Ancient Indian Sine Tables

Pradosh K Roy
roypkin@yahoo.com

The origin of Trigonometry , according to the historians of Mathematics , is in the chord table of Hipparchus [ca.190-120BC] , who introduced the Babylonian Sexagesimal Number System and arithmetic in his table. The famous Babylonian Plimpton 322 [ca 1900-1600BC] and the Egyptian Rhynd Papyrus, indicate that the respective civilizations had a crude knowledge of practical trigonometry some 2000 years before the Greeks [3]. The lost tables of Hipparchus , almost surely consisted of lengths of chords in a standard circle for all angles from 0 to 180 in 7 increments [1]. He might also have known may of the formul including the identities Sin+Cos =1, Sin() = (SinCos CosSin); Sin/2=(1-Cos) [2]. However , the first major work which has been inherited intact is the Syntaxis Mathematica by Caludius Ptolemaeus [Ptolemy] [ca.85-165AD] from the city of Alexandria , intellectual capital of the Hellenistic world. The Syntaxis , a summary of mathematical astronomy as it was known in that time , contain few of the authors own discoveries , rather it was a compilation of the state of knowledge based on the achievements of his predecessors , mainly Hipparchus [3] . The Syntaxis Mathematica later became known as Almagest , an Arabic word meaning the greatest [Al-Magiste] , because it was competing with a lesser work written by Aristarchus [ca.310230BC] and was seen as superior [2]. In 1175 the Arabic version was translated into Latin , and from then on it would dominate the scientific and philosophical thinking of Europe well into the 16th Century. Ptolemy produced a table of chords in chapters 10 and 11 of the first book of the Almagest , which is essentially a table of Sines i.e. d=2rSin/2. Neither Hipparchus nor Ptolemy used a circle of radius unity. Hipparchus apparently used r=3438 , so that the measure of the circumference would be approximately equal to the number of minutes in 360. Ptolemy takes the diameter of the circle as 120 units , apparently for simplifying the calculations in Sexagesimal system. Ptolemys table gives the chord length between 0 and 180 , in increment , to an accuracy of two sexagesimal places ,i.e. 1/3600 [4] or to an accuracy of five/six decimal places as shown in Table I . Ptolemy carried his work further by dividing the interval between successive chords into thirtieths. This effectively allows for the calculation of any chord in one second interval [4]. It may be emphasized that the Ptolemaic table is based on Euclidean Geometry and the Aristarchus[ca. 310-230 BC] inequality. Arc Crd [Sexagesimal] [Syntaxis
Mathematica]

Crd /120
[Decimal Equivalent]

Sin
[Actual Values]

Table I.

4 7 8 10 11 32 61

08; 14; 16; 20; 22; 63; 106;

22, 15 37, 27 42, 03 50, 16 53, 49 35, 25 55, 15

0.06975694 0.12186805 0.13917361 0.17364814 0.19080787 0.52991898 0.89100694

0.06975647 0.12186934 0.13917310 0.17364817 0.19080899 0.52991926 0.89100652

Ptolemys Chord Table [4]

