CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
An automatic fire alarm system is designed to detect the unwanted presence of fire by monitoring environmental changes associated with combustion. In general, a fire alarm system is either classified as automatic, manually activated, or both. Automatic fire alarm systems can be used to notify people to evacuate in the event of a fire or other emergency, to summon emergency services, and to prepare the structure and associated systems to control the spread of fire and smoke. Fire alarm systems have become increasingly sophisticated and functionally more capable and reliable in recent years. They are designed to fulfill two general requirements: protection of property and assets and protection of life. As a result of state and local codes, the life-safety aspect of fire protection has become a major factor in the last two decades.

1.2 Aim of the project

There are a number of reasons for the substantial increases in the life-safety form of fire protection during recent years, foremost of which are .The proliferation of high-rise construction and the concern for life safety within these buildings. A growing awareness of the life-safety hazard in residential, institutional, and educational occupancies. Increased hazards caused by new building materials and furnishings that create large amounts of toxic combustion products (i.e., plastics, synthetic fabrics, etc.). Vast improvements in smoke detection and. A related technology made possible through quantum advances in electronic technology. The passing of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), signed into law on July 26, 1990, providing comprehensive civil rights protection for individuals with disabilities. With an effective date of January 26, 1992, these requirements included detailed accessibility standards for both new construction and Renovation toward the goal of equal usability of buildings for everyone, mobility. This had a significant impact on fire alarm system signalling devices, power requirements, and device locations.

CHAPTER 2 HARDWARE DESIGN

2.1 RESISTOR
A Resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

I=V/R
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickelchrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.

Fig2.1 symbol of resistor The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
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2.1.1COLOUR CODING FOR RESISTOR

Fig2.2 Colour coding of resistor

2.2 CAPACITOR
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge

Fig2.3 Capacitor
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on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor. Hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance

2.2.1 Capacitor Construction

The method of construction of these electronic components is also important. In some capacitors the plates may be flat, and normally these capacitors will have rectangular, or more exactly cuboid shapes. The final stage in the construction of an electronic capacitor is to place it in a protective casing. In some instances it may be dipped in an insulating coating, in others it may be contained within a metal can. In essence the construction of an electronic capacitor is very simple, although in practice a lot of research and development has been put into capacitor technology. The basic electronics components consist of two plates that are insulated from one another. In between them there is an insulating medium known as the dielectric.

Fig2.4 Capacitor Construction

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2.2.2 TYPES OF CAPACITOR 2.2.2.1 Ceramic capacitor

Ceramic capacitors are normally used for radio frequency and some audio applications. Ceramic capacitors range in value from figures as low as a few pico farads to around 0.1 microfarads. In view of their wide range and suitability for RF applications they are used for coupling and decoupling applications in particular. Here these ceramic capacitors are by far the most commonly used type being cheap and reliable and their loss factor is particularly low although this is dependent on the exact dielectric in use.

Fig2.5 ceramic capacitor

2.2.2.2 Electrolytic capacitor

Electrolytic capacitors are the most popular type for values greater than about 1 microfarad. Electrolytic capacitors are constructed using a thin film of oxide on an aluminium foil. An electrolyte is used to make contact with the other plate. The two plates are wound around on one another and then placed into a can that is often aluminium. Electrolytic capacitors have a wide tolerance. Typically the value of the component may be stated with a tolerance of -50% +100%.

2.2.2.3Tantalum capacitor
Ordinary aluminium electrolytic capacitors are rather large for many uses. In applications where size is of importance tantalum capacitors may be used. These are much smaller than the aluminium electrolytic capacitors and instead of using a film of oxide on aluminium they us a film of oxide on tantalum. Tantalum capacitors do not normally have high working voltages, 35V is normally the maximum, and some even have values of only a volt or so.

