities while constantly egging us on to persevere and be diligent and mindful in following up our tasks to complete the experiment in spite of unpredictable weather conditions, flaring tempers and flagging spirits. They truly made the stressful process of writing the research paper less difficult. We give our thanks to our families most especially our parents, for supporting us throughout the whole process and prayed that the seemingly unending experiments be concluded already. Lastly, we would like to give thanks to our colleagues and friends who physically helped us in conducting our experiments. To Ian Bugayong, Tim Duhaylungsod, Mr. Tomasito Rosal and the others, nice work! L.L.P E.V.M J.N.J

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE PAGE........................................................................................................................i CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL.......................................................................................ii ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................iv LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................viii LIST OF APPENDICES.....................................................................................................ix Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................1 Background of the Study......................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................3 Hypothesis of the Study.......................................................................................3 Objectives of the Study........................................................................................4 Significance of the Study.....................................................................................4 Scope and Limitations of the Study.....................................................................5 Definition of Terms..............................................................................................6 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE...............................................................8 Water Pollution and Water Sanitation...................................................................9 Bacteria...............................................................................................................12 Method for Bacterial Count................................................................................15 Methods of Water Disinfection...........................................................................15 Sunlight and Concepts in Optics.......................................................................17 Utilization of Sunlight.........................................................................................19

Review of Related Studies..................................................................................21 3 METHODOLOGY...................................................................................................23 Gathering of Materials........................................................................................23 The Solar Concentrator.......................................................................................24 Operation of the Solar Concentrator...................................................................26 Water Sampling...................................................................................................27 Testing of the Newly Developed Solar Concentrator.........................................28 Safety Precautions, Handling and Disposal........................................................29 Data Analysis......................................................................................................29 Data Presentation................................................................................................30 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.............................................................................31 Presentation of Data...........................................................................................31 Interpretation of the Data...................................................................................33 Discussion of the Results...................................................................................35 Further Applications...........................................................................................37 5 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................39 Summary and Findings......................................................................................39 Recommendations.............................................................................................40 BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................42 APPENDICES...................................................................................................................47

LIST OF TABLES Table 1 2 3 Page Standards for Fresh Surface Waters......................................................................11 Labelling of the Petrifilms....................................................................................29 E. coli Count Before and After Exposure to Intensified Sunlight........................31

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Page E. coli bacteria......................................................................................................14 Reflection of Light ..............................................................................................18 A Three Dimensional Representation of the Solar Concentrator.........................25 Side View of the Solar Concentrator ...................................................................25 Top View of the Solar Concentrator.....................................................................25 The Position of the Grill in the Solar Concentrator.............................................26 E. coli Count Before and After Exposure to Intensified and Non-intensified Sunlight..............................................................................33

LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A B C D E Page Budget of the study.........................................................................................50 Risk Analysis..................................................................................................51 Statistical Analysis.........................................................................................52 Raw Data........................................................................................................54 Documentation of the Experiment.................................................................55

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study The Philippines has an adequate supply of freshwater for its agricultural, industrial and domestic uses. Around 70% of the countrys land area considered as watershed wherein 421 principal river basins (19 of which are considered major basins) and 119 proclaimed watersheds. The yearly average of over 2,400 mm of rainfall, there is sufficient recharge of water through surface run-off and groundwater resources (Acosta, 2006). In spite of such abundance of supply, water quality in the Philippines has always been a major environmental problem. The Philippine Environment Monitor (World Bank, 2003) gave an overview of the country situation on water quality with these following statistics: 36 percent of the countrys river systems are classified as sources of public water supply; up to 58 percent of groundwater sampled is contaminated with coliform and needs treatment; approximately 31 percent of illnesses monitored for a five-year period were caused by water-borne sources; and many areas are experiencing a shortage of water supply during the dry season. Almost a decade after the preparation of the said Philippine Environment Monitor, the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016 noted that solid waste remains a major source of pollutants for waterways in the Philippines and points to uncontrolled dumping of raw sewage in coastal areas, particularly those that are thickly populated or used heavily by tourists, as a major factor that results in dangerous water contamination levels. The lack of point-source and nonpoint-source pollution controls are the main factors that contribute to the degradation of water quality in the Philippines (NEDA, 2011).

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The World Bank Report on Water Quality (World Bank, 2003) noted that untreated wastewater affects health by spreading disease-causing bacteria and viruses, makes water unfit for drinking and recreational use, threatens biodiversity, and deteriorates overall quality of life. Known diseases caused by poor water include gastroenteritis, diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, and more recently, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). There have been many efforts in dealing with water pollution. There have been four main approaches to water purification identified: boiling, filtering, chemical treatment and UV light treatment (Outdoors Grub, n.d.). This proposal explores an approach similar to the UV light option described above. The World Health Organization (WHO), in its effort to improve water sanitation and health, has identified the various ways heat and ultraviolet (UV) radiation can be used to improve the microbial quality of water and reduce household diarrheal disease of consumers (WHO, 2008). Heat and UV radiation, important components of light, can be a potential tool for disinfecting water. A setup devised can be made that can make use of sunlight effectively. But there are several challenges before this can be realized especially on matters relating to scale, efficiency and ease-of-use. Existing designs of disinfecting water using sunlight require much material and complex structures. These methods are relatively expensive and can be replicated only in the households that can afford them. Other methods require much time to disinfect the water. Others still, can only disinfect small amounts of water, which is unsuitable for communities. Proposed solutions make use of only reflective surfaces which are cheap and suggest a simple design and that is capable of disinfecting water. In the study, a sunlight

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concentrator composed mainly of reflective surfaces is to be devised to focus sunlight onto water to disinfect it.

Statement of the Problem Globally unclean water causes a great dilemma due to the presence of pathogenic organisms that harbours the gastrointestinal tract which can cause diseases such as diarrhea. Water sanitation is a worldwide concern, most especially in poor countries with communities unable to afford water purification methods. The study sought to develop and test a solar concentrator which would be a convenient, economical and effective device for disinfecting pathogen-contaminated water to suit various human uses, including at the household level.

Hypotheses of the Study (1) The use of the solar concentrator device to disinfect contaminated water samples significantly decreases E. coli counts. (2) The percent reduction in E. coli counts of water exposed to intensified sunlight through the solar concentrator will be significantly greater than in water exposed to non-intensified sunlight.

Objectives of the Study The study aimed to create a solar concentrator device which can decrease E. coli counts from deep well water samples. Specifically, it aimed to: (1) Compare the E. coli counts of water before and after exposure to sunlight using the solar concentrator.

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(2) Compare the decrease in E. coli counts of water after exposure to sunlight with and without the use of the solar concentrator.

