Video Game Literacy: What Can Games Teach Us About Learning and the Future?

Laurence Nairne

ABSTRACT. This paper intends to argue for the case of using video games to educate specific types of problem solving and future planning literacies. We will discuss game design, with a focus on the methods of encouraging continued effort and engagement from the end user. We analyse the interrelationship of system and play with a focus on rewards and dynamic, rapid feedback, questioning why these virtual rewards are so desirable to the player, despite having no real world value. We will dissect the persuasive nature of video games to assess procedural rhetoric, and see how this facilitates the creation of paratexts by members within gaming communities. We will contextualise this argument by considering how social change can be instigated by game playing experience, and how we can utilise the stimulation that video games provide to translate these skills into real world pursuits.

THE WHY. Gaming literacy [] is the ability to understand and create specic kinds of meanings. [It] is based on three concepts: systems, play, and design. All three are closely tied to game design, and each represents kinds of literacies that are currently not being addressed through traditional education. (Zimmerman, 2008: 24-25). In the above quote, Eric Zimmerman defines what one can consider to be the foundations of video game literacy. However, it is a rather single minded summary, from a paper which covers a very specific area, and does not begin to cover the multitude of practical issues that arise when contemplating its application. There are a great many theories and intellectual positions that complicate this literacy, and many more misconceptions that confuse its potential role in modern education. In light of this, I will collate my research into what I consider to be the most logical order, taking pieces of the various hypotheses that work together. Through this I will compile a document that will highlight the skills that video games can provide for education, producing my own thesis to provide the beginnings of a developed understanding of the literacy. For the sake of clarity, we must begin with the knowledge of video game design, and the interrelationship between the three sub-categories mentioned in the quote above. In order to realise the potential of game literacy, we must first be aware of the literacies that are required in the modern day world, literacies that, as Zimmerman explains, are not yet being covered in mainstream education (2008). Todays western civilisation (and increasingly that of the third world) is built upon a vast matrix of intersecting systems. When discussing systems, it is easy to think in terms of the technological examples that provide for our everyday requirements. To stop here, however, is to overlook the systems that we, ourselves, put in place to run our lives efficiently. For example, social circles work within systems of rules that dictate the kind of behaviour that is acceptable, and in a working environment, there is usually a web of specific roles within the workforce, and all positions interact with one another to keep the processes running smoothly. At this stage, one needs to be clear of the fact that, in order to deliver for the needs of the future, we must recognise how we; as citizens of a global community, network through these systems in our everyday lives, and we must acknowledge the importance of educating this to the next generation.

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The problem is twofold however. Marc Prensky, global keynote speaker and author of Digital Game Based Learning (2007) writes that todays learners are receiving more of an education from the world wide web through self-driven research and globe spanning discussions in forums, that traditional models of teaching just arent supplementing. He argues that the teachers of today mostly deliver lessons through presenting scripted content in one direction without any hint of discussion or evaluation as it has always done (2007). However, this is no longer enough to enlighten a youth for life in the modern world and the situation is perfectly described in a quote from the same theorist: in the twenty-first century our kids grow up in the light, connected to the world [] long before they ever go to school. [] rather than building [] on their knowledge and connections, we instead cut off all their external links and, as they enter our school buildings, bring them back into darkness. (Prensky, 2007) Game literacy is a proposed model for the sole purpose of nurturing the development of the problem solving and future thinking skills required in todays world, whilst also tackling the issue of engagement in schools, incorporating a hugely popular form of media entertainment that carries a rich vault of educational properties. Of all media, video games have the clearest defined, interactive system. Each game is built upon a set of rules, regardless of how regimented or open minded they may be. A person interacts with the game in order to become more knowledgeable about its system. The initial driving force to play a game is based in the desire to be entertained, but what keeps us engaged is our natural human drive to learn and innovate. In a game world, we as players engage both actively and reactively. We use tools given to us to perform tasks within a virtual environment in order to complete objectives, or discover new regions. But we react to the rules placed down by the system or represented realities which govern the real world that we carry with us into our game experience. In a game like The Sims (Maxis, 2000); a game of creation and nurture, one might create a mod to further diversify the physical, social or ecological requirements of created sims in the hope of adding further realism to the experience, or on the other hand, neglect them with the intent to investigate their resilience to a severe lack of their simulated essentials. It is this playfulness; pushing the boundaries and exploring in game possibilities in response to the ideals and tools given to us by the system that so beautifully exemplifies how realistic systems can and should work.