2.2.2.4 Silver Mica Capacitor

Silver mica capacitor Silver mica capacitors are not as widely used these days as they used to be. In view of this one of their major uses is within the tuned elements of circuits like oscillators, or within filters. Values are normally in the range between a few picofarads up to two or possibly three thousand picofarads. For this type of capacitor the silver electrodes are plated directly on to the mica dielectric.

Fig2.6 silver mica capacitor

2.2.2.5 Polystyrene Film Capacitor

Polystyrene capacitors are a relatively cheap form of capacitor. They are tubular in shape resulting from the fact that the plate / dielectric sandwich is rolled together. This adds some inductance and means that they are only suitable for relatively low frequency circuits, typically up to a few hundred kHz. In view of their relatively good tolerance levels they can be used in filter circuits, etc where values are of importance. They are generally only available as leaded electronics components.

2.2.2.6 Polyester Film Capacitor

Polyester capacitor Polyester film capacitors are used where cost is a consideration as they do not offer a high tolerance. Many polyester film capacitors have a tolerance of 5% or 10%, which is adequate for many applications. They are generally only available as leaded electronics components. This type of capacitor is a essentially a form of polyester film capacitor where the polyester films themselves are metalized. The advantage of using this process is that because their electrodes are thin, the overall capacitor can be contained within a relatively small package. The metalized polyester film capacitors are generally only available as leaded electronics components

Fig2.7 Metalized Polyester Film Capacitor

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2.2.2.7 Polycarbonate capacitor

Polycarbonate capacitors have earned a place as a reliable form of capacitor for use in a number of applications where performance is critical. The polycarbonate film is very stable and this enables high tolerance capacitors to be made which will hold their capacitance value over time. In addition they have a low dissipation factor, and they remain stable over a wide temperature range, many being specified from -55C to +125C. In 2000 the Bauer Corporation announced they would be ceasing manufacture of the raw dielectric. As a result many of the manufacturers of polycarbonate ceased production. Fortunately there are a few smaller manufacturers of these capacitors, so they can still be obtained. Read more about the polycarbonate capacitor

2.2.2.8 Polypropylene Capacitor

The polypropylene is sometimes used when a higher tolerance is necessary than polyester capacitors offer. As the name implies, this capacitor uses a polypropylene film for the dielectric. One of the advantages of the capacitor is that there is very little change of capacitance with time and voltage applied. They are also used for low frequencies, with 100 kHz or so being th e upper limit. They are generally only available as leaded electronics component

2.4 DIODES
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode. A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far greater ease than in the other. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams such as Figure below. The term diode is customarily reserved for small signal devices, I 1 A. The term rectifier is used for power devices, I > 1 A.

Fig2.8 Semiconductor diode schematic symbol When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure below) When
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the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is backward and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be thought of as like a switch: closed when forward-biased and open when reverse-biased.

Fig2. 9(a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. Fig2.9 (b) Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased. Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol's arrowhead points against the direction of electron flow. This is because the diode symbol was invented by engineers, who predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics, showing current as a flow of charge from the positive (+) side of the voltage source to the negative (-). This convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing arrowheads: the arrow points in the permitted direction of conventional flow, and against the permitted direction of electron flow. Like check valves, diodes are essentially pressure- operated (voltage-operated) devices. The essential difference between forward-bias and reverse-bias is the polarity of the voltage dropped across the diode. Let's take a closer look at the simple battery-diode-lamp circuit shown earlier, this time investigating voltage drops across the various components in Figure 10

. Fig2.10 (a) Forward biased.