Significance of the Study The study developed an inexpensive and convenient method of disinfecting water as a means of addressing water pollution. Communities that have polluted bodies of water would have a method of disinfecting these water sources. Once these polluted waters get clean, it would benefit the community as a whole. Furthermore, once a method is found that can be easily adapted to the needs of poorest communities in polluted waterways to clean their water sources, this would help a lot in improving sanitation, and eventually the health of the affected communities. Many communities that lack access to clean water would have a way of ensuring that they use and consume clean water. It would be help in reducing health problems and diseases that are caused by the water-borne bacteria. It would also be a help to the indigenous or poor people who use unsafe water and have no money or resources for getting clean water. Also, companies or factories that have to treat waste waters before releasing them could have their problems solved. Even if they have water treatment methods, they usually incorporate chemicals that are still unsafe for the public. They would have a cheaper and easier means of cleaning the water without using chemicals by following the method introduced by this study. The method could also be used for treating waste water from farms.

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Scope and Limitations of the Study The study was limited to the utilization of sunlight in the water disinfection process. Only reflective foil and wood were used in the set up. The study was based on the E. coli counts for determining the purity or cleanliness of the water. The study used water samples from deep-well water sources in Purok 1-A, Barangay Magtuod, Maa, Davao City; Purok 1-B, Lower Dampa, Barangay Magtuod, Maa, Davao City and at T. AwadEchevaria, Mandug, Davao City. The experiment was performed in the outdoor areas and in the laboratory of Philippine Science High School Southern Mindanao Campus. The trials of the experiment were conducted only on day time when sunlight was visibly available. In each trial the water was exposed to sunlight for two hours only, from 11:00 am to 1:00 pm. Only the bacterial counts (E.coli) were considered for analysis, other conditions or variables will be held constant. In reading the count of E.coli using the Petri film we were assisted by a licensed Medical Technologist, of the University of the Immaculate Conception (Davao City) Science Resource Center, Microbiology Laboratory. The experiment was conducted last July to August of 2011.

Definition of Terms Escherichia coli (EC). a species of bacterium that inhabits the stomach and

intestines of mammals. It is the most common coliform used to indicate the presence of other bacteria in water. This is the bacteria used in the study to indicate the bacterial quality of water. Heat. a form of transferred energy that arises from the random motion of the

molecules and is felt or measured as temperature. In this study it was one of the factors for disinfecting water.

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Intensified Sunlight.

sunlight that is more intense and in the study is the light

generated by the constructed solar concentrator. Non-intensified Sunlight. the sun. Percent Reduction. In the study this is the percentage of the original bacterial the natural and bare sunlight coming directly from

count that was eliminated due to exposure to sunlight. It is used as a measure of efficiency in disinfection of bacteria. Reflective Surface. a highly reflective surface of cheap ingenious materials that

were used to reflect sunlight to manipulate it. Sunlight. This refers to light emitted by the sun, which was the tool used by the

study to kill bacteria. Solar concentrator. a narrower space or area. UV light. a particular component of light in the electromagnetic spectrum with a set of object or objects that will concentrate sunlight onto

frequency higher than violet. This is another factor used in the experiment to kill bacteria.

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Water Pollution and Water Sanitation Water pollution is evident nowadays. Statistics from the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) indicate some 2 million tons of sewage, industrial and agricultural wastes discharged into the worlds waters while the amount of waste water produced every year is 1,500 cubic kilometres. Lack of sanitation contaminates water courses worldwide is one of the most significant forms of water pollution. Worse, 2.5 billion people worldwide live without adequate sanitation. Infectious diseases such as waterborne diseases are the number one killer of children under five years old. More people die because of using unsafe water, more deaths than any form of violence could ever cause, including war. Drinking water treated w/ using chlorine and safe storage of water could result in 122.2 million avoided health problems at a total cost of 11.4 billion US dollars (UNEP, 2010). The World Health Organization (WHO, 2008), in its effort to improve water sanitation and health, has identified the various ways heat and ultraviolet (UV) radiation can be used to improve the microbial quality of water and reduce household diarrheal disease of consumers. In its report, WHO says that treatment to control waterborne microbial contaminants by exposure to sunlight in clear vessels that allows the combined germicidal effects of both UV radiation and heat has been developed, evaluated and put into field practice (WHO, no date, citing Acra et al., 1984; Conroy et al., 1996; 1996; 1999; Joyce et al., 1996; McGuigugan et al., 1998; 1999; Sommer et al., 1997; Wegelin and Sommer, 1998; Wegelin et al., 1994)

9 The United States Agency for International Development (USAID, 2008) updated the study in 2008 and showed that poor sanitation in the Philippines led to economic costs in the order of US$1.4 billion or Php 77.8 billion per year. (USAID, 2008). Almost a decade after the preparation of the said Philippine Environment Monitor, the Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016 noted that solid waste remains a major source of pollutants for waterways in the Philippines and points to uncontrolled dumping of raw sewage in coastal areas, particularly those that are thickly populated or used heavily by tourists, as a major factor that results in dangerous water contamination levels. The lack of point-source and nonpoint-source pollution controls are the main factors that contribute to the degradation of water quality in the Philippines (NEDA, 2011). Internationally, aiming for improved water quality and sanitation is part of the United Nations Millennium Developpment Goals (MDG) which the Philippines signed on along with other countries of the world in 2000. The World Bank Report on Water Quality (World Bank, 2003) noted that untreated wastewater affects health by spreading disease-causing bacteria and viruses, makes water unfit for drinking and recreational use, threatens biodiversity, and deteriorates overall quality of life. Known diseases caused by poor water include gastroenteritis, diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, and more recently, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Globally, there is a problem on availability of water and sanitation that as recently as July 2010, the United Nations General Assembly passed a Resolution declaring as a human right access to clean water and sanitation, citing statistics that show some 884 million people were without access to safe drinking water and more than 2.6 billion lacked access to basic sanitation and that 1.5 million children under five years old died

10 each year as a result of water- and sanitation-related diseases (UN Department of Public Information, 2010). While we now have the Clean Water Act (Republic Act 9275) and its implementing regulations, compliance with these rules is still largely inadequate. Even a perusal of the regular report prepared by the Environmental Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources under the Clean Water Act, shows that in the Philippines, current efforts to implement Clean Water Act (Republic Act 9275) is still a struggle. The National Water Quality Status Report (2001-2005) revealed that the said government agency has not yet come up with a comprehensive national assessment of compliance by all local government units in the Philippines with regard to their obligation to manage water quality in their areas (EMB, 2006). Water quality standards (Table 1) in the Philippines was established in 1990 through Department Administrative Order No. 90-34 (DAO 90-34), but it has since been revised in 1997 to account for changes in quality standards in marine and coastal waters. (Philippine Environmental Management Bureau, 2008). Table1.Standards for Fresh Surface Waters. Classification Beneficial Use Class AA Public Water Supply Class I. This class is intended primarily for waters having watersheds which are uninhabited and otherwise protected and which require only approved disinfection in order to meet the National Standards for Drinking Water (NSDW) of the Philippines. Class A Public Water Supply Class II. For sources of water supply that will require complete treatment (coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection) in order to meet the NSDW. Recreational Water Class I. For primary contact recreation such as bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc. (particularly those designated for tourism purposes). 1) Fishery Water for the propagation and growth of fish and other

