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PART - A UNIT - 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO & ITS DYNAMICS: Electrical drives. Advantages of electrical drives. Parts of electrical drives, choice of electrical drives, status of dc and ac drives, Dynamics of electrical drives, Fundamental torque equation, speed torque conventions and multiquadrant operation. Equivalent values of drive parameters, components of low torques, nature and classification of load torques, calculation of time and energy loss in transient operations, steady state stability, load equalization. 9 Hours UNIT - 2 SELECTION OF MOTOR POWER RATING: Thermal model of motor for heating and cooling, Classes of motor duty, determination of motor rating. 5 Hours UNIT - 3 & 4 D C MOTOR DRIVES: (a) Starting braking, transient analysis, single phase fully controlled rectifier, control of dc separately excited motor, Single-phase half controlled rectifier control of dc separately excited motor. (b) Three phase fully controlled rectifier control of dc separately excited motor, three phase half controlled controlled rectifier control of dc separately excited motor, multiquadrant operation of dc separately excited motor fed form fully controlled rectifier. Rectifier control of dc series motor, chopper controlled dc drives, chopper chopper control of separately excited dc motor. Chopper control of series motor. 12 Hours PART - B UNIT - 5 & 6 INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES: (a) Operation with unbalanced source voltage and single phasing, operation with unbalanced rotor impedances, analysis of induction motor fed from non-sinusoidal voltage supply, starting braking, transient analysis. (b) Stator voltage control variable voltage frequency control from voltage sources , voltage source inverter control, closed loop control, current source inverter control, current regulated voltage source inverter control, rotor resistance control, slip power recovery, speed control of single phase induction motors. 12 Hours UNIT - 7 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR DRIVES: Operation form faced frequency supply, synchronous motor variable speed drives, variable frequency control of multiple synchronous motors. Selfcontrolled synchronous motor drive employing load commutated thryister inverter. 10 Hours UNIT - 8 INDUSTRIAL DRIVES: Rolling mill drives, cement mill drives, paper mill dries and textile mill drives. 4 Hours
Duty cycle is a repetitive load pattern over a given period of time which is expressed as the ratio of on-time to cycle period.
Short time duty In short time duty ,time of motor operation is considerably less than the heating time constant and motor cool down to the ambient temperature before it is required to operate again I f motor with continuous duty power loaded to short time duty then motor temperature rise will be far below maximum permissible temperature
Practise problem Half hour rating of a motor is 100kw .heating time constant is 80 min and the maximum efficiency occurs at 70% full load ,determine the continuous rating of the motor.
Regenerating braking
Dynamic braking
In dynamic braking connection, motor armature is disconnected from supply and connected across a resistance RB. The generated energy is dissipated in RB and RA .braking connection for separately excited motor is shown in fig
Basic equation of motor -----1 -----2 -----3

From above equation ,we can write
In case of shunt and separately excited motor field flux is constant hence
From above equation speed torque characteristic can be obtained for separately excited motor
Separately excited motor

In the case of a series machine the excitation current becomes zero as soon as the armature is disconnected from the mains and hence the induced emf also vanishes. In order to achieve dynamic braking the series field connection either reversed so that field assist residual magnetism or isolated & connected to a low voltage high current source to provide the field.
Speed torque characteristic and transition from motoring from generating for series motor is shown in fig 2
Fig 2
The series motor 220V,220A is operated under dynamic braking at twice the rated torque and 800 rpm .calculate the value of braking current and resistor .Assume linear magnetic circuit. RA=0.1?
For dc series motor torque is proportional to the square of the current,T1 during motoring mode and T2 torque during braking mode,E1 EMF induced during motoring, E2 EMF during braking
Plugging For plugging supply voltage of separately excited motor is reversed so that it assists the back emf in forcing armature current in reverse direction.
For plugging series motor
Plugging The induced armature voltage E and supply voltage V aid each other and a large reverse current flows through the armature. This produces a large negative torque or braking torque. The machine instantly comes to rest. If the motor is not switched off at this instant the direction of rotation reverses and the motor starts rotating the reverse direction. This type of braking therefore has two modes viz. 1) plug to reverse and 2) plug to stop.
Plugging
If we need the plugging only for bringing the speed to zero, then we have to disconnect the supply at zero speed by some mechanism otherwise it plugs to reverse mode. Plugging is a convenient mode for quick reversal of direction of rotation in reversible drives. During plugging also it is necessary to limit the current and thus the torque, to reduce the stress on the mechanical system and the commutator. This is done by adding additional resistance in series with the armature during plugging
For plugging series motor
Four-Quadrant Operation
ECE 442 Power Electronics