Fig2.10 (b) Reverse biased

A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it, leaving most of the battery voltage dropped across the lamp. If the battery's polarity is reversed, the diode becomes reverse-biased, and drops all of the battery's voltage leaving none for the lamp. If we consider the diode to be a self-actuating switch (closed in the forward-bias mode and open in the reverse-bias mode), this behavior makes sense.
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This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the depletion region formed by the P-N junction under the influence of an applied voltage. If no voltage applied is across a semiconductor diode, a thin depletion region exists around the region of the PN junction, preventing current flow. (Figure 11 (a)) The depletion region is almost devoid of available charge carriers, and acts as an insulator:

Fig2.11 Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part. The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in Figure 11(b) such that the anode (pointing end) corresponds to the P-type semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, non-pointing end, at (b) corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note that the cathode stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the cathode on the symbol. If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this depletion region expands, further resisting any current through it. (Figure below)

Fig2.12 Depletion region expands with reverse bias. Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the depletion region collapses becoming thinner. The diode becomes less resistive to current through it. In order for a sustained current to go through the diode; though, the dep. This takes a certain minimum voltage to accomplish, called the forward voltage as illustrated in figure below For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For germanium diodes, the forward voltage is only 0.3 volts. The chemical constituency of the P-N junction
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comprising the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure, which is why silicon and germanium diodes have such different forward voltages.

Fig2.13 Increasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region thickness. Forward voltage drop remains approximately constant for a wide range of diode currents, meaning that diode voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal (closed) switch. For most simplified circuit analysis, the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be considered constant at the nominal figure and not related to the amount of current. Actually, forward voltage drop is more complex. An equation describes the exact current through a diode, given the voltage dropped across the junction, the temperature of the junction, and several physical constants. It is commonly known as the diode equation:

The term kT/q describes the voltage produced within the P-N junction due to the action of temperature, and is called the thermal voltage, or Vt of the junction. At room temperature, this is about 26 millivolts. Knowing this, and assuming a nonideality coefficient of 1, we may simplify the diode equation and re-write it as such:
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You need not be familiar with the diode equation to analyze simple diode circuits. Just understand that the voltage dropped across a current-conducting diode does change with the amount of current going through it, but that this change is fairly small over a wide range of currents. This is why many textbooks simply say the voltage drop across a conducting, semiconductor diode remains constant at 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium. However, some circuits intentionally make use of the P-N junction's inherent exponential current/voltage relationship and thus can only be understood in the context of this equation. Also, since temperature is a factor in the diode equation, a forward-biased P-N junction may also be used as a temperature-sensing device, and thus can only be understood if one has a conceptual grasp on this mathematical relationship. A reverse-biased diode prevents current from going through it, due to the expanded depletion region. In actuality, a very small amount of current can and does go through a reversebiased diode, called the leakage current, but it can be ignored for most purposes. The ability of a diode to withstand reverse-bias voltages is limited, as it is for any insulator. If the applied reverse-bias voltage becomes too great, the diode will experience a condition known as breakdown.

Fig2.14 Diode curve: showing knee at 0.7 V forward bias for Si, and reverse breakdown
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2.4.1 Types of semiconductor diode

There are several types of junction diodes, which either emphasize a different physical aspect of a diode often by geometric scaling, doping level, choosing the right electrodes, are just an application of a diode in a special circuit, or are really different devices like the Gunn and laser diode and the MOSFET. Normal (p-n) diodes, which operate as described above, are usually made of doped silicon or, more rarely, germanium. Before the development of modern silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used; its low efficiency gave it a much higher forward voltage drop, and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diodes metal substrate), much larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would require. The vast majority of all diodes are the p-n diodes found in CMOS integrated circuits, which include two diodes per pin and many other internal diodes.

Fig2.15 Several types of diodes. The scale is centimeters

2.4.1.1 Avalanche diodes

Diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field across the p-n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a welldefined reverse voltage without being destroyed

2.4.1.2 Cats whisker or crystal diode

These are a type of point-contact diode. The cats whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a piece of coal.[13] The wire forms the anode and the crystal forms the cathode. Cats whisker diodes were
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also called crystal diodes and found application in crystal radio receivers. Cats whisker diodes are generally obsolete, but may be available from a few manufacturers.

2.4.1.3 Constant current diodes

These are actually a JFET[14] with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a twoterminal current-limiter analog to the Zener diode, which is limiting voltage. They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes.