Class B

Class C

11 aquatic resources; 2) Recreational Water Class II (Boatings, etc.) 3) Industrial Water Supply Class I (For manufacturing processes after treatment). Class D 1) For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering, etc. 2) Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling, etc.) 3) Other inland waters, by their quality, belong to this classification

In general, this refers to current best beneficial use that is expected to last, at least, for the next 10 to 20 years. In special cases when dictated by political, economic, social, public health, environmental and other considerations, certain waters may be classified according to the intended or future beneficial use (e.g. Pasig River, TullahanTenejeros, etc.) Common problems concerning polluted water arise because of the presence of bacteria in water. A key indicator of pollution then is the measure of the amount of bacteria present per unit volume of the water body being tested for its pollution content. The World Health Organization does not state standards for coliform and E. coli count in drinking water, but the European Union states that there should be zero colony forming units per mL of coliform and E. coli in drinking water for it to be considered clean (WHO, n.d.). Measuring the amount of bacteria within a given amount of water indicates the degree of pollution in it. In other words the presence of bacteria will show how polluted the water is.

12 Bacteria Bacteria are very small, relatively simple, single-celled organisms whose genetic material is not enclosed in a special nuclear membrane. Bacterial cells come in many shapes; rod-like, spherical and spiral are the most common shapes. Bacteria have cell walls that are composed mainly of peptidoglycan, and they generally reproduce by dividing into two daughter cells through the process called binary fission. It is the characteristic of bacteria to be able to reproduce very quickly that makes them very effective contaminants in water, and be dangerous pathogens (Tortora, 1992). Escherichia coliform bacteria are microscopic organisms that originate from the intestines of warm-blooded animals (Daniels and Mesner, 2005). Total coliform is another term used for this group of bacteria, and these are classified under the family Enterobacteriaceae. Coliform bacteria are mostly harmless, but they are considered indicator organisms for disease causing bacteria, viruses, parasites and other pathogens. This means that the presence of coliform indicate the possibility of the presence of pathogens. Escherichia coli (Fig. 1) is a species in the genus Escherichia which is a typical member of the family Enterobacteriaceae. E. coli are short straight Gram-negative bacilli that are usually non-sporing. E. coli are multi-potent pathogens capable of causing disease in many body systems. The most common site it infects in humans is the gastrointestinal tract. This is mainly because it easily enters the body through contaminated water and food ingested by the person (Sussman, 1997). The majority of human diseases are caused by the E. coli O157:H7 strain, yet there are other strains that cause disease. E. coli is the most commonly used and often considered the best indicator organism for pathogens and fecal contamination.

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Figure 1. E. coli bacteria Retrieved on September 12, 2011 from: http://scm-l3.technorati.com/11/06/03/44263/e-coli-.jpg?t=20110603144325 Bacteria in general are common yet dangerous contaminants in water. As stated earlier, water contamination is one of the most common causes of death, especially in poor countries. Poor households need clean water. The range of temperature with which most bacteria grow is 40 degrees Fahrenheit to 140 degrees Fahrenheit (5 C to 60 C). Any temperature above this will provide unfavorable environment for the bacteria and kill it. Heat that bacteria cannot resist denatures its proteins causing these proteins to be ineffective thus killing the bacteria. So, the study should be aiming to produce temperatures above 60 degrees Celsius when concentrating the sunlight onto the water (Wagner, n.d.).

14 Method for Bacterial Count Petrifilm Escherichia coli /Coliform Count (EC) plates contain Violet Red Bile (VRB) nutrients, a cold-water-soluble gelling agent, an indicator of glucuronidase activity, and an indicator that facilitates colony enumeration. Most E. coli (about 97%) produce beta-glucuronidase which produces a blue precipitate associated with the colony. The top film traps gas produced by the lactose fermenting coliforms and E. coli. About 95% of E. coli produce gas, indicated by blue to red-blue colonies associated with entrapped gas on the Petrifilm EC plate (within approximately one colony diameter).

Methods of Water Disinfection Methods for disinfecting water have been devised already, but most of these are unavailable to the poor or are actually are not that effective. A common method is chlorinating the water. Chlorine is a powerful killing agent that is able to kill disease-causing bacteria, viruses and other microbes. However, chlorine also forms toxins with the organic particles already in the water. These toxin chemicals are called organochlorines, and each of them has one or more toxic properties. This is just the reason why chlorinated water is not really that safe for usage. There must be much safer methods of disinfecting water established in the poor communities (Fleckenstein, 2001). Another well established method of disinfecting water is distillation. Distillation is a method for separating mixtures based on the differences in the conditions required by the components in the mixture to change in phase (Helmenstine, n.d.). In distilling water, it is heated to force evaporation. The contaminants are then either left behind, killed in the process, or transferred to another medium. Afterwards, water is collected clean.

15 Distillation may be a good way to disinfect water, but it is usually unavailable for the common poor people. Pasteurization is another process of eliminating bacteria in a liquid. Pasteurization takes its name from its discoverer Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was originally just looking for a way to prevent spoilage of beer and wine. He discovered that mild heating would be enough to kill the bacteria that could cause spoilage, yet not destroy the taste of the product. Nowadays pasteurization is most commonly used in milk. Milk is exposed to a temperature of 72 degrees Celsius for about 15 seconds in the High Temperature Short Time Pasteurization, and exposed to 74 to 140 degrees Celsius for a few seconds. This is done to prevent the loss of taste in the milk (Tortora, 1992). Pasteurization is also used to disinfect water found in unsafe water sources like lakes or rivers. It is easy to do and so many use it, but one can only pasteurize a small amount of water at a time. It is still not the ideal method to disinfect water that will address the clean water needs of poor communities. Ultraviolet light is another component of sunlight that can kill bacteria. The ultraviolet light will kill bacteria in water by penetrating their cell wall and destroying their DNA, rendering them useless and incapable to reproduce. For this to happen the ultraviolet rays have to hit directly the bacteria. A problem in this is that ultraviolet light is easily stopped (Aschenbrenner, 2005). Ultraviolet light cannot penetrate most substances (UV Germicidal Technical Data, n.d.). There was a study years ago confirming the participation of ultraviolet light in disinfecting water. Solar-assisted water disinfection utilizes the ultraviolet light to kill water-borne bacteria and break up possible chemical contaminants. But this method needed a photocatalystt (which changes the rate of light-induced chemical reactions) such

16 as Titanium oxide. To kill bacteria such as E. coli in water, only a few minutes of exposure to ultraviolet light was needed (USA Today, 1995).