It is generally presumed that the Ancient Indian contribution in this context , is limited to tabulating half chord as a function of twice the angle , in the most authentic document tracing the development of Trigonometry culminating in the Fourier Series [3] . This may be due to tendency to attribute Indian mathematical ideas to the Greeks and also because of the sometimes exaggerated claims by Indian historians about Indian accomplishments , according to Victor J Katz in the introduction of the recently published book The Mathematics of Egypt , Mesopotamia, China , India and Islam [Princeton University Press,2007].This necessitates a systematic analysis of the Indian scriptures. The oldest Indian treatise on mathematics and astronomy Surya Siddhnta , contains the half chord [ardhajy] table [5][6] . The age of the Surya Siddhnta is still being debated , according to some latest opinions it could not be later than 700 BC. Thus the hypothesis of Hellenistic influence on Indian Half-Chord Table becomes doubtful. Identity of the defining circle is the only similarity between the Hipparchus chord table [1] and the Surya Siddhnta half-chord table , though it is now evident that Hipparchus chord table was influenced by the Babylonians. The couplets of Surya Siddhnta [Chapter II , verses 15-33] , provides the Sine table in multiples of 3 and for the intermediate angles by linear interpolation , using the Decimal System and Integer Arithmetic[4][5] . Moreover , the Versine [Utkramajy] function , not to be found in either Hipparchus or Ptolemy means that Cos= Sin(90 - ) has been recognized and used [8]. The 19th and 20th Century translators and commentators [5][6] have geometrically validated the Surya Siddhnta algorithm for the Sine Table. In the absence of the fractional part , the table is an excellent mnemonic. It could also be observed that the well known theorem viz. Sin/ = 1 , in the limit tends to zero (implicit in Surya Siddhnta half-chord table) is only valid in the decimal number system . Thus Half-Chord of the Eighth Part of 30=225[Chapter II Verse 15] [5][6] has an implicit significance (Radian system of the measurement of an arc) in the development of Indian Sine Table. Whether ryabhata[b.476AD] of Kusuma Pura [Pataliputra] , himself constructed the table in ryabhatya [7] or whether he took it from Surya Siddhnta , which was extant in his time , will remain a matter of speculation [8]. The same table was reproduced in the work of Brahmagupta [628AD]. The Indian quest for an accurate and precise Sine Table seems to have culminated with the Siddhnta iromani [5] by Bhskarchrya II [b.1114 -1190AD ] in 1150AD. It is a matter of speculation , whether Bhskarchrya II was aware of the Ptolemaic Chord Table. Bhskarchrya II [1150AD] in the Appendix of Siddhnta iromani [5] provides canons for the construction of the Sine Table , with exactness by mathematical precision [5] , in his own words. Trigonometric identities which are explicitly mentioned in the canons include : (i) (1 - Sin) = Cos (ii) Sin30=1/2 (iii) Sin45=1/2 (iv) Sin(90 - )=Cos (v) Sin18= (5 -1)/4 (vi) Sin36=(5 [5])/8 (vii) Sin(45 + /2)=(1+Sin)/2 (viii) Sin(45 - /2)=(1-Sin )/2 and (ix) Sin60=3/2. The value of Sin1=60 [i.e.60/3438=0.017452006] , which differs from the exact value 0.017452406 , in the seventh place of decimal , has been explicitly mentioned in the appendix. Thus , Bhskarchrya II might also had recognized the identity

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: Sin/ = 1 , in the limit tends to zero in the Sexagesimal Radian System of the measurement of an arc. Obviously ,these rules suffice for finding only the Sines of arcs differing by 3 from each other and not the Sine of the intermediate arcs , Bhskarchrya II proceeds to detail the mode of finding the Sine of every degree of the quadrant viz. the Pratibhgajyak Rule from 1 to 90 , assuming that Sin1= 60. The defining circle for the Sine Table of Bhskarchrya II is identical [viz. radius=3438] to the defining circle in Surya Siddhnta and in ryabhatya . A simulation of the Pratibhgajyak Rule [5] , when periodically corrected with reference to the above mentioned precise values for Sin18, Sin30; Sin36; Sin45; Sin60 and Sin75 only , is correct to fourth/fifth places of decimal as shown in the following table . In this context it is worth mentioning that Pratibhgajyak Rule [5] is yet to logically established.
SIMULATION OF THE SINE TABLE ACCORDING TO Pratibhgajyak Rule OF BHASKARA II IN 1 INCREMENT.

Arc Error
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Simulated Values
0.469463109970 0.484800249338 0.500000000000 0.515037059784 0.529917240143 0.544635951519 0.559188783169 0.573571264744 0.587785243988

Sin[Actual values]
0.0000084639 0.0000093579 0.0000000000 0.0000010133 0.0000020266 0.0000030994 0.0000041127 0.0000051856 0.0000000000

0.469471573830 0.484809607267 0.500000000000 0.515038073063 0.529919266701 0.544639050961 0.559192895889 0.573576450348 0.587785243988

Table II. Sine Table Simulated with Pratibhgajyak Rule of Bhskarchrya II In the context of instantaneous motion of the planets , Bhskarchrya II was led to formulate the startling example of a differential , (Sin) = Cos. [8]. The simulated Sine table with =1", starting from the initial correct value of Sin18 produces correct values with errors of the order of 10-7 /10-8 in the vicinity of the correct value as shown in Table III. We could readily assume that in the vicinity of the exact values the differential formula was used by Bhskarchrya II for precision. It is a pity that the differential calculus which got such a beginning , five hundred years before Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz and Issac Newton ; was not further developed in India [8], was it due to a snow blindness or due to the instability engulfing India in the 12th Century ?
SIMULATION OF THE SINE TABLE ACCORDING TO THE DIFFERENTIAL RULE OF BHASKARA II IN 1 INCREMENT.