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Linking with the ability to manipulate relatively malleable simulations, I acknowledge that there is continual concern over how this might affect children and adolescence where violent games are concerned. I am also aware of the extensive coverage of this topic and thus, will not be discussing this at any point in this paper. One can elaborate on this issue by clarifying that the need for children who are literate in games is not rooted in their ability to use the systems that games provide, but in their ability to understand and digest the messages and arguments presented to them during game play, to discuss and collaborate on solutions to the complex problems that game systems present, and to feel comfortable in failure with the confidence to try all manner of approaches, assured of eventual success. We need to communicate the importance of translating that very real human effort committed to game play into the real world to tackle the problems that the future holds, by constructing simulated environments and scenarios designed around these issues. For one to feel compelled to action, game design teaches us that the player must feel a sense of ownership over the consequences, and we must see the effects of these actions to be motivated to commit to further interaction. Never before has the need to encourage play been greater. Never has it been more important to challenge a child or adolescent to explore the systems they interact with. Traditional literacies teach fact, ideology, politics and ecology. Game literacy aims to teach how to apply these literacies to develop an innovative and progressive system in which we actively and collectively work to solve local and global scale problems. The use of video games in learning is not a brand new idea. Researchers such as Kaveri Subrahmanyam in his paper, Effect of video game practice on spatial skills in girls and boys (1994) and Catherine Beavis in her essay, Computer Games, Culture and Curriculum (1998) explored some of the cognitive impacts of video game playing, with Beavis directing her research more comprehensively towards education. In the United Kingdom, video game use in learning is still tentative, and the only games deemed worth consideration are those known as serious games, or edutainment games. Michael Gove, the Secretary of State for education, stated that he backed the use of video games in education. He is quote here to signify a commonly misguided perception of how game study can be useful to learning, When children need to solve equations in order to get more ammo to shoot the aliens, it is amazing how quickly they can learn. (2011). Video games must become more influential than simply a method of offering a trivialised version of other literacies, and I will be presenting this paper along this line of thought. 3 Laurence Nairne

THE HOW. We will be studying game literacy via the particular focuses of understanding game as a construct, understanding game as a media and the importance of game community. In all of this, we shall analyse the significance of mastering the system-player (or active party) interrelationship and how that knowledge can be transferred into the real world. Throughout, games will be highlighted and studied to illustrate the specific points that are raised. To fully explore game literacy, we will begin by conducting a better evaluation of play. Play is integral to all that game literacy aims to achieve. It is the driving force of anyone to become engaged in a game, be it digital or physical. We will be consulting theorists such as Tom Chatfield (2010), Lev Vygotsky (1966), Stuart Brown (2009), and Marc Prensky (2005; 2007) to establish the connection between instinctual play and the attraction of video gaming. This research will move forward into the process of developing an understanding of game via its construction. That is to say we shall begin developing the basis of video game literacy in light of Zimmermans system, play and design theory (2008). This will be a key focus on how the three react to each other within a game space. It is a distinct study of the dynamic relationship between the player and the designed system. Without this we open ourselves to the mistake of trying to build a house without the bricks, so to speak. To take only a structural perspective is to overlook the emotive engagement a player experiences however. Subject of this, we must consider the process of producing meaning from the communication between the player and the games system. This section will address the persuasive nature of specific unit operations within the game code that work to impart ideological concepts. It will seek to discern the importance of paratexts in evaluating the motivations of gamers and their experiences of game culture. The intention here is to highlight these persuasive and influential characteristics that lace the design of computer game systems, so that we might better understand how to harness these skills in teaching. For the final section in this paper, we will collate our findings to establish how video games might be used to inspire the next generation to engage in learning that will give them the knowledge and skills they need to innovate for the future. We will consider the research of the likes of Tom Chatfield with his book Fun Inc. (2010) and his talk on the ways in which games reward the brain (2010), and studying 4 Laurence Nairne

the works of Jane McGonigal on games that hope to stimulate players to acts of greatness in their physical lives (2007; 2010) . We will cover the potential of continual dynamic refinement of educational paradigms via the feedback of vast a mounts of collected data during playing time and revisit our research in a conclusive summary. PLAY. So far we have a vague outline to our focus of research. We have a plan of study and an array of theory to cover in the coming pages. To begin, in order to accept video games as a learning tool, one must understand how playing is inherently linked to mental development and fully appreciating ones own humanity. Lev Vygotsky in the early 30s researched into play with regards to its significance in our mental development as children. While this research predates video games by a long shot, his findings do hold a large amount of relevance to how we play within those game spaces (1966). In Play and Its Role in the Mental Development of the Child (1966), Vygotsky argued that the desire to play is to develop our perceptions of the world around us, or as he says it, From the point of view of development, the fact of creating an imaginary situation can be regarded as a means of developing abstract thought (1966: 28). This definition can be extended to mean that all games are imagined abstract spaces, where the focus is to consider the hypothetical, to explore all that is possible in that space. Dr. Stuart Brown, founder of the National Institute for Play, argues that play in and of itself is an unproductive activity by necessity, that adult play especially, requires it to be down time outside the mundane. However, with this in mind, he writes that this down time does not only invigorate us with the motivation to be more productive and enthusiastic than one could be without any play, but that we as human beings are built for the process of play, in that, when we play we are acting in the purest form of our humanity and individuality (2009). He sums this up with, Play [] is the basis of all art, games, books, sports, movies, fashion, fun, and wonderin short, the basis of what we think of as civilization. Play is the vital essence of life (Brown, 2009: 11). This paper is focused on the attributes of video games that lend themselves to this kind of learning. The ideas of play just discussed, take equal measure in explaining how we as a species have come to dominate the globe through exploration, trial and error, and eventually innovation. Chatfield explains that the thrill we experience when learning should come as no surprise when the very foundations of our evolution and survival have depended upon the desire and aptitude for that learning (2010). 5 Laurence Nairne

