000419-071 Ochoa, Melissa Mr.Dunn TOK P.

2 External Assesment 20 April 2011 Word Count: 1,259 What is it about theories in the human sciences and natural sciences that make them convincing? Valid and Reliable Theories The human race has undergone a revolutionary level of change in the past few centuries; whether it be the development of scientific theories such as Copernicus heliocentric theory or Freuds stages of psychosexual development. A theory can be defined

as a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations (Weiten 38). The use of and trust in scientific theories can be accredited to the extensive amount of research and evidence supplied. Intricate studies using the scientific method have also led to exemplary scientific development, most of which we can relate to our everyday lives. When it comes to the advancement of Areas of Knowledge such as the Human and Natural Sciences, theories must be accurate, credible, and convincing to avoid disapproval or scrutiny from other scientists. Experiments must have trustworthy sources and rely on abundant amounts of previous research and testing in order to form laws and theories dealing with either the physical world and the phenomena of the laws of nature or the human mind and behavior. Both qualitative and quantitative data found should be both valid and reliable in order for the theory to be plausible. In order for this to be possible, variables should be controlled and

000419-071 isolated, measured and recorded precisely, and experiments should be repeated to ensure accurate results. The convincingness of a particular investigation and its results determines whether it will become a theory, be used in future scientific advancements, be revised or refined by scientific advancements or be immediately disapproved. The effectiveness of theories in the natural sciences can be associated with their consistent use of quantitatively proven data and repetition of the testing used to obtain this information. This domain of science relies on the empirical aspect and systematic way of studying things called inductivism; which is also well known as the scientific method. This

multi-step process allows experiments to be controllable, precisely measurable and eventually have the option of being repeatable. These three key factors that the scientific method brings greatly aid in the convincingness of a theory as they amplify their quantitative proof, bringing factual appeal to people. A prime example of a theory in the sciences which has been considered convincing and reliable is the way planets in our solar system revolve and rotate around the Sun. This has now become common knowledge due to the technology, procedures, and data scientists have gathered to observe and analyze. With the information scientists have learned, they are now able to predict and explain many things such as seasons, tides, and lunar eclipses. As technology and laws are modified or improved, some theories may be disproved or lose value as a scientific truth. By following the exact procedure and proving the hypothesis, scientists may be a step closer to identifying or explaining the functions or reasons behind different processes and phenomena. The quantitatively appealing aspects of the Area of Knowledge of the Natural Sciences make results thorough and exact, which greatly contributes to the certainty and effectiveness of a theory.

000419-071 Unlike the sector of Natural Science, the Human Sciences do not mainly rely on the use of quantitative evidence but rather develop techniques to precisely measure qualitative observations. When testing hypotheses, the researcher may have trouble measuring the abstract concept precisely, so data collection techniques have been developed in order to

measure qualitative observations. The qualitative data that validates theories in this domain of science are directly correlated with the often used methods of complex studies such as naturalistic observations, case studies or surveys. The United States Census Bureau uses nationwide surveys in order to track and analyze the progress and tendencies of the US population as a whole. This type of investigation on a large group of people by a reliable source makes it convincing to an individual. A social observation was conducted by a researcher, Triplett, who found another common tendency referred to as group dynamics. He conducted an experiment in which groups were asked to wind some thread and others would wind the thread alone. This brought him to the conclusion that people had the tendency to work better and faster in a group as opposed to working alone (Weiten 677). Another example of a theory developed in the human sciences that can be considered convincing although it is frequently criticized is Freuds psychosexual developmental theory. This theory was gradually developed after a series of case studies and observational findings supported the hypotheses. The human sciences are primarily convincing due to the fact that one can relate the behaviors described in certain theories to oneself or those around us. There are several factors that may affect the convincingness of a theory that are not associated with the experimental, factual and observational methods used in both the Areas of Knowledge of Natural Science and Human Science. The first and foremost is the ability for the language, perception and reason to be manipulated. Factors that can influence

000419-071 the convincingness of a theory is the rhetorical skill with which it is presented and the tact with respect to popular beliefs and procedures which may be contradicted and threatened by

the theory. The way a certain theory is worded can directly affect how it convinces a reader or listener when a theory is first presented to them. Language is very ambiguous and has many twists and turns to it that can alter the essential basics of a theory, therefore making it seem either more or less convincing to an individual. The second is the ability for the researcher or audience to reason out a certain theory in a different manner. Although scientists are aware and attempt to avoid it, both Areas of Knowledge, Natural and Human Sciences, may encounter problem such as bias or the observer effect in which the way the scientist views a certain phenomenon can affect the results. In order to refrain from biased claims, experiments are replicated by other scientists and discussed or approved by the scientific community before they can be shared with the public. If the evidence found proves the hypothesis, then scientists will be assured of their theory, but if the findings fail to support the hypotheses then the scientists must correct, edit, or completely discard the theory. Some theories may be widely accepted at some point in time but as technology becomes more readily available, or other ideas emerge, these theories may have to be amended. For example, the celestial body, Pluto, was the 9th planet but recently this idea was altered and the word planet had to be redefined. So when does a proposed theory become an accepted theory? According to Popper any theory that resists our best efforts to falsify it should be provisionally accepted (Lagemaat 237). The experimental methods used in the natural sciences as well as the complex studies exploited in the human sciences affect the convincingness of a certain theory. In natural science the empirical facts and precise mathematical findings are confirmed and

000419-071 may develop into accepted theories. In Human Sciences one can be convinced by observational findings and the theories can even be applied to personal life experiences for credibility. Quantitative and qualitative findings can refute a theory factually, providing detailed written evidence to a reader, or they can back up a theory by providing proof based on statistics or recorded observations. When a theory is published in a science journal or textbook it will have already undergone the strictly accurate procedures of inductivism and

any discrepancy in the findings will have already been dealt with; for these reasons people are convinced of said theories.

000419-071 Works Cited

Van De Lagemaat, Richard. Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2005. Print. Weiten, Wayne. Psychology Themes and Variations. 6th ed. Belmont, Calif. ; London: Wadsworth, 2004. Print.