Arc Error
18 19 20 21 22 23

Simulated Value
0.3090170027 0.3255681765 0.3420201797 0.3583680009 0.3746066604 0.3907312115

Sin
0.0000000000 0.0000000133 0.0000000273 0.0000000419 0.0000000570 0.0000000728

0.3090170027 0.3255681632 0.3420201525 0.3583679591 0.3746066033 0.3907311388

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24 25 26 0.4067367427 0.4226183785 0.4383712812 0.4067366537 0.4226182727 0.4383711581 0.0000000890 0.0000001058 0.0000001230

Table III. Sine Table Simulated with the Differential Rule of Bhskarchrya II
For the sake of completeness , we compare the Ptolemaic Chord Table [4] with the Siddhnta iromani

Tables to dispel the wrong notion that the Indian Sine Table lacks accuracy [2].

Arc

4 7 8 10 11 32 63

Crd [Sexagisimal] [Syntaxis Mathematica] [4] 08 22 15 14 37 27 16 42 03 20 50 16 22 53 49 63 35 25 106 55 15

Crd /120 [Decimal Equivalent] 0.06975694 0.12186805 0.13917361 0.17364814 0.19080787 0.52991898 0.89100694

Sin[Actual Values]

Sidhanta Siromani [Differential Rule] 0.06975608 0.12186897 0.13917273 0.17364782 0.19080865 0.52991931 0.89100662

Sidhanta Siromani [Pratibhgajya k Rule] 0.06975474 0.12186608 0.13916929 0.17364320 0.19080341 0.52991724 0.89100257

0.06975647 0.12186934 0.13917310 0.17364817 0.19080899 0.52991926 0.89100652

Table IV. Comparative Sine Tables of Ptolemy and Bhskarchrya II In the absence of any conclusive evidence of the Greek influence on Ancient Indian Sine Tables , we may assume that the development of the Indian Sine Table , followed an independent route culminating with Bhskarchrya II. Whereas the Ptolemaic table is based on Euclidean Theorems and Corollaries , the Indian efforts from the days of Surya Siddhnta relies more on the trigonometric identities. Early evidences validating the intuitive dating of the Siddhnta Era as 7th Century BC [6 ] are recently being published[9]. It is to be further seen whether Bhskarchrya II canons could be used for truly demanding DSP tasks. For simulating the Sine Tables of Bhskarchrya II , the g77 compiler in RedHat EL 2. 4.21 -4 Operating System configured on PIV 1.8GHz with 512K L2 Cache has been used.
Selected References.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Toomer,G.J.,The Chord Table of Hipparchus and the Early History of Greek Trigonometry, Centaurus, 1974,Vol.18,p.6-28. Tara Adamek,Penkalski,K.,Valentine,G., The History of Trigonomatry,2005, http://www.math.rutgers.edu/~mjraman Maor, Eli,Trigonometric Delights , Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1998, p. 20-40. http://press.princeton.edu Elert, Glenn,Ptolemys Table of Chords : Trigonometry in the 2nd Century,1992, http://hypertextbooks.com/eworld/chords.shtml Bpu Deva stri , Lancelot Wilkinson,Translation of the Surya Siddhanta and Siddhanta Siromani, Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta , 1861,p. 15-17 ,135-137;263-268 http://www.wilbourhall.org Swami Vijnnanda , Srya Siddhnta [ Bengali Translation and Commentary], 1909 , Reprinted, 2006,Sanskrit Book Depot, Calcutta 700006 ,p.44-51,p.327.[A monumental work available only in Bengali Language] Clark,Walter Eugene, 1930,The Aryabhatia of Aryabhata, An Ancient Indian Work On Mathematics and Astronomy, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, p.28-29. http://www.wilbourhall.org Srinivasa Iyenger , C.N.,1957, The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics, World Press , Calcutta , p.46-56,91-93, http://www.mathematik.com

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Kak,Subhas, Babylonian and Indian Astronomy :Early Connections , 2003,p.1-37; http://arxiv:physics/0301078v2[physics.hist-ph]

2008 Pradosh K Roy, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.,Calcutta 700008,India