Prensky argues that game based learning has a place in modern education due to two reasons. First, he acknowledges that, having grown up surrounded by digital technology and video games, the younger generations now engage with, and process information in different ways to that of any generation that has come before. Secondly, he believes that motivation tactics that once worked for students in the past, no longer work for students today. He reasons that learning requires effort on part of both the educator and the learner. For this effort to be reciprocal, it is necessary for a student to be motivated adequately. This, he figures, is where game based learning can succeed (Prensky, 2005). In light of this, one can venture to argue that todays youths have returned to a more natural and instinctual form of learning; one that humanity has long forgotten the importance of (Prensky, 2007). Gaming literacy seeks to bond this organic act of play with the growth of human innovation and understanding. Only through the analytical study of video games construction, can we begin to understand how influential play is becoming. GAME AS A CONSTRUCT. The importance of these principles was emphasised by Zimmerman in his paper Game Literacy: Game Design as a Model for Literacy in the Twenty-First Century. A game requires rules and play for it to be a game, as was understood by Vygotsky (1966). They are intrinsically dependent on each other in order to reach full potential. Every game is designed with the intention of making the player an expert at specific tasks. The purpose for this is to empower the player and induce the feeling of what Jane McGonigal explains as an epic win (2010). The level of data research that video games developers acquire from their consumers is far greater than that of any other industry (Chatfield, 2010), as I will later discuss. These epic win moments are possible as a result of this research, with the sole intention of encouraging consumers to spend more money on future titles, and fund the industry. Via the process of immediate feedback and visual prompting, a game system educates a player to be better at interacting with it. The system of a game compiles all of the constraints and methods dictated by the design. It provides the structure to a world to motivate a player to learn with some level of focus. Whilst this immediately seems to explain a system as purely restrictive, not all of the rules are such. For example, in the recent title Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (2011); a largely open world game, one effect of those rules is that, for the purpose of rising above the multitude of challenging encounters with enemies of varied levels and abilities, one must explore, meet smaller challenges, and slowly but surely get stronger and more 6 Laurence Nairne

knowledgeable. In this regard, game systems are also motivational forces that drive us to improve our playing abilities within that space. However, the wealth of meaning discovered by the player is incalculable. Regarding Skyrim (2011) further, a player has a vast amount of freedom to take their own decided path through a great wealth of quests, without any requirement to even commit to the main questline. One can simply explore the world, be a travelling tradesman or an alchemical practitioner without doing so much as the introductory missions. The tools provided by the system are a product of the initial designs which allow for this relative freedom. The player takes these tools to create a unique experience that produces a selfdictated level of success or failure that neither design nor system could have previously comprehended in its entirety. Zimmerman gives the example of a chess game to explain the link between system and play. Before the game is initiated, the pieces are small wooden statues without any specifically defining features. When play begins, they form their respective roles, governed by the rules of the game (2008). To elaborate, in chess, the system of the game dictates that each piece has a set of possible moves, and in no circumstance can they breach those restrictions. However, those rules teach nothing of the strategies required to master chess. There can be no meaning within the system aside the hierarchical importance of each piece, dictated by its usefulness (aside the king). The same can be said for play. Without the system of rules in place for the pieces, the game comprises of nothing but a series of meaningless moves without a rigid format to govern the success or failure of a manoeuvre. Also, there are no ambitions to be realised in such a game without the system defining objective of pinning down the king in checkmate, and thus, no potential for strategy. The major difference between the relationship of play and system in most modern video game as opposed to a board game, is that much of the rules of the system are emergent through play as opposed to being defined before play begins. Will Wright, creator of The Sims (2000) and Spore (2008), wrote that the modern child with a new video game does not first pick up the manual before plugging in. Instead they press buttons until they understand the rules and methods of play. He argues that this seemingly random process is actually scientific method, and that a player begins to understand the system through trial and error until they master the art of navigating the game space (Wright, 2006). The importance of being literate in the systems in games and how we interact with them is to recognise how that knowledge directly translates into an understanding of the systems that govern our ecologies, and the confidence to play with their structures with the intent to improve or better experience them. 7 Laurence Nairne