30
METHODS OF ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL
Variable armature voltage for speed control, starting, reversing and braking of dc motors can be obtained by: Ward Leonard schemes Transformer with taps Static ward Leonard scheme Chopper control When the supply is ac, Ward Leonard schemes, transformer with taps and static Ward Leonard scheme can be used. When the supply is dc, chopper control is used.
WARD LEONARD DRIVE
It consist of a separately excited generator feeding the dc motor to be controlled The generator is driven at a constant speed by an ac motor connected to 50 Hz ac mains. The driving motor may be induction or synchronous motor. When the source of power is not electrical, generator is driven by a non electrical prime mover such as diesel or gas turbine. Motor terminal voltage is controlled by adjusting the field current of the generator. When field winding voltage varied smoothly in either direction motor speed can be varied from full positive and full negative . Advantages: It inherent regenerative braking which allows efficient four quadrant operation Can be employed for power factor improvement by using a synchronous motor
TRANSFORMER AND UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIER CONTROL
Variable voltage for the dc motor can also be obtained by either using an autotransformer or a transformer with tapping (either on primary or on secondary) followed by an uncontrolled rectifier. A reactor is connected in the armature circuit to improve armature current waveform. Autotransformer can be used for low power rating. For high applications, a transformer with tapping is employed and tap changing is done with the help of an on load tap changer to avoid severe voltage transient produced due to interruption of current in open circuit transition. The scheme is employed in 25kV single phase 50 Hz ac traction. The important feature of this scheme is: Output voltage can be changed only in steps Rectifier output voltage waveform does not change as the output is reduced.
Armature voltage control using a transformer with taps and an uncontrolled rectifier
STATIC WARD LEONARD DRIVE Also known as controlled rectifier fed dc drive. Are used to get variable dc voltage from an ac source of fixed voltage. For low power applications (up to around 10kW) single phase rectifier drives are employed. For high power applications, three phase rectifier drives are used
Single phase and three phase controlled rectifier circuits
Single phase fully controlled rectifier of separately excited motor
The input ac voltage vs = vm sin? t Thyristors T1 and T2 are given gate pulse from ? to ? and T3 and T4 are given gate pulse from ?+ ? to 2?. When armature current does not flow continuously ,the motor is said to operate in discontinuous mode. When armature current flows continuously ,the motor is said to operate in continuous mode
Discontinuous conduction mode
T1 & T2 turn on at ? t= ? . Motor gets connected to the source and its terminal voltage is equal to vs . The current falls to zero after ? t= ? at ?.Motor terminal voltage becomes equal to induced voltage E of the motor. When T3 and T4 are fired at ?+ ? ,next cycle of motor terminal voltage starts.
Discontinuous conduction mode of operation
? ? +?
In a cycle of motor terminal voltage ,drive operate in two intervals 1) when motor connected to source and va=vs, ? ?? t?? 2) Zero current interval (??? t??+? )when ia=0, va=0, Drive operation is described by equation Va= Raia +La dia/dt +E = vm sin? t -------1 Va= E and ia = 0 ------------- 2
Solution of Eq1 and Eq2 has two components one due to ac source (Vm /Z )sin(? t ? ) and other due to back emf (-E/Ra) .Each of these components has in turn a transient component. Let these be represented by a K1e-t/?a , ?a=La/Ra Ia(? t)= Vm /Z *sin(? t ? ) -E/Ra + K1e-t/?a ------3
z= ?Ra2+ ? La2 , tan-1? =? La/Ra
Constant K1 can be evaluated from initial condition Ia(? )= 0 Voltage equation

?
Va = E + IaRa
?+?
Va =1/?* [ ?? vm sin? t d(? t) + ??
E d(? t)]
------ 4
On solving eq 4,we get,
Va = 1/?*[Vm( cos? cos?)+(?+? -?)E]
T= Kia and E= k? m ? m = [Vm( cos? cos?)/ k(?-? )]-[?Ra*T/k2 (?-? )]

Critical speed which separate continuous and discontinuous conduction can be calculated by substituting ? = ?+? in above equation.
continuous conduction mode
T3 and T4 are in conduction just before ? . Application of gate pulses turns on T1 and T2 at ? . Conduction of T1 and T2 ,reverse biases T3 and T4 and turns them off. Cycle is completed when T3 and T4 turns at ?+? ,causing turn off of T1 and T2
continuous conduction mode of operation
Va = 1/? * [ ??
?+?
vm sin? t d(? t)]
Va = 2vm /? cos?
? m= 2vm /? k cos? T*( Ra/k2)
Single phase half controlled rectifier control of DC separately excited motor