2.4.1.4 Esaki or tunnel diodes

These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling, allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. Due to the high carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are very fast, may be used at low (mK) temperatures, high magnetic fields, and in high radiation environments. Because of these properties, they are often used in spacecraft.

2.4.1.5 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 V to violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. LEDs can also be used as lowefficiency photodiodes in signal applications.

2.4.1.6 Thermal diodes

This term is used both for conventional PN diodes used to monitor temperature due to their varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating and cooling.. Peltier heat pumps may be made from semiconductor, though they do not have any rectifying junctions, they use the differing behavior of charge carriers in N and P type semiconductor to move heat.

2.4.1.7Photodiodes
All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense light(photo detector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to

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pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light). A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications.

2.4.1.8 Point-contact diodes

These work the same as the junction semiconductor diodes described above, but their construction is simpler. A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp-point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the contact. The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics.

2.4.1.9 PIN diodes

A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type structure.[20] They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large volume ionizing radiation detectors and as photo detectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.

2.4.1.10 Schottky diodes

Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than p-n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers although their reverse leakage current is generally higher than that of other diodes.

2.4.1.11Gold-doped diodes
As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which help a fast recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop. Gold doped diodes are faster than other p-n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less reverse-current leakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p-n diodes). A typical example is the 1N914.

2.4.1.12 Varicap or varactor diodes

These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phaselocked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in
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television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock. A PLL is faster than an FLL, but prone to integer harmonic locking (if one attempts to lock to a broadband signal). They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator.

2.4.1.13 Zener diodes

Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes.

2.4.1.14 Rectifier Diodes

Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. They are also used elsewhere in circuits where a large current must pass through the diode. All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. The table shows maximum current and maximum reverse voltage for some popular rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage circuits with a current of less than 1A. Table2.1: Reverse voltage range for diodes

Diode

Maximum Current

Maximum Reverse Voltage

1N4001

1A

50V

1N4002

1A

100V

1N4007

1A

1000V

1N5401

3A

100V

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2.5 TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.

Fig2.16 Transistor Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE. 2.5.1 WORKING OF TRANSISTOR The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier.
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Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements. The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain.The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.

Fig2.17 Representation of transistor

BC 558
BC558 is a general purpose PNP transistor. It is used in switching and amplifier applications.

Fig2.18 View of BC558

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The DC current gain varies in range 110 to 800. It is also used as a complement for transistors BC546 to BC550.The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified and taken at the emitter. BC558 is used in common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off. This device is designed for use as general purpose amplifiers and switches requiring collector currents to 300 mA.

2.5.2 Voltage current characteristics Table2.2 Absolute maximum ratings

Table2.3 Electrical characteristics

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2.6 THERMISTOR
A Thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements. Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a higher precision within a limited temperature range [usually 90 C to 130 C]. Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the sign of k. If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or posistor. If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.

Fig2.19 Thermistor representation Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the relationship between resistance and temperature is linear, then:

Where R = change in resistance T = change in temperature

2.6.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF THERMISTORS

Thermistors can be encapsulated in glass or epoxy considering a big variety of mechanical models. Most (NTC) thermistors have high resistivities and high negative
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coefficients, allowing the NTC thermistor to detect changes in temperature that could not be observable with RTDs or thermocouples. For example, it is common to have an NTC thermistor exhibiting a negative temperature coefficient with a change in resistance of about 4.5%/C at 30C, and about 1.6%/C at 155C. Common base values can be in the range of a few ohms to mega-ohms. Normally, high-R thermistors are used for high temperatures (lower than 300C), and low-R thermistors for low temperatures (higher than -60C). Considering the range of some kilo-ohms to mega-ohms, we can conclude that the resistance of the wires connecting the instrumentation to the thermistor is insignificant (in this sense, the three- or four-wire measurement configuration referred for RTDs are not necessary for NTC thermistors with high-R base values). Figure represent typical configurations for two- and four-wire thermistor circuits (RL stands for the lead resistances); in cases where the series resistance of the lead configuration is significant, the four-wire circuit can be used. As far as one current source is used, the calculation of the thermistors resistance is a straightforward task according to Ohms Law.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The temperature response is also different RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a higher precision within a limited temperature range [usually 90 C to 130 C].