Being literate in systems is to be focused on the process rather than the result. It is to be aware of the constantly shifting parameters of dynamic relationships between the individual elements that the system contains (Zimmerman, 2008). To be literate in play is to actively participate in, and strive to improve the systems we interact with. It encourages the kind of creative proficiencies required in modern society for innovation and progress, proficiencies that have resulted in the video games industry being currently worth $74 billion (Biscotti et al., 2011) thanks to the progress that game developing studios are making in creating dynamic and engaging virtual worlds. With the intention of illustrating system, play and design, one can study the online feature of Assassins Creed: Revelations (Ubisoft, 2011). The central focus here is to determine the mechanics and features that the system utilises to encourage a player to interact productively within it. Its basic premise is a training facility for budding assassins (or Templars narratively speaking) to hone their skills for this role. Across all game modes, the basics are the same. You have a series of targets to kill, whilst there will be at least one other player with you as their target. This is the case in most games where the focus is to kill an opponent, which I define as digital tag games, due to their uncanny similarity to the childhood playground game. However, the difference in this particular game is that its not a simple case of running after the target and fending off your pursuer. All players assume the visage of a chosen avatar, and there are dozens of computer controlled players who share those avatars. Whilst you, in most game modes, know the visage of your target, it is often a case of distinguishing them from the crowd. This is both aided, and hindered by the use of abilities and perks. For assailants, these range from a vision mode that momentarily allows you to see your target lit up in blue, to a selection of projectiles to incapacitate, or disadvantage opponents. Likewise, defenders have access to tools like disguises, that change the appearance of the players avatar to one of the others (particularly tricky when your pursuer relies on a small image of their target in the top right of the user interface on screen for a short period of time, and an ability called morph which changes all surrounding computer players within a nearby group to all don the same avatar as the player using it. This isnt the entire picture of the systems design though, and the conditions of play are encouraged via reward. Like the chess game, it is not enough to simply take pieces at any moment possible, as this leads to a poor game in which strategy and objective become obscured and redundant. Each kill the player achieves is awarded a score calculated in terms of experience points. The higher scores are reserved for those who play cautiously and tactically. As points are gained, one moves from level to level, each one requiring a larger amount of invested time. For consistently playing calculatedly, game 8 Laurence Nairne

players will unlock the aforementioned perks and abilities quicker than others, giving them an edge in game. As an addition to this, more control is given to the player in terms of those unlocked skills. It is not enough to reach the level where these are available, but one must choose the abilities they wish to add to their roster by buying them with their accumulated XP. Immediately this opens up an entire realm of individual play styles, with strategies being formulated to deal with defence and attack. This type of staggered reward structure is an elaboration of the ideas covered by Chatfield (2010). The willingness to master stealthy and tactical play is motivated by seeing the usefulness of this talent from other, more masterful players, and by the nature of the extra perks and skills, which are all clearly visible in the advancement ladder. Moreover, continual feedback appears onscreen after every successful contracted kill is completed. A score break down shimmers into view in the user interface making you vividly aware of how clever your approach was. It will measure the stealth, the creative flair and a tally of other conditions, giving overt encouragement to continue operating in such a manner, or improve tactics in the event of a poorly timed hit. With so many varying ways to hunt and avoid being hunted, this produces a gaming experience that is incredibly dynamic. The sheer depth of play style system lends itself to Zimmermans explanation of game design, in which he states, [it is] the process by which a designer creates a context, to be encountered by a participant, from which meaning emerges (Zimmerman & Salen, 2004). The context here is the obvious role play as an assassin that must out manoeuvre their opponents, both as predator and prey, putting an arsenal of abilities and equipment to use in an effective manner worthy of a trained killer. The meaning is gleaned from choices of play style and the loose narrative. The game elements and mechanics used in the online feature of Assassins Creed: Revelations (Ubisoft, 2011) come together to present a masterfully designed system in which dynamic play can exist, feedback is detailed and every effort is rewarded with experience and credit to be used on improved equipment. To reflect then, we have discovered how play is a fundamental tool of human nature to develop the mind and a keen motivational force for effort and creativity. We have seen how play works in response to the design of a system and how that system encourages playful exploration and expression through the analysis of Assassins Creed: Revelations (Ubisoft, 2011). Understanding games only by how the system encourages play is only the tip of the iceberg when considering how we interact with them, however. If we are to evaluate the effectiveness of conveying messages, persuasive arguments and meaning during gameplay, we must further develop our vision of representation in a game world, and appreciate the value of game experience within the wider context of its media ecology. 9 Laurence Nairne

GAME AS A MEDIA. Misunderstandings often occur when considering the potential of using video games in education, which includes the likes of Michael Gove in the quote I gave earlier in this paper. In Reading at Risk (2004), it speaks as one concerned with the domination of modern digital media, as if traditional literacies are witnessing their final days. Standard methods for teaching traditional literacies - such as skill-and-drill - dictate that learning flows in one direction, from the top down, using repetition until the lesson is learnt. Within this method, there is little room for developing contextual understanding. The emphasis lies with the knowledge of the facts, as opposed to the contextual placement of those facts in the system processes that govern our lives. At this juncture I give an example of my experience of studying philosophy between the ages of sixteen and eighteen. When I would question the theories set in front of me for study, I would receive the same response from my teacher: You dont have to believe it; you just have to understand it. In a subject designed to explore reason and develop understanding of our existence, this reaction exemplifies the lack of context within a curriculum for a discourse intended to develop abstract thinking. To deny a student the right to challenge and explore the theory, is to deny them the establishment of a personal, contextual understanding of philosophy in its entirety. Prensky signifies this as the removal of the student from the lesson. He states that education is only concerned with the decisions that authorities are going to make regarding students, and rarely includes an effective influence from the learners themselves. This is arguably allowing education systems to stagnate and become ineffective (2007). Considering game as a media is to understand processes of interaction and the sharing of our experiences. To fully understand this, we must first establish the intricate communications between game system and player through procedural rhetoric. In Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of Video Games (2007), Ian Bogost invents this concept as a purely digital dialectical framework. It focuses on symbolic representations authored by a computer system - made possible by the authoring of programmed code in the design. Whilst Bogost goes into great depth to determine the history of dialectical rhetoric dating as far back as Socrates, he also places great emphasis on establishing a rhetoric that effectively encompasses the ability of computer systems to present persuasive arguments and effectively express ideas. He states that procedures are not so much the rigid, constricting boundaries within a system (as they are often deemed) as they are a series of intersecting operational