Sunlight and Concepts in Optics Sunlight is free for everybody to use, and wherever and whenever there is light it can be used. But sunlight is not everyday matter; there is a branch of physics specifically studying its characteristics. These characteristics have to be understood to use sunlight effectively in the design of the solar concentrator. Light exists as both a wave and a particle. This is called the wave-particle duality, and it shows with the equation E = hf = hc/ wherein light, with frequency f and wavelength , comes in packets or photons, of energy E, and h as Plancks constant (6.626 x 10-24 10Js) and c is the velocity of light (3.00x107 m/s). Sunlight coming from the sun carries with it the whole spectrum of light. This includes the different wavelengths such as infrared and ultraviolet. It is when coming to earth and hitting different objects when these different wavelengths are scattered around, decrease in amount, or are absorbed by different objects (Wenham, Green, Watt, and Corkish, 2007) Light travels at a constant speed in a given medium. Also, it travels in a straight line. Even though light possesses characteristics of a particle, it also exhibits characteristics of a wave, and how a wave moves. Wave motion is the movement of a distortion within a medium or material, and each individual particle or element of the medium may move in back-and-forth, up and down, or in a cyclical pattern (Kurtus, 2006).

17 All waves exhibit diffraction, refraction and reflection. Of these behaviors reflection is the one that concerns the study. As waves approach a long straight barrier, they bounce back in an angle equal to the incident angle (Fig.2). This is otherwise known as the Law of Reflection which states that the angle of incidence is equivalent to the angle of reflection (The Physics Classroom, n.d.). The incident angle is determined by using the normal line as basis. The normal line is defined as a line perpendicular to a surface and has an endpoint where a wave hits the surface. Then the reflected wave then bounces off on the other side of the normal line with an angle equivalent to the angle of incidence. Figure 1 illustrates how light is reflected from a surface.

Figure 2. Reflection of Light

The study explored the ways light can be reflected onto a body of water which greatly affects how much light is focused onto it. By finding the optimal orientation of the reflective mirrors the effectiveness of using light to disinfect water will be increased.

18 Existing designs of disinfecting water using sunlight require much material and complex structures. These methods are relatively expensive and can be replicated only in the households that can afford them. Other methods require much time to disinfect the water. Others still, can only disinfect small amounts of water, which is unsuitable for communities. It seems that one of the best ways to intensify sunlight is by using a parabolic solar concentrator. A parabolic solar concentrator is a curved set of mirrors that focus all incident sunlight onto a single point. It is then at this point where sunlight is intensified. Often it could be so intensified that it could hurt any person coming within contact, like the operator. A parabolic solar concentrator is shaped like a 3-dimensional parabola, a symmetrical curve. Each portion in a parabolic solar concentrator reflects sunlight onto a single point called the focus. The sunlight intensifies at the focus. So, increasing the surface area of the parabolic solar concentrator increases its power.

Utilization of Sunlight To determine the amount of sunlight needed to produce above 60 degrees Celsius to kill the bacteria in the water, the thermal energy has to be determined. According (NA/ND), the amount of thermal energy transfer is given by the equation: E=C T where E is the thermal energy in Joules (J), T is the change in temperature in kelvin (k), and C is the proportionality constant heat capacity measured in joules per kelvin (J / K). (Energy, Heat and Temperature: An Introduction for Beginning Chemistry, n.d.) More commonly used is the specific heat capacity constant which includes the amount of

19 matter in which thermal energy is passing through. Specific heat capacity is measured in joules per kelvin per gram (J / K g). Each substance has a specific heat capacity, and the heat capacity for water is 4.18 joules per kelvin per gram. This mathematical relationship, in relation to the study, shows that to increase the temperature of the water, more energy from the sun must be applied. Solar insolation is the amount of electromagnetic energy (solar radiation) incident on the surface of the earth. (What is Solar Insolation?,n.d.) Solar insolation is technically the energy hitting land, brought by the sunlight. Values for solar insolation are usually expressed in kWh. In the Assessment of Solar Resources in the Philippines (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2000) there is a map for the annual solar insolation in the Philippines. The average annual solar energy received at Davao City (where the experiment will be conducted) is 5 - 5.5 kWh/m2/day. Using this information, and with the conversion factor that 1 kilowatt hour is equivalent to 3.6 million joules, it could be arrived at that a total of 18,000,000 J of solar energy hits a square meter on the surface of Davao City in one day. There are other factors that make the actual solar insolation change and be less. The solved values are simply just theoretical estimations, yet the actual figures may change because of external factors. These external factors relate to the fact that the Earth's surface doesn't take up or absorb all the sunlight, but sends or reflects a certain part of it directly back into space. For example, very light coloured surfaces like ice and snow are excellent reflectors. Reflection on the other hand does not only occur at the Earth's surface as some light is reflected back into space by the top of the clouds and by particles in the air. Another phenomenon, the absorption of sunlight, doesn't only take place at the surface since gas molecules and particles in the air also absorb sunlight

20 (Uherek, n.d.). For these reasons, the sunlight hitting the Earths surface is always changing, and only the average can be determined.

Review of Related Studies There has been developed a water disinfection method that does not use reflection, but instead, refraction. It has been proven highly effective, and yet is very simple to use. A special coating is applied on to a transparent bottle then water is placed on it to be exposed to direct sunlight. The coatings used on the bottles are made of upconversion phosphors. These upconversion phosphors absorb light near the infrared end of the scale and convert them through refraction into visible red, green and blue light. These add to the effect of brightness, increasing capacity to eliminate bacteria. (Solar Disinfection and Upconversion Phosphors, n.d.) In one very widely used method, SODIS, no refraction or reflection was needed. The Solar Water Disinfection, or SODIS for short, is used in many developing countries to eliminate the risks of acquiring diarrhoea, one of the most common causes of death in those countries. The method is very simple. A PET bottle or glass bottle is filled with water and then directly exposed to sunlight for 6 hours. The UV-A rays in the sunlight kill the pathogens, rendering the water safe for drinking (SODIS Method, n.d.). This confirmed efficiency of the said method only proves that the proposed solar concentrator will be efficient in eliminating bacteria too. This is especially because the solar concentrator intensified the direct sunlight and therefore should have better effects than SODIS.

21 Another method that is published already is the Solar Water Purifier (Solar Water Purifier, n.d.). In this method an intricately designed distiller is used to purify water using sunlight. The process this time is distillation, not anymore irradiation unlike the previous examples or the study itself. This method exposes water to sunlight to be evaporated by the heat and then collected in another chamber, to undergo successive filtration layers. The physical phenomena which participate are conduction and convection of heat, and the evaporation and condensation of the water. These methods are complicated already, and involve expensive equipment and careful engineering, which make it inconvenient to poor communities. But sunlight is not limited to disinfecting water. Solar cooking is already well known, performed by people without access to kitchens or even the very fuels needed to cook. The same concepts as to the solar concentrator apply, using the sunlights energy to cook the meat or food, and at the same time sterilize it by eliminating the bacteria in it. Solar cooking is highly beneficial to poor people for various reasons, and is very convenient and safe (Why Solar Cook?,n.d).