A single phase rectifier consist of two diodes and two thyristors.
CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE
In cycle of source voltage cycle T1 receive the gate pulse from ? to ? and T2 from (?+ ? ) to 2 ? Motor terminal voltage and current for continuous modes are shown in figure
CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE During the positive half cycle ,the motor is connected to the supply voltage through thyristor T1 (Triggered) and diode D1. The motor terminal voltage is of same wave shape as the ac source Beyond period ? ,Vs tends to reverse Is. Diode D2 gets forward biased hence armature current free wheels. Motor terminal voltage becomes zero.
CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE
DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE
During the positive cycle period ? ? ? t ? ? , T1 and Diode D1 conduct and the armature current starts flowing . Beyond ? t = ? ,the armature current decay to zero at ? t = ? , before the thyristor T2 is triggered at ? t = ? +?. Therefore the armature current is discontinuous and average output voltage is zero. In the interval ? ? ? t? ? +? , output voltage is E.
Speed equation
UNIT - 5 & 6 Induction motor drive
Torque-slip/speed characteristic
Unbalanced operation of induction motor By using symmetrical components theory unbalanced operation of induction motor can be analysed
Operation of IM under following unbalanced condition can be analysed
Unbalanced stator voltage (source voltage) Single phasing operation of IM Unbalanced impedance in rotor circuit
If balanced voltage of certain sequence is applied to stator then balanced current of same sequence flows through rotor. IM usually operated with its winding connected in delta. Application of unbalanced voltage will result in positive & negative sequence voltages.(zero sequence voltage is absent ). Hence performance IM is analysed by considering positive & negative sequence voltages and superimposing the results due to two components. Performance of IM when positive voltages are applied is exactly identical to normal operation.
Va, Vb, Vc A three phase unbalanced voltages, resolved into positive sequence Vp ,negative sequence Vn and zero sequence Vo Vp =(Va + a*Vb+a2* Vc)/3 VN=(Va +a2* Vb+ a* Vc )/3 a= -0.5+j0.866 and a2=-0.5-j0.866 Vp produces air gap flux which rotate at synchronous speed in the forward direction forward rotor speed is ? m and slip s
Positive sequence rotor current and torque can be obtained as
Negative sequence voltage produce an air gap flux rotate at synchronous speed in the reverse direction The slip Sn = ( -? ms -? m) / -? ms , Sn = (2- S)
Torque has negative sign because for negative sequence voltage the synchronous speed is (-? ms )
The rms rotor current and torque is given by
Single phasing( when supply to any one phase fails) is the extreme case of unbalanced ,when vp= vN . At zero speed ,s and sn is also equals. Starting torque is zero
Interaction between positive sequence flux & positive sequence rotor current produce positive sequence torque negative sequence flux & negative sequence rotor current produce negative sequence torque positive sequence flux & negative sequence rotor current , and negative sequence flux & positive sequence rotor current produces torque pulsating in nature. Pulsating torque causes vibration and reduce the life of motor
summary
Unbalanced operation reduces motor torque capability and efficiency To prevent burning of motor it is not allowed to run for long time when unbalanced in voltage is more than 5%. Motor should be disconnected from source whenever single phasing occurs
OPERATION WITH UNBALANCED ROTOR IMPEDANCE
STARTING OF INDUCTION MOTOR Starting arrangement is chosen based on the load requirement and nature of supply. Starting requires following features (i)Motor should produce enough starting torque to overcome friction and ,load torque and inertia of motor load system (ii) Starting current magnitude should be such that it does not cause the overheating of machine and does not cause a dip in the source voltage beyond permissible value.
When load torque during starting and motor load inertia are not large ,then starting process completes in few seconds In such application motor can always be started direct on line, provided voltage dip caused by starting current is not beyond permissible limit. When load torque during starting and motor load inertia are large ,then starting process takes long time. If motor carries large current during starting ,it will get damaged due to over heating.
Method of starting
Star delta starter
CBm and CBs are closed to start . When steady state speed is reached CBs is opened and CBr is closed to connect machine in delta.
Auto transformer starting
Reduced voltage at the starting is obtained from auto transformer Torque is proportional to the square of motor terminal voltage ,it is also reduced. CBs1 closed followed by CBs2. When motor accelerates to full speed then CBs2 is opened and CBm closed . Now CBs1 is opened to disconnect the autotransformer from supply.
Reactor starter
Starting current can be reduced by connecting a three phase reactor in series with stator. When motor reaches full speed ,reactor is bypassed. CBm closed to start the motor . After full speed is reached CBs is closed to short reactor
UNBALANCED STARTING SCHEME
It is a cheaper alternative for soft start, It consist of very high impedance in one phase of the machine. Hence machine operates with single phasing . Speed torque curve is similar to curve A. When impedance is completely removed ,speed torque curve is similar to curve B. Impedance may be variable resistor or reactor
Rotor resistance starter
Wound rotor generally started by connecting external resistance in rotor circuit Highest value of resistance is chosen to limit rotor current at zero speed. As the motor accelerates ,the section in the external resistance is cut out one by one by closing the contact C1,C2,C3 so as to limit the rotor current. Important feature of this scheme is that starting torque is high hence suitable for application requiring fast acceleration.
Part winding starter
Some squirrel cage motors have two or more stator windings which are connected in parallel during normal operation During starting only one winding is connected which increases stator impedance and reduces stator current.
Braking
Following methods are employed for braking of an induction motor. Regenerative breaking Plugging or reverse voltage braking. Dynamic (or rheostatic ) braking further categorised as a) ac dynamic braking b)Self excited braking using capacitor c)Dc dynamic braking d)Zero sequence braking
Regenerative braking
If the rotor is increased greater than synchronous speed, It converts the input mechanical energy into electrical energy which is given back to supply. It delivers active power to 3 phase line. The ? becomes greater than 90 0. The power flow reverse. Rotor induced emf and rotor current also reverse. So rotor produces torque in opposite to achieve the braking. As the electrical energy is given back to the lines while braking ,it is called regenerative braking
Plugging /reverse voltage braking