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parts of a much larger context from which action, meaning and consequence derives. He labels them unit operations and amounts a range of examples to emphasise his point. To use one of these examples, he describes the in-store returns policy of a hypothetical outlet. His particular illustration is the scenario of buying a faulty DVD player, and not having the free time to return it within the refund period. He argues that, should the customer attempt to return the product in-store, a customer services representative may refuse the return, or allow it based on other information, such as the pleaded case of no free time, or the fact that the subject in question is a frequent customer. Though this is commonly understood as a breach of normal protocol, or breaking procedure, Bogost insists that this is simply the intersecting of other procedures within the context of customer service, that is; the returns policy is being evaluated against the protocol for improving customer satisfaction, personal morale procedures of empathy or familiarity, and often the procedure for customer complaints (2007). He goes on to elaborate that digital versions of returns policy procedures are not more constricting because they follow that procedure without question, but that they have simply been designed to be basic, and not built with these interrelating procedures in mind (2007). This concept is hinged somewhat, on the theory of Kenneth Burke that, wherever there is persuasion, there is rhetoric. And wherever there is meaning, there is persuasion (1950: 172). By this definition, a construct such as a video game, where meaning is derived dynamically between arguments constructed by the system, and player interaction is procedurally rhetorical. Sim City 4 (Maxis, 2004) is effectively a system heavily dependent on a vast amount of procedures. It simulates the construction, development and management of a city, with the aim being to increase the population, fill the city bank and maintain a peaceful balance between public servants, citizens and advisors whilst making good on trade agreements with neighbouring businesses. You play the mayor and have to straddle the line between tyrant and idealist in what becomes as much of a moral battle as it is a lesson in logic, statistics and financial budgeting. Extending from the classical angel and devils advocate on each shoulder, you are lobbied by a panel of advisors that haunt your every decision. There are, understandably hundreds of discrete unit operations at play throughout. In real time, roads will degrade, fires will run amok in places not covered by a fire department, and if public unrest becomes unanimous, riots begin to appear on the streets. Each of these operations coexist with each other and to quell such a riot, one could simply increase spending in the police department, or amend

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taxation and health spending until the public are satisfied. Each decision carries the weight of consequence and feedback is something that is progressive and often problematic for a plan of action. All of these minor instances amount to creating the rhetoric of Sim City 4 and interestingly enough, that rhetoric here is one which may exist intentionally, or as a subconscious assumption about how a society must work based on an ingrained western ideology. To use the term loosely, in order to win, one must create a city that is continually growing, with small businesses inevitably having to be replaced with department stores and centres of commerce over small outlets and off licenses. It holds public approval, health and safety and transit as subordinate focuses to productivity. In all, each unit operation comes together with the intention to represent an idealistic capitalist utopia. Whilst Bogost speaks generally of procedural rhetoric as a digital rhetorical framework, we can consider video games as a highly persuasive and vivid example of this (Bogost, 2007). He considers the dialectical nature of procedural rhetoric and argues that one need not be able to directly counter representations and ideologies in the interface - that it is not necessary to amend the rules of play within a game for example - as dialectics [] function in a broader media ecology (Bogost, 2007: 37). This brings us onto the place and purpose of paratexts. In Gaming Capital: Rethinking Literacy (Walsh & Apperley, 2009) they are defined as the physical manifestation of gaming capital created within game communities, but existing independently from the virtual worlds they represent. Furthermore, they are the agents of the forming of relationships between members of any given game community (2009). In Fun Inc. (2010), Chatfield states that, From the first time I sat up all night with a group of friends, chewing over the best strategies for victory in the fiendishly complex game version of The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy, to my current weekly raids at the top end of World of Warcraft, it has always been my experience that the best games are triggers for discussion, reading and writing not an end to it (2010: 3). Chatfield here demonstrates a natural human process of sharing our experiences with others belonging to similar circles of interest. Words are still our primary source of expressing ourselves. Media is not only powerless to overcome this dependency, but absolutely relies on it. Video games are no exception to this rule, and as narrative and interactive sources of debate and discussion, they work as catalysts for creativity and expression via the mediums of media and literature (2010). 12 Laurence Nairne