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY Gathering of Materials The following materials were used for the construction of the solar concentrator: 1.) wood (two 84.9 cm by 30 cm pieces of wood for wall A and wall C, two isosceles trapezoid-shaped pieces of wood with bases of 150 cm and 30 cm and height 60 cm for wall B and wall D, and a 30 by 30 cm block of wood for the base) 2.) four wooden leg supports 3.) a grill, with dimensions 40cm by 30 cm and legs positioned forming a 30 cm square on the middle 4.) clear plastic as covering with holes at the corners, and must be bigger than 30 cm by 150 cm 5.) at least 1.6 square meters of used aluminum foil, tetra packs, or any other plastic wrappers with a reflective silver side. The following materials were also needed for conducting the experiment: 2 kilogram salt, three 1 liter glass bottles of softdrinks, petrifilms, three pipettes, a rubber aspirator. For testing of E. coli counts an incubator was used. For sterilizing the bottles and pipettes before and after each trial, an autoclave was used.

The Solar Concentrator The solar concentrator was designed with readily available and cheap components. The body of the solar concentrator itself was wood. There were other

23 materials added on to concentrate and trap heat inside to disinfect the water inside the water containers. The body of the solar concentrator was designed to contain four 2-litre bottles, totalling 8 liters, which is the projected average daily drinking water consumption of a family of five drinking 8 glasses a day. Therefore, the dimensions of the floor were based on the floor area taken up by the PET bottles positioned upright. The dimensions of the floor are 30 by 30 centimetres. (Figure 3 and 5) Then there were four walls. Walls A and C are inclined 45 degrees with dimensions 84.9 by 30 cm. Walls B and D were isosceles trapezoids with 150 cm and 30 cm bases and 60 cm height. (Figure 4) Please refer to Figures 4 and 5 on the next page for the top and side views of the solar concentrator. The four walls of the solar concentrator were joined as in Figure 3 below. They were joined by using an adhesive or nailing them together.

Figure 3. A Three Dimensional Representation of the Solar Concentrator

Figure 4. Side View of the Solar Concentrator

24

Figure 5. Top View of the Solar Concentrator Then a metal grill was placed inside the solar concentrator. The purpose of this was to elevate the water containers so they could be hit with more reflected sunlight. Furthermore, the elevation gave space to put the salt on and for the salt to absorb and maintain heat. The grill (Figure 6) had dimensions 40 by 30 cm, so it was elevated at least ten centimetres. So the grill must have legs of this height, and must form a square of 30 by 30 cm, so that it could fit in the base.

Figure 6. The Position of the Grill in the Solar Concentrator For the experiment the solar concentrator was built exactly following these specifications. But when in use these specifications do not need to be followed exactly. It can be scaled down or scaled up to cater for lesser or greater water output. The ratio between the lengths and heights could be changed too. It can only be remodelled such

25 that the angles of elevation of walls A and C must be 45 degrees to be able to utilize the optimum sunlight at noon.

Operation of the Solar Concentrator In the experiment, water was placed in transparent glass bottles and placed in the solar concentrator for a certain period of time to be disinfected. The containers were simply placed on the grill, then the solar concentrator was covered and sunlight was allowed to strike it for two hours from 11:00 am to 1:00 pm. It was best to do it at noon, when the sun was directly above and would emit radiation directly downward onto the solar concentrator. In the actual usage of the solar concentrator, there are no minimum requirements; even a single glass of water could be placed on it to be disinfected. Any amount of water can be placed in any container that allows the water to be exposed to the intensified sunlight. The time of exposure is not specific, but whole day of exposure is preferred.

Water Sampling a.) Preparation of Water Sample Container Three sterile one-liter glass bottles were prepared (autoclave at 1210C for 15 mins). Exactly 0.3 mL Sodium thiosulfate was added as neutralizer in all sample bottles. The bottle was sealed using a sterile cotton plug tightly covered with gauze.

26 b.) Water Sampling The following steps or procedures were followed in collecting deep well water: The proponents started pumping and allowed the water to flush out for 2-3 minutes then stopped. Then they cleaned the opening of the water pump using detergent and applied a flame to sterilize the pump opening (by putting the flame close to the edges of the pumps mouth and heating them with the flame) for 30 seconds. The proponents started pumping again and allowed water to flow for a minute; thereafter the mouth of the bottle was sterilized for a few seconds. Water samples were collected leaving a sufficient space between the cotton plug. Finally, the mouth of the bottle was sterilized and closed. The samples were immediately brought to the testing site and testing commences on the same day the water sample was collected to prevent proliferation of bacteria.

Testing of the Newly Developed Solar Concentrator In the experiment only one litre of water was disinfected. This was only to test the effectiveness of the solar concentrator, since one litre was already enough to be sampled for bacterial counts. For every trial, water was to be collected from the selected water source. Three sterile 1 litre bottles were filled. One served as the baseline, from which E. coli counts were taken to determine the bacterial content before exposure to sunlight. One bottle was placed in the solar concentrator and the last was placed on the ground exposed to bare natural sunlight. At the start of the trial at 11:00 am, the first bottle was sampled for bacterial counts. Then simultaneously, the other two bottles were positioned accordingly. Exactly

27 two hours after at 1:00 pm, the two bottles were sampled for bacterial counts. The petrifilms were labelled as follows on the table on the next page.

Table 2. Labelling of the Petrifilms. Label The value represented by the label TxB TxI TxO baseline bacterial count bacterial count of the water exposed to intensified sunlight bacterial count of the water exposed to non-intensified sunlight

In the labels, x is the number of the trial. One millilitre (1 mL) of water sample was dispensed in the Petri film, covered with the Petri leaf then pressed using the EC pressor. Petri films were incubated for 24-48 hours under 35oC, after incubation E. coli colonies were counted considering the purple colonies with bubble only. The result were collated then analyzed and tabulated.

Safety Precautions, Handling and Disposal This experiment involved bacteria such as E. coli. Gloves were worn throughout the experiment so the proponents will not be in direct contact with the bacteria. The members who handled the containers held them with utmost care and focus. The equipment was also handled with care to prevent damage and contamination. Sample containers were labelled appropriately to prevent confusion, mixture of the substances and contamination between containers. Containers were air sealed using cotton plugs before the test for the E. coli count to prevent contamination due to external variables.

28 The petrifilms that were used were all thrown in the appropriate trash cans, and then all pipettes were incubated before returned to the laboratories. The glass bottles were also incubated before being used again for other purposes. These were done so that the proponents would not be contaminated with the bacteria.

Data Analysis To determine the significant difference in E. coli count in the water samples before and after the exposure to intensified sunlight, t- test was used as a statistical tool. The t-test was also used to determine which of the two methods of disinfecting water (exposure intensified and non-intensified sunlight) was more effective. This statistical test is most appropriate since only two distinct variables were compared.