Fig2.20 Two-wire thermistor configuration (most common).

Fig2.21 Four-wire thermistor configuration.

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As usually, for each benefit, we should be ready to pay a price; in this case, the price for increasing sensitivity is loss of linearity. In this sense, the resistance versus temperature characteristic of NTC thermistors is non-linear. The following expression describes the resistance versus temperature characteristic of a thermistor

Where, RT is the zero-power R at T(K), 1. R0 is the zero-power R at a known temperature T0, 1. is the material constant for the thermistor. Zero-power resistance is the resistance of a thermistor at a temperature measured when there is negligible self-heating (due to Joules effect).

Alternatively, the following Steinhart-Hart equation can be used for computation of temperature, giving relatively accurate thermistor curves:

T is the temperature in K: 1.RT is the resistance of the thermistor, 2.A, B, and C are constants specific for a given thermistor.

2.6.2 PTC THERMISTORS

Commercial PTC thermistors fall into two major categories. The first category consists of thermally sensitive silicon resistors, sometimes referred to as silistors. These devices exhibit a fairly uniform positive temperature coefficient (about +0.77% /C) through most of their operational range, but can also exhibit a negative temperature coefficient region at temperatures in excess of 150C. These devices are most often used for temperature compensation of silicon semiconducting devices in the range of -60C to +150C. The first category consists of thermally sensitive silicon resistors, sometimes referred to as silistors. These devices exhibit a fairly uniform positive temperature coefficient (about +0.77% /C) through most of their operational range, but can also exhibit a negative temperature coefficient region at temperatures in excess of 150C.

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Fig2.22 temperature

2.6.3 R-T Characteristics of PTC Thermistors

The other major category, and the one that we shall concentrate on in this section, are referred to as switching PTC thermistors. These devices are polycrystalline ceramic materials that are normally highly resistive but are made semiconductive by the addition of dopants. They are most often manufactured using compositions of barium, lead and strontium titanates with additives such as yttrium, manganese, tantalum and silica. These devices have a resistancetemperature characteristic that exhibits a very small negative temperature coefficient until the device reaches a critical temperature, that is referred to as its Curie, switch or transition temperature. As this critical temperature is approached, the devices begin to exhibit a rising, positive temperature coefficient of resistance as well as a large increase in resistance. The resistance change can be as much as several orders of magnitude within a temperature span of a few degrees.

2.6.4 Types of Switching PTC Thermistors

Commercial switching PTC thermistors are manufactured much like the NTC disk and chip type thermistors with metalized surface contacts. Connection into an electrical circuit is accomplished by means of a spring contact system or through lead wires soldered to the device. The most common body style is the disk, however, recent innovations have led to chip, lozenge and surface mount packages for these devices

2.6.5 Fabrication of Switching PTC Thermistors

The material composition is blended, milled, dried and then crushed into a powder. Following this, the material is calcined and then milled again with suitable binders. Next, binders are blended into the mix and the material is spray dried in towers. A mixture of particles with an outer coating of binders is thus formed into a fine powder with carefully controlled particle sizes. This powder is then compacted to form the desired geometry in a die using very high pressures.

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The PTC thermistors must then be sintered to form the ceramic body. Metalized contacts are applied to the surface of the device by painting, dipping, sputtering or flame spraying. The processing of PTC thermistors requires very careful control of materials and particle size in order to produce a device with the proper switching characteristics and voltage ratings. Contaminations on the order of a few parts per million will cause major changes in the thermal and electrical properties of the PTC thermistor. Most PTC thermistors are designed to operate with a transition temperature somewhere between 60C and 120C, however, devices can be manufactured that can switch as low as 0C or as high as 200C.