In the triple A, first person shooter series Halo (Bungie, 2001) there are six titles at the time of writing, with a high definition remake of the original game and the promise of a sequel due this year. Three of these titles - Wars (Ensemble Studios, 2009), ODST (Bungie, 2009) and Reach (Bungie, 2010) - delve into the mythos beyond the central story of Master Chief and in this respect, are interactive paratexts themselves. Moreover, Halo: Reach (2010) tells a version of the prequel to the events of the central trilogy, a story that was originally penned by Eric Nylund in Fall of Reach (2001), thus highlighting the cyclical nature of game community development. There are a further ten published novels by various authors (Nylund, 2003; Dietz, 2003; Buckell, 2008) - with the promise of at least another four - amongst a significant number of art books, encyclopaedias and graphic novels. More interestingly, however, is the grand scale of paratexts produced by the amateur members of any given game community. These paratexts are all, first and foremost an expression of personal perspective, Be they simple FAQs and walkthroughs, or video compilations of skill or humour. WoWWiki was once the primary resource for information on World of Warcraft (Blizzard, 2004) and in early 2010 it reached 80,000 articles, marking it as the top specialised wiki in the world, and flaunted between 400,000 to 500,000 daily readers (WoWWikki, 2010). As a website devoted to the written word, this only serves to reinforce our most fundamental of literacies language - and allows for the practice of skills in research, analysis, evaluation, and contextualising those findings with meaning. From this, we can be lead to question what can be gleaned from understanding these aspects of game design and culture. By acknowledging the persuasive power of video games to create meaning and express specific ideas, we can develop methods of applying this to the games we might use to educate. In discussing the rapid feedback that video games provide, Chatfield argues that its difficult to understand issues like global warming and pollution when the consequences are seemingly so disconnected from our daily lives. He argues that, by giving people contextual objects to manipulate, they will understand and learn the lesson (2010). One could extend this for the purpose of introducing global scale problems and initiatives into these simulated environments to inspire analytical investigation, experimentation with tools and environments, and consequently provide the groundwork for innovative ideas.

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Moreover, from what we understand about paratexts, we can deduce that there is a very natural drive and indeed, pleasure attributed to the consumption and expression of contextual information that holds meaning within a given community, here represented by game culture. Such habits are considerably useful for collaboration and - with the online presence of video games - harnessing mass awareness. To recapitulate, we have established how games work to provide constant feedback of progress to the player, rewarding effort and attainment respectively to encourage the continuation of engagement (Chatfield, 2010; Zimmerman, 2008). We know that game systems author representations through the coding, and that this presents a system of procedural rhetoric as unit operations intersect and create meaning (Bogost, 2007). We have acknowledged that many of us as game players explore these arguments and use them as fuel for our own discourses within gaming communities to engage with others as a natural process of social identification and to dynamically contribute to the creative and intellectual growth of those communities (Walsh & Apperley, 2009). CONTEXTUAL LEARNING. This knowledge of the inner workings of video games and the interactions they facilitate is of little use to us without context, however. The avatars we control within a game world are designed purely for the purpose of educating us in their specific perspectives and agendas. Through the simulated representations of life and interaction - which seek to motivate us to explore and solve the problems that the narrative introduces to us - we form our own perceptions and develop them through discussion with others and expressing ourselves, whether it falls within the confines of the game or beyond in the likes of forums, blogs and wikis. If we understand how play affects our mental development and the complexity of interactive systems that satisfy our natural desire to learn and solve problems, we can begin to construct a framework for communicating explicit educational messages about current world issues utilising the powerful tools of persuasive engagement found in abundance in video games. To explore this concept, I give credit to the efforts of Jane McGonigal in working for social change through the development of alternate reality games. In 2011, she gave a sermon at the School of Lifes Sunday Sermon programme in which she discussed the nature and misconceptions of productivity. From this she deduced that the psychology theory of positive emotional relationships and meaningful accomplishment (PERMA) (Seligman, 2011) should be the motivation to be productive, i.e. that we should always strive to produce meaningful accomplishments that will benefit the world and life, that our 14 Laurence Nairne

productive work should be optimised to produce positive emotions and build on our relationships with those around us (2011). McGonigal believes that our attraction to playing games is born in our underlying desire to produce work that we know within ourselves is meaningful. From this she argues that games provide us with experiences that allow us to exist in a movement that is much greater than ourselves. They give us constant reward for our steady progress towards the climax of a consequential journey, determining the fate of the world we explore (2011). Through the constant feedback that we discussed in our analysis of game design, and the persuasive rhetorics presented in the code that we discovered in our evaluation of the media ecology of games, we are made to care for these virtual environments and scenarios. In short, McGonigal argues that our hunger for positive emotional relationships and meaningful accomplishment (Seligman, 2011) is sated by playing games and through discussing our experiences with others in our social circles (2011). As we explored earlier, World of Warcraft (Blizzard Entertainment, 2004) and the wiki that fully and progressively explored that game is an exemplary illustration of this communication. In her discussion, she provides statistics found in her research about time spent playing and success rates. It is believed, she states, that the average adolescent gamer will have spent ten thousand hours playing video games by the age of twenty one, which includes males and females. Not only this, but eighty percent of that time consists of failed attempts (2011). This highlights a few points of discussion that are beneficial to this paper. Firstly, her figures for time spent playing overlook the hours beyond play time that consist of those gamers conferring on strategies, meaningful experiences and forming relationships through the context of gaming. If we are to adopt the perspective of Walsh and Apperley (2009), we would argue that this is the pinnacle of game literacy. Secondly, ten thousand is, McGonigal states, twenty four hours short of the time spent in education from the age of eleven to eighteen if a student had no absences. It should be clear from this that video games can no longer be dismissed as an anti-productive adolescent media, but rather, acknowledged as vessels for conveying meaning through a simulated environment specifically constructed to engage, challenge, reward and satisfy our human impulses for progress by introducing problems in a fully accessible context. Lastly, it is interesting to point out that an eighty percent failure rate during game time dictates that game playing teaches resilience, endurance and facilitates extremely high levels of motivation to succeed. Through constant encouragement, we as gamers are always aware that success is not only possible, but within reach, despite the odds and the difficulty of 15 Laurence Nairne