Data Presentation The data collected were E. coli counts of water samples taken from corresponding bottles. The baselines were recorded and placed in a column of each of two tables. Then in one table the bacterial counts of water after exposure to intensified sunlight were recorded in another column. In the other table the bacterial counts of water after exposure to non-intensified sunlight were recorded in a column. Please see tables 3 and 4 for the data presentation.

Chapter 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Presentation of Data In the experiment the E. coli count was determined in the water samples of all trials before and after exposure to intensified and non-intensified sunlight. The E.coli counts of the baselines were the following: Trial 1 122; Trial 2 78; Trial 3 118. Then the E. coli counts of water after exposure to sunlight were the following: Trial 1 12; Trial 2 4; and Trial 3 2. The E. coli counts of water after exposure to non-intensified sunlight were the following: Trial 1 98; Trial 2 47; and finally, Trial 3 87. (Table 3) The percent reductions of E. coli counts in the water exposed to intensified sunlight were the following: Trial 1 90.16%; Trial 2 94.87%; Trial 3 98.30%, with an average percent reduction of 94.44%. The percent reductions of E. coli counts in the water exposed to non-intensified sunlight were the following: Trial 1 19.67%; Trial239.75%; Trial 3 26.27%, with an average percent reduction of 28.56%. (Figure 7) Table 3. E. coli count in CFU/mL of water before and after exposure to intensified and non-intensified sunlight Trial T1 T2 T3 Before Exposure 122 78 118 After exposure to intensified sunlight 12 4 2 After exposure to nonintensified sunlight 98 47 87

30
140 120 100 Before exposure to sunlight 80 60 40 20 0 Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 After exposure to non intensified sunlight After exposure to intensified sunlight

Figure 7. Bacterial count before exposure and after non-intensified and intensified sunlight. Interpretation of the Data Table 3 shows the total count of E. coli in colony forming unit per mL (CFU/mL) in the water before and after exposure to intensified sunlight. It shows that Trial 1 has the highest baseline EC count while Trial 2 has the lowest baseline EC count. Trial 1 has the highest EC count of water after exposure to intensified sunlight, while Trial 3 has the lowest. Trial 1 has the highest EC count of water after exposure to non-intensified sunlight while Trial 2 has the lowest. Figure 7 shows that the intensified sunlight is efficient and is significantly effective in killing the E. coli. The average percent decrease in the EC count of water exposed to intensified sunlight is 94.44%, which is significantly high considering that it decreases more than nine-tenths of the E. coli in the water. The highest percent decrease is especially sharp in Trial 3, 98.30%, eliminating almost all E. coli, while the lowest is Trial 1, but still high at 90%. The average percent decrease in the EC count of water

31 exposed to non-intensified sunlight is 28.56%, a really low rate compared to the EC count of water exposed to intensified sunlight. Trial 2 had the highest, 39.75%, while Trial 1 had the lowest, 19.67%. The trend that can be observed is that the EC count of water really does decrease after exposure to sunlight, either with or without the use of the solar concentrator. This implies that sunlight has a capability to eliminate bacteria in water, as long as the water experiences direct exposure. The high decrease of EC count of water exposed to intensified sunlight shows high the disinfection capability of the solar concentrator. This means that the solar concentrator is a possible effective solution to water sanitation. This observation has to be tested using the paired t-test. The paired t-test is the appropriate method to use since the two variables being compared are dependent. In this statistical test the mean of E. coli counts before exposure to intensified sunlight (group 1) will be compared to the mean of the E. coli counts after exposure to intensified sunlight (group 2) to determine if there really is a significant decrease in bacteria. After making calculations, the test indicates that there is a significant difference between groups 1 and 2. Please refer to Statistical Test A in Appendix C for detailed statistical analyses. The result of the test means that the application of intensified sunlight caused the bacterial counts to decrease significantly. Therefore the solar concentrator is an effective device to use for disinfecting water. As shown in Figure 7, the percent decrease in the E. coli counts of the water exposed to intensified sunlight is greater than the percent decrease in E. coli counts of the water exposed to non-intensified sunlight. But this observation has to be tested also. The nonpooled t-test will be used as the statistical tool to test if there is a significant

32 difference in the arithmetic decrease in the E. coli counts of the water exposed to intensified sunlight (group 1) and the E. coli counts of the water exposed to nonintensified sunlight (group 2). This method is the appropriate t-test to be used since the two groups being compared statistically are independent. The values used in the t-test are the arithmetic differences since percent reduction is a purely descriptive statistic, is limited to 100% and does not reflect the actual bacterial count decrease. The test reveals that there is a significant difference between groups 1 and 2. Please refer to Statistical Test B in Appendix C for detailed statistical analyses. Testing the data collected in the experiment using nonpooledt-test results in the conclusion that there is a significant difference between the percent decreases in the E. coli counts of the water exposed to intensified sunlight and the percent decreases in the E. coli counts of the water exposed to non-intensified sunlight. This means that the solar concentrator is more efficient in eliminating bacteria than exposure to natural sunlight.

Discussion of the Results The results of the experiment show that there is a significant difference in the number of E. coli eliminated when exposing the water to intensified sunlight than nonintensified sunlight. This means that the solar concentrator enhances the capacity of sunlight to act as a sort of a disinfectant on water. In the experiment, E. coli were the bacteria that were monitored. But since these are the indicator bacteria for fecal pollution, being able to eliminate these bacteria means being able to eliminate majority of the harmful bacteria. Therefore in the experiment, showing that the E. coli counts in the water decreased after being placed in the solar

33 concentrator also shows that all the other harmful bacteria will be killed too after the water is exposed to the intensified sunlight. Based on the experiment conducted and data presented, the number of trials and replicates are not sufficient for conclusion. Therefore it is recommended that further experimentation be conducted to make more accurate measurements of EC counts and therefore produce more reliable data to accurately gauge the capabilities of the solar concentrator. But the experiment itself shows that bacteria disinfection by the use of the solar concentrator is possible. The statistical test shows that the bacteria were killed more significantly by the intensified sunlight than the non-intensified sunlight. This shows that using the solar concentrator to expose water to intensified sunlight is much more effective in disinfecting the water than simply exposing the water to natural sunlight. Therefore, the solar concentrator is an effective tool for disinfecting water. It is very useful since it only utilizes solar power which is easily accessible, infinitely available, and inexpensive. Deployed properly, it will be a very useful tool to be used not only by poor communities all around the world that lack proper water sanitation but also those who may be able to use disinfected water whose quality has been upgraded (in the Philippine case from Class AA to Class D earlier referred to in Chapter 2, page 37 of this paper) so that it may further be used for other beneficial uses, like, among others, in industry, recreation and day-to-day washing and cleaning. The effectivity of the solar concentrator is due to the usage of sunlight containing ultraviolet rays and propagating heat. Since the solar concentrator focuses more sunlight onto the contaminated water, more heat is generated and more UV rays strike the water

34 eliminating the bacteria. The sunlight is focused by surrounding the water containers with reflective surfaces oriented to let the light rays travel to the containers.