2.6.6 PROPERTIES OF PTC THERMISTORS

As with the NTC devices, the PTC thermistors have specific thermal and electrical properties which are important considerations in each application. These properties are also a function of the geometry of the thermistor and of the particular material system that is being used.

Transition Temperature
The transition temperature is the point at which the resistance-temperature characteristic begins to increase sharply. This corresponds roughly with the Curie point of the material, however, it is difficult to assign an exact value to this temperature. PTC manufacturers will define this temperature as the point where a specified ratio exists between the minimum resistance (or the 25C zero-power resistance) and the transition temperature resistance.

Fig2.23 Transition temperature

Voltage Dependence
Voltage dependence of PTC thermistors must be considered in any discussion of the resistance-temperature characteristic. Figure <24> shows that for a PTC maintained at a constant temperature, the resistance decreases as the voltage across the device is increased. Thus, any
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measurements of the resistance-temperature characteristic must specify the voltage applied during test in order to be meaningful.

Fig2.24 Voltage Dependence of PTCs.

Voltage-Current Characteristics
The volt-amp (V/I) curve defines the relationship between current and voltage at any point of thermal equilibrium. It is clear from Figure 25 that the temperature and the resistance of the PTC are affected by both power dissipation (self-heating) and ambient conditions. Any factor that changes the dissipation constant also changes the shape of the V/I curve. The voltage-current characteristic for most PTC thermistors is usually not plotted from exact data. Rather, the manufacturer provides certain key data and specifications that permit the designer or user to create an ideal model of the device.

Fig2.25 Voltage-Current Characteristic.

2.6.7 ADVANTAGES AND DIS ADVANTAGES Advantages of Thermistors

Large change in resistance versus temperature Fast time response
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High resistance eliminates the need for four wire measurement Small size Inexpensive High stability

Disadvantages of Thermistors
Non-linear Operating temperature limited to approximately -60 to +300 Celsius 2.6.8 THERMISTOR APPLICATION PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements for fuses. Current through the device causes a small amount of resistive heating. If the current is large enough to generate more heat than the device can lose to its surroundings, the device heats up, causing its resistance to increase, and therefore causing even more heating. This creates a self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance upwards, reducing the current and voltage available to the device. PTC thermistors are used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of most CRT displays and televisions. When the display unit is initially switched on, current flows through the thermistor and degaussing coil. The coil and thermistor are intentionally sized so that the current flow will heat the thermistor to the point that the degaussing coil shuts off in under a second. For effective degaussing, it is necessary that the magnitude of the alternating magnetic field produced by the degaussing coil decreases smoothly and continuously, rather than sharply switching off or decreasing in steps; the PTC thermistor accomplishes this naturally as it heats up. A degaussing circuit using a PTC thermistor is simple, reliable (for its simplicity), and inexpensive. NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the order of 10 K. NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits. They present a higher resistance initially which prevents large currents from flowing at turn-on, and then heat up and become much lower resistance to allow higher current flow during normal operation. These thermistors are usually much larger than measuring type thermistors, and are purposely designed for this application.

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NTC thermistors are regularly used in automotive applications. For example, they monitor things like coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine and provide data to the ECU and, indirectly, to the dashboard. NTC thermistors can be also used to monitor the temperature of an incubator. Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging.

2.7 IC 555 TIMER

The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation as the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine" and was also the very first and only commercial timer ic available. It provided circuit designers and hobby tinkerers with a relatively cheap, stable and user-friendly integrated circuit for both monostable and astable applications. The 555 come in two packages, either the round metal-can called the 'T' package or the more familiar 8-pin DIP 'V' package. About 20-years ago the metal-can type was pretty much the standard (SE/NE types). The 556 timer is a dual 555 version and comes in a 14-pin DIP package, the 558 is a quad version with four 555's also in a 14 pin DIP case. Inside the 555 timer, are the equivalent of over 20 transistors, 15 resistors, and 2 diodes, depending of the manufacturer The equivalent circuit, in block diagram, providing the functions of control, triggering, level sensing or comparison, discharge, and power output. Some of the more attractive features of the 555 timer are: Supply voltage between 4.5 and 18 volt, supply current 3 to 6 mA, and a Rise/Fall time of 100 nSec.