challenges presented, with rewards that are worth the commitment. McGonigal argues that a player will never quit a good game experience permanently because of difficulty if the rewards are calibrated effectively with the challenges (2011). The alternate reality game Evoke (Avant Game, 2010) puts these desires for a meaningful experience and the drive to innovate, learn and reap rewards irrespective of the challenge, to good use. The premise is set ten years in the future, where famines, natural disasters, pestilence and unclean water supplies are rife in particular parts of the world. Players are tasked with the role of collaborating with others in an organisation that works in secret to eradicate these problems. Unlike other games, this specifically focuses on the problems of today and tomorrow, and does this through real world action. Players do not engage with a virtual world, but take on these problems as if they were real in the physical world. They are instructed to build projects from which they can solve these issues and gain points for integrating them into their daily lives. Networking, documenting development cycles and innovative ideas all contribute to the progress of, what is effectively a dynamic experiment in dealing with the concerns of the future. More so than the video games that we as gamers play every day, these alternate reality games have tangible benefits beyond the game experience. For the world, they potentially provide real and useful ideas for the years to come, with rising water levels and world hunger becoming a larger problem as the population grows. For the players, there is the incentive that the best players and ideas will be brought forward to the attention of real social change professionals who work on bringing these projects to fruition, providing their lives with the platform to put their skills for collaboration and creative thinking into practice. Whilst McGonigal does not create video games, those same virtues of her games carry over onto a video game platform. There are pros and cons to both approaches. Whilst video games require you to perceive virtual realities through the pivot of an avatar under your explicit control, alternate reality games incorporate game elements into the physical world, with only you as the driving force for your own gaming experience. One could argue that the latter allows you to become more personally connected with the consequences and context of your play and that the experiences are more likely to be carried through to the rest of your life once the game has ended. However, digital games allow developers to create scenarios and simulations that would not be possible to effectively carry out in the real world. They can present the consequence of neglecting the 16 Laurence Nairne

conditions of success, whereas one is forced to imagine these consequences with alternate reality. Not only this, but as a tool of developing problem solving skills, they are much easier to calibrate to different levels of skill and give immediate feedback on progress, where the alternate reality games McGonigal creates rely on the presentation of progress from the players. So as not to dismiss either method of inspiring real effort into saving the world, one could argue that they complement each other in their usefulness. Video games potentially provide a sandbox for creative and innovative skills. Difficulty, specificity and intensity can be both monitored and calibrated dynamically through the design. A real time running video game can be updated regularly with patches to make adjustments based on play data readings. Alternate reality games bring the skills acquired from video game play into the real world, and place more emphasis on the application of ideas and methods. In this way, it can be seen as a dress rehearsal for the event of these problems becoming a significant reality. In his TED talk, Chatfield emphasises the value of this collected data. He states that one billion points are collected everyday via game servers to examine precisely how gamers are playing (2010). With the sheer level of financial investment that comes together to create a top selling title, developers need to know what their consumers want in an effort to secure their purchases. This covers the part of selling their product to the public, and keeping them engaged for as long as possible. One could argue that we require the same from education. For us to invest effort and time in our tutelage, we must be persuaded to see the value of literacy learning. In order for those lessons to become imprinted in our minds we require context, feedback and tangible reward for our investment, be that a lesson to be used in our lives beyond its immediate area of effect, or direct progress towards a deeper and more useful understanding of a larger framework. Furthermore, from researching this data, Chatfield defines ways in which games benefit the human mind. He covers the concepts of reward and feedback that we have already discussed, but he also focuses on the benefits of presenting progress to the player (2010). Knowing the distance left to complete tasks and objectives in learning encourages us to keep moving forward. Much of the difficulty that traditional literacy education is faced with, Prensky would argue (2005), is down to the fact that, for a student, there is little awareness of how each lesson fits into a bigger picture. These lessons seem remote, isolated, and therefore disconnected from anything but educational practice. The ability to visualise progress could arguably override this issue if the end goal is clearly visible along with the distance travelled from the start line to the finish. Moreover, Chatfield continues that, by incrementing 17 Laurence Nairne