Further Applications Given that contaminated water is all around us, this solar concentrator is way much better than ordinary boiling of water on several counts: one, it doesnt use up scarce biomass or firewood for fuel or generation of fire so that boiling can be done; two, it doesnt need a lot of effort in the monitoring of boiled water once it has reached boiling point since the concentrator will naturally adjust the heat downward especially when it is used in the afternoons when the sun is also going down; three, setting up the concentrator involves a one-time expense while when boiling is used, recurring expenses for fuelwood or biomass is incurred each time boiling is done, and we are not even considering the human effort in constantly watching over the boiling water; four, in terms of scale, the solar concentrator can disinfect a large amount of contaminated water within a given time period without the need to take special efforts in handling water from setting it up for boiling and taking it out from the boiling facilities to be placed in fixed containers. The contaminated water can remain where they are and they can already be disinfected on-site without moving them elsewhere, when they are about to be used once they are disinfected. While the disinfection of water is usually aimed at achieving a level of cleanliness so that it may be rendered fit for human consumption, there are various uses of disinfected water depending on its level of cleanliness, i.e., levels of E. coli content,

35 which is in accordance with existing water quality standards, which, as mentioned in Chapter 2, will range from Class AA to Class D depending on waters beneficial uses. Thus, water can be disinfected by the solar concentrator for a myriad variety of uses industrial, where they can be used for large scale processes where water may be used, agricultural, where water can be used for watering plants or specific crops like fruit trees or vegetable patches, softening and conditioning the soil, or humidifying the aerial surroundings making the plants or crops cope with the extreme heat that usually stresses the plants growth, or even small-scale businesses involving the use of water in washing and cleaning, from household cleaning to car-wash, including recreation where a specific type of water is used for recreational swimming or water sports, of course with the application of the usual treatment to make it safe it case of accidental human ingestion. The solar concentrator will enable the previously dirty water to achieve various degrees of disinfection so now its range of uses is not only limited to poor communities in urban and rural areas with a lack of clean water, now even local government units in the country from the far-flung municipalities or barangays may also use it to disinfect their water supplies and even specific water installations like water tanks, water pools or cisterns so that they can use the disinfected water for similar uses mentioned above, like watering plants or for washing and cleaning facilities and equipment including vehicles. Even small businesses from farming to those using washing facilities (car wash, laundry, etc.) can also make the same applications. If the set-up is further developed, even local water districts may also adapt it to disinfect significant amounts of dirty water in various stages of its water purification and disinfection processes.

Chapter 5 CONCLUSION Summary and Findings Based on the results of the experiment, it is concluded that: (1) The E. coli count of water exposed to sunlight using the solar concentrator decrease significantly before and after the exposure. (2) The E. coli count of water exposed to sunlight using the solar concentrator had a greater decrease (by an average of 98.44%) compared to the decrease of E. coli count of water exposed to sunlight without using the solar concentrator (by an average of 28.56%). Recommendations The researchers have demonstrated that the solar concentrator is a tool which can be used in reducing the E.coli count of contaminated water samples. But the data collected in the experiment could be improved upon by better methods. The researchers saw the need to propose the following recommendations to other researchers who will help in the scientific endeavour of producing clean water for human consumption: 1. Further experiments on this study should be conducted since increasing the number of trials and replicates for each trial will produce more accurate and reliable data. 2. The solar concentrator device will be used for purifying waste water and surface water samples.

37 3. Conduct an experiment for proper evaluation of other water contaminants specifically other bacteria that are pathogenic using the solar concentrator device as purifier. 4. To improve the disinfection capability of the solar concentrator, the length of time of exposure to sunlight can be increased since the experiment, given already variable weather conditions, exposed the contaminated water samples for only a maximum of two hours.. 5. For enhanced results, adjustments should also be made in such a way that as the sun is setting down in the course of the day, the concentrator can have a mechanism where it can adjust to such movements so that the intensity of the sunlight captured by the concentrator does not decrease significantly as time passes within the day. 6. To produce a solar concentrator that can be practically used in the household in purifying the rain water including other applications of the beneficial uses of water as it improves in water quality, which, based under Philippine water quality standards, would be from Class D to Class AA, depending on the users from agriculture, industry, recreation and tourism and others who may have some uses for various degrees of water quality in their day-to-day washing, watering and cleaning needs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Published References Acra, A.,Raffoul, Z., and Y. Karahagopian (1984). Solar Disinfection of Drinking Water and Oral Rehydration Solutions - Guidelines for Household Application in Developing Countries. UNICEF, American University of Beirut. Conroy, R.M, M. Elmore-Meegan, T. Joyce, K.G. McGuigan and J. Barnes (1996). "Solar disinfection of drinking water and diarrhoea in Maasai children: A controlled field trial." Lancet (North American Edition). 348(9043): 1695-1697. Conroy, R.M., M. Meegan M.E., T. Joyce, K. McGuigan and J. Barnes (1999). "Solar disinfection of water reduces diarrhoeal disease: An update." Archives of Disease in Childhood.81(4). Oct.: 337-338. Greenpeace (2007).The state of water resources in the Philippines. Published by Greenpeace Southeast Asia, Quezon City, Philippines . Joyce, T. M., K.G. McGuigan, M. Elmore-Meegan& R.M. Conroy (1996).Inactivation of fecal bacteria in drinking water by solar heating. Applied & Environmental Microbiolog 62(2): 399-402. Kehoe, S. C., T.M. Joyce, P. Ibrahim, J.B. Gillespie, R.A. Shahar Madrazo, A. (2002). Water issues in the context of sustainable development. Paper presented during the 2ndWorld Conference on Green Productivity, December 9 11, 2002, in EDSA Shangri-La, Mandaluyong City, Philippines. McGuigan, K.G., T.M. Joyce, & R.M. Conroy (1999). "Solar disinfection: Use of sunlight to decontaminate drinking water in developing countries." Journal of Medical Microbiology 48(9):785-787. Tortora, Gerard J. (1992). Microbiology : An Introduction Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Sommer, B., A. Marino, Y. Solarte, M.L. Salas, C. Dierolf, C. Valiente, D. Mora, R. Rechsteiner, P. Setter, W. Wirojanagud, H. Ajarmeh, A. Al-Hassan, &M.Wegelin, (1997). "SODIS: An emerging water treatment process." Aqua (Oxford). 46(3):127-137. Sussman, Max. (1997). Escherichia coli: Mechanisms of Virulence. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Wenham, Stuart; Green, Martin; Watt, Muriel; Corkish, Richard.(2007). Applied Photovoltaics. United Kingdom: Earthscan