2.7.1 General Description

The LM555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or oscillation. Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For astable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the output circuit can source or sink up to 200mA or drive TTL circuits. 2.7.2 Features: Direct replacement for SE555/NE555 Timing from microseconds through hours

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Operates in both astable and monostable modes Adjustable duty cycle Output can source or sink 200 mA Output and supply TTL compatible Temperature stability better than 0.005% per C Normally on and normally off output

2.7.3 Pin Diagram Pin 1 (Ground): The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of the
device, which is normally connected to circuit common (ground) when operated from positive supply voltages.

Pin 2 (Trigger): This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the latch,
which in turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing sequence in monostable operation. Triggering is accomplished by taking the pin from above to below a voltage level of 1/3V+(or,in general, one-half the voltage appearing at pin 5).

Fig2.26 Pin diagram

Pin 3 (Output): The output of the 555 comes from a high-current totem-pole stage made up
of transistors Q20 - Q24. Transistors Q21 and Q22 provide drive for source-type loads, and their Darlington connection provides a high-state output voltage about 1.7 volts less than the V+ supply level used.

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Pin 4 (Reset): This pin is also used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state. The
reset voltage threshold level is 0.7 volt, and a sink current of 0.1mA from this pin is required to reset the device. These levels are relatively independent of operating V+ level. Thus the reset input is TTL compatible for any supply voltage. The reset input is an overriding function; that is, it will force the output to a low state regardless of the state of either of the other inputs.

Pin 5 (Control Voltage): This pin allows direct access to the 2/3 V+ voltage-divider point,
the reference level for the upper comparator. It also allows indirect access to the lower comparator, as there is a 2:1 divider (R8 - R9) from this point to the lower-comparator reference input, Q13. Use of this terminal is the option of the user, but it does allow extreme flexibility by permitting modification of the timing period, resetting of the comparator, etc.

Pin 6 (Threshold): Pin 6 is one input to the upper comparator (the other being pin 5) and is
used to reset the latch, which causes the output to go low. Resetting via this terminal is accomplished by taking the terminal from below to above a voltage level of 2/3 V+ (the normal voltage on pin 5). The action of the threshold pin is level sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the threshold pin is between V+ and ground.

Pin 7 (Discharge): This pin is connected to the open collector of a npn transistor (Q14), the
emitter of which goes to ground, so that when the transistor is turned "on", pin 7 is effectively shorted to ground. Usually the timing capacitor is connected between pin 7 and ground and is discharged when the transistor turns "on". The conduction state of this transistor is identical in timing to that of the output stage

Pin 8 (V +): The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal of the
555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 555 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to +16 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 volts and +15 volts. The device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without change in timing period.

2.7.4 WORKING OF ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

The circuit diagram for the astable multivibrator using IC 555 is shown here. The astable multivibrator generates a square wave, the period of which is determined by the circuit external to IC 555. The astable multivibrator does not require any external trigger to change the state of the output. Hence the name free running oscillator.. The time during which the output is either high or low is determined by the two resistors and a capacitor which are externally connected to the 555 timer. The above figure shows the 555
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timer connected as an astable multivibrator. Initially when the output is high capacitor C starts charging towards Vcc through RA and RB. However as soon as the voltage across the capacitor equals 2/3 Vcc , comparator1 triggers the flip-flop and the output switches to low state. Now capacitor C discharges through RB and the transistor Q1. When voltage across C equals 1/3 Vcc, comparator 2s output triggers the

flip-flop and the output goes high. Then the cycle repeats.