When phase sequence of the supply is reversed ,by interchanging connection of any two phases of stator with respect to supply terminal , operation shift from motoring to plugging. Reversal of phase sequence reverses the direction of rotating field .
If the slip for plugging is denoted by sn Then Sn = ( -? ms - ? m) / -? ms

Sn = (2- S) Rotor current
Torque
At the instant of switchover to plugging , slip can be upto 2 ,hence rotor induced voltage can be twice of its value at zero speed. Motor draws large current In case of wound rotor motors ,a resistance equal to twice the starter resistance is inserted in the rotor to limit braking current to starting value . This also increases braking torque
Torque speed characteristic for plugging
1) Ac dynamic braking Ac dynamic braking is obtained when the motor runs on the single phasing by disconnecting one phase from source and either leaving it open or connecting it with another phase . When connected to single phase supply ,motor can be considered to be fed by positive and negative set of three phase voltages.
The torque is not zero at zero speed For stopping motor it is necessary that the motor should be disconnected from supply at or near zero speed . This requires additional device for detecting zero speed and disconnecting motor from supply. This braking is suitable for reversing the motor. In this method mechanical energy supplied to the rotor is converted into electrical energy and wasted in the rotor resistance.
Equivalent circuit is shown in fig The value of positive and negative sequence components of currents are equal ,but corresponding torques are not equal . Net torque is resultant of positive and negative sequence torque
Synchronous motor variable speed drives
Variable frequency control Synchronous speed is directly proportional to frequency. Motor speed can be controlled by varying the frequency .
Modes of variable frequency control

True synchronous mode
self controlled mode
True synchronous mode Stator frequency is controlled from an independent oscillator Frequency is changed gradually to desire value. When desired frequency is reached then rotor pulls into step.
In self control mode The stator supply frequency is changed. Variable frequency converter control pulses are derived from rotor position encoder mounted on rotor shaft.
Variable frequency control synchronous motors (true synchronous mode)
This method of speed control is popular in multiple synchronous motor drive( fibre spinning mill) . All motors are connected in parallel to the same inverter so that they move in synchronism corresponding to command frequency. Drive operate in true synchronous mode Frequency command f* is applied to inverter through delay circuit . Phase voltage command Vs* is generated through function generator(where voltage is maintained proportional to frequency). Voltage fed inverter is supplied through utility line through diode rectifier and LC filter

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Basic equation of motor -----1 -----2 -----3

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Separately excited motor

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For plugging series motor

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For plugging series motor

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ECE 442 Power Electronics

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METHODS OF ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL

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