39 Wegelin, M. & B. Sommer (1998). "Solar water disinfection (SODIS) - Destined for worldwide use?" Waterlines 16(3):30-3 Wegelin M., R. Schertenleib, & M. Boller (1991). "The decade of roughing filters development of a rural water-treatment process for developing countries." Aqua (Oxford) 40(5):304-316 World Bank (2005).Little Green Data Book 2005. World Health Organization (2008).Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Geneva, Switzerland

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40 (NA/ND). "WHO/EU Drinking Water Standards Comparative Table", retrieved on September 11, 2010 from http://www.lenntech.com/who-eu-water-standards.htm Acosta, Voltaire (2006), The Philippines Water Situation Report 2006, a project of the League of Cities of the Philippines in partnership with the Water, Engineering and Development Centre of Loughborough University, (United Kingdom), retrieved on September 18, 2011 from http://www.urbanmgtcenter.org/RP_Water_Situation_Report_2006.pdf Aschenbrenner, Norbert (2005). "UV Light Kills Bacteria: Clean Water Anywhere, Anytime", retrieved on September 11, 2010 from http://www.siemens.com/innovation/en/news_events/innovationnews/innovationn ews_articles/lighting/uv_light_kills_bacteria_clean_water_anywhere_anytime.ht m Daniels, Barbara and Mesner, Nancy. (2005) "Coliform Bacteria", retrieved on September 11, 2010 from http://extension.usu.edu/smac/files/uploads/DW_Bacteria_Approved.pdf

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41 Fleckenstein (2001) Cancer on Tap: The Risks of Chlorinated Drinking Water, retrieved on September 11, 2010 from http://www.greensense.com/Features/Action/cancer_on_tap.htm Helmenstein, Anne Marie. (ND). "What is Distillation?", retrieved on September 11, 2010 from http://chemistry.about.com/cs/5/f/bldistillation.html Kurtus, Ron. (2006). "General Wave Motion".retrieved on September 11, 2010 from http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/waves.htm National Economic and Development Authority (2011), Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016, retrieved on September 18, 2011 from http://www.neda.gov.ph/PDP/2011-2016/CHAPTER%2010.pdf National Renewable Energy Laboratory.(2000). Assessment of Solar Resources in the Philippines.retrieved on September 12, 2010 http://www.spug.ph/Solar.pdf Philippine Senate (2011), Turning the Tide : Improving Water Quality Management, Policy Brief No. PB-11-03, Senate Economic Planning Offce, retrieved 17 September 2011 http://www.senate.gov.ph/publications/PB%202011-08%20%20Turning%20the%20Tide.pdf Uherek, Elmar (ND), Light and the Greenhouse Effect, ESPERE, Environmental Science Published for Everybody Round the Earth, retrieved on 6 March 2011, from http://www.atmosphere.mpg.de/enid/235.html United Nations Department of Public Information, (2010), General Assembly Adopts Resolution Recognizing Access to Clean Water, Sanitation as Human Right, by Recorded Vote of 122 in Favour, None against, 41 Abstentions, United Nations News and Media Division, New York, retrieved on 12 September 2010 from http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2010/ga10967.doc.htm

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42 fromhttp://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/extension/poison.html World Bank (2003) "Philippine Environment Monitor 2003: Water Quality" Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPHILIPPINES/Resources/PEM2003-TOCAt-A-Glance.pdf World Bank (2003) Philippine Environment Monitor 2003: Water Quality Retrieved on August 31, 2010 from http://www.worldbank.org.ph/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAP ACIFICEXT/PHILIPPINESEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20209686~menuPK:333009~ pagePK:141137~piPK:217854~theSitePK:332982,00.html World Health Organization (n.d.) Managing Water in the Home: Accelerated Health Gains from Improved Water Supply Retrieved on August 31, 2010, from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/wsh0207/en/index9.html

APPENDICES

Appendix A BUDGET OF THE STUDY Material/Equipment Total Construction Cost (inc. Aluminum 400 Foil, Wood, Grill, Tape and Plastic sheet) Petrifilm 10000 Cost

Total Costs

10400

45

Appendix B RISK ANALYSIS There were many risks in this study. When we collected waste water samples the collectors might have had contact to and were harmed by the dangerous substances or chemicals in the collection site. The collectors were exposed to the contaminated water. The collectors might have also been infected because of the pathogens in the water. Lastly, fragile materials were handled in the experiment, and when one of these was shattered, such as the pipettes, it posed as a risk. Shards of broken glass might have harmed the persons conducting the experiment. There is one factor that could have sabotaged the experiment, and it was the weather. For example, if the experiment was conducted in a time of much unexpected rain or very cloudy days there was not enough sunlight. If there is not much sunlight the water samples would not have been disinfected enough, or even worse, not at all. Big risks also lied when we analyzed the water samples. Contamination when the water samples were being analyzed might have occured. Also inaccuracies might have occured if the petrifilms were not incubated enough.

46

Appendix C STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Statistical Test 1 d paired samples consisting of the differences between the EC counts of water before and after exposure to intensified sunlight X1 = 122 12 = 110 X2 = 78 4 = 74 X3 = 118 2 = 116 Null Hypothesis: The mean of group1 is zero. n = number of pairs = 3; = = = 100 = 22.71

Sd =

t=

= 20.18;

With degrees of freedom as three, the number of samples, the t value yields a p value of less than 0.001. Assuming = 0.05, the data fall within the critical region,

therefore the null hypothesis could be rejected. Since the null hypothesis could be rejected, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference between group1 and group 2.

47

Statistical Test 2 Group 1 the arithmetic decrease in EC count of water exposed to intensified sunlight Group 2 the arithmetic decrease in EC count of water exposed to non-intensified sunlight Group 1 Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Arithmetic Average Standard Deviation 110 74 116 X1 = 100 S1 = 18.547 Group 2 14 31 31 X2 =25.333 S1 = 8.0138

Null Hypothesis: There is no significance difference between group 1 and group 2. t= = 6.4;

= 2.72

With degrees of freedom as 3, the t value yields a p value of less than 0.01. Assuming = 0.05, the data fall within the critical region, therefore the null hypothesis

could be rejected. Since the null hypothesis could be rejected, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference between group1 and group 2.

Appendix D RAW DATA Petrifilm Label T1B T1I T1O T2B T2I T2O T3B T3I T3O EC Count (CFU/mL) 122 12 98 78 4 47 118 2 87

55 Appendix E DOCUMENTATION OF THE EXPERIMENT

Figure 7 Water Source 1 Location: Purok 1-A, Barangay Magtuod, Maa, Davao City

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Figure 8 Water Source 2 Location: Purok 1-B, Lower Dampa, Barangay Magtuod, Maa, Davao City

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Figure 9 Water Source 3 Location: T. AwadEchevaria, Mandug, Davao City.

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Figure 10 The Experimental Setup in Outside View

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Figure 11 The Experimental Setup Inside View

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Figures 12 and 13 Pipetting water sample from the bottle and putting it into the petrifilm

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Figures 14 Cleaning of the Bottles

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Figure 15 Sterilizing the Bottles