each milestone down into smaller portions, students can make progress towards various minor goals that all collate to achieve the major target (2010). Game developers are experts at utilising this method by digesting tasks into side quests, which are accessible at the players wish, but are actively encouraged through the potential of rewards that benefit the success of the main quest. In Mass Effect 2 (BioWare, 2010), the main quest consists of fighting a threat to all civilization in the known universe. As opposed to many role playing games where the playable avatar is the lone, necessary hero, in this title, the emphasis is on building up a team of experts in order to prepare for the fight ahead. Each team member has been designed to have different skills and benefits to the mission, but it is not compulsory to enlist them all. Whilst they are instantly willing to fight for the cause, their trust in the players leadership is not infallible and it is highly beneficial to nurture relationships with them through conversation in order to gain their trust. Each character has an optional loyalty mission that is necessary for them to trust you, but not to finish the game. The benefits to the mission and to their skills are pitched at a level that makes the value in completing them vividly clear. Beyond the characters, there are missions outside of loyalty and the main plot which will allow for the development of skills and abilities, not to mention the equipment upgrades that are only obtainable through mining the worlds that can be found in ones travels and through barter in colonised systems. There is never the instruction to prepare oneself as well as possible before the inevitable climax to the story, but it is actively encouraged through conversation with ones peers and staggered interactions with the target objective, which increasingly make one aware of the large challenge ahead. In a game where choices are consequential, ignoring a lack of loyalty can result in the death of team members throughout the mission and a lack of cooperation, as well as being unprepared for the finale. In this same talk, Chatfield discusses the element of uncertainty as a vastly motivating factor in our productivity. He ventures that the rewards or solutions we seek that arent quite palpable, but remain on the verge of accomplishment, stimulate us the most. He links this with research being conducted at the likes of Bristol University (at the time of speaking) on neurological dopamine levels which facilitate our engagement in learning and reward seeking behaviour. Through this we can pin point the moments where the brain is more likely to learn and remember information (Chatfield, 2010). In video games, this information can be used to greatly affect the lasting appeal and connection to a game experience and is invariably beneficial to education. 18 Laurence Nairne

The discussion of player confidence to take action in a game has been hinted at thus far, but this is an immeasurable quality of video games. All of the previously mentioned traits all coalesce together to encourage a willingness to take risks. Where contemporary education focuses on answers to questions, video games instead emphasise the importance of the discovery of solutions (Chatfield, 2010). They tap into our evolutionarily styled learning patterns of trial and error, teaching us that progress is made through the eighty percent failure rate that McGonigal speaks of (2011). With the global issues of tomorrow, such as climate change, characterised by the likes of Dr. Gavin Schmidt (2011), and a growing level of ecological problems that are yet to be solved, it could be argued that reintroducing the virtue of exploration and experimentation at school level will be a step towards eradicating these dangers. Finally, Chatfield confirms what all our research to this point is signifying; that the opportunity to share our success with other people, and collaborate is the epitome of human motivation. Without peers to review our progress and work with towards common goals, our experiences are without substance beyond ourselves (2010). Whilst the earlier titles in game history like Sonic the Hedgehog (SEGA, 1991) and Super Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1985) depended heavily on a single player navigating through various traps and adversaries, more modern titles such as the aforementioned Mass Effect 2 (BioWare, 2010) and the likes of Battlefield 3 (DICE, 2011) focus on our interactions with others, be they artificial intelligence or real people represented by their avatars. In order to provide for future innovation, we need to focus on collaboration in the classroom and shift the emphasis of learning from the dictated resources of the curriculum via the teacher, to the dynamic generation of ideas from all members of each class as active participants in community, in which a teacher acts as a catalyst for creative, productive discussion and progress. TO CONCLUDE. If we are to encapsulate the entirety of this discussion, we must state that video games are in essence, a much larger medium than they initially appear. Our interaction with these virtual worlds is simply the foundation for a series of much more important and influential experiences. We do not simply play as a means of idle escapism, but to engage in systems that are designed to put our potential for problem solving to effective use. They are tools of encouragement, monitors of progress and vessels of satisfying rewards. We play to create meanings, explore possibilities and to 19 Laurence Nairne

actively participate in adventures much larger than ourselves. Me must distinguish this pursuit from that of wishful thinking, and instead realise that this represents our enthusiasm and willingness to be productive regardless of challenges and failure, and that games are successful in capturing this effort through the expert balance of reward (McGonigal, 2011 ; Chatfield, 2010). We must understand the power of video games to impart persuasive arguments upon us and harness this tool with an understanding of the neurological satisfaction we gain from deciphering these meanings. Not only this, but we must acknowledge that our in-game experiences far exceed the realms of the design and coding that define a game system when we create paratexts and contribute to worldwide gaming communities, and that this discussion leads to strategizing and collaboration in order to improve a system or experience it better. Furthermore, it is essential that we acknowledge that it is not simply the level of fantasy in games that motivates us to play, and that social change can be instigated through games such as Evoke (Avant Game, 2010), where players can tackle future issues through the creation of a hypothetical reality. In the words of Will Wright, Games aren't just fantasy worlds to explore; they actually amplify our powers of imagination (2006), and it can be assumed that, when considering an outcome that has yet to take place, one must use ones imagination. Finally, and most importantly, we must accept the powerful tools that video games present us with; that we might use them to educate the next generation in securing the future survival, wellbeing and progress of humanity. It is no longer acceptable to dismiss video games as idle unproductivity, and envy or fear its influential nature. It is time to put these ten thousand hours of adolescent engagement to valuable use; to create a world of experts in problem solving and future planning.

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