Fig2.27 Internal diagram of Astable Multivibrator The capacitor is periodically charged and discharged between 2/3 Vcc and 1/3 Vcc respectively. The time during which the capacitor charges from 1/3 Vcc to 2/3 Vcc is equal to the time the output remains high and is given by where RA and RB are in ohms and C is in Farads. Similarly the time during which the capacitor discharges from 2/3 Vcc to 1/3 Vcc is equal to the time the output is low.

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Fig2.28 waveforms

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CHAPTER 3 OVERVIEW OF COMPONENTS

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3.1 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Fig3.1 Schematic diagram

3.2 SCEMATIC EXPLANATION

Many fire alarm circuits are presented here, but this time a new circuit using a thermistor and a timer to do the trick. The circuit is as simple and straight forward so that, it can be easily implemented. The thermistor offers a low resistance at high temperature and high resistance at low temperature. This phenomenon is employed here for sensing the fire. The IC1 (NE555) is configured as a free running oscillator at audio frequency. The transistors T1 and T2 drive IC1. The output(pin 3) of IC1 is couples to base of transistor T3(SL100), which drives the speaker to generate alarm sound. The frequency of NE555 depends on the values of resistances R5 and R6 and capacitance C2.When thermistor becomes hot, it gives a low-resistance path for the positive voltage to the base of transistor T1 through diode D1 and resistance R2. Capacitor C1 charges up to the positive supply voltage and increases the the time for which the alarm is ON. The larger the value of C1, the larger the positive bias applied to the base of transistor T1 (BC548). As the collector of T1 is coupled to the base of transistor T2, the transistor T2 provides a positive voltage to pin 4 (reset) of IC1 (NE555). Resistor R4 is
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selected s0 that NE555 keeps inactive in the absence of the positive voltage. Diode D1 stops discharging of capacitor C1 when the thermistor is in connection with the positive supply voltage cools out and provides a high resistance path. It also inhibits the forward biasing of transistor T1, Capacitor C1 charges up to the positive supply voltage and increases the the time for which the alarm is ON. The larger the value of C1, the larger the positive bias applied to the base of transistor T1 (BC548). As the collector of T1 is coupled to the base of transistor T2, the transistor T2 provides a positive voltage to pin 4 (reset) of IC1 (NE555).

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CHAPTER CONCLUSION

4.1 FUTURE SCOPE

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Do not let fire be one of the worries of your business. Business premises must have in them complete fire safety equipment installed. Having extinguishers, fire safety boxes, and fire blankets in the workplace is not enough. Along with these indispensable safety equipments is the fire alarm. Why is this alarm necessary in making the workplace optimally safe? Why should this tool be installed in every workplace? The most devastating accident that can befall a business is not bankruptcy. Rather, it is fire accident. How disrupting it is for a business to replace very important things lost from a fire accident. The business owners will have to spend a lot of time and effort to do so. Worse, some business properties, such as essential data, can never be replaced once lost. And how horrifying can it be for a business to have to deal with the ordeal of losing an employee in a fire outbreak? This is why every workplace must have fire alarm, especially in the locations which has the highest probability to cause fire You do not have to experience the demoralizing ruin made by fire accidents on a business before you install fire alarm in your business premises. The assurance that your workplace is not prone to fire accident makes a healthy and conducive working environment. Having fire alarms in the workplace makes your employees and visitors comfortable, and thus, the business will be smooth and worryfree. The people in the workplace are easily alerted even before fire breaks out. It gives great possibility to put it out before it gets too large to be extinguished. Otherwise, the people in the area will be given an ample time to escape. There are hi-tech fire alarm systems today that can spot and pinpoint the fire prone areas in the business premises even before it breaks. Also, this system also can quickly notify and provide instructions on how to evacuate in case of a fire outbreak. You do not have to spend a lot to install fire alarms. These alarms are very affordable and available in any hardware store. Aside from its affordable price, the best thing you can get from this tool is peace of mind. Is it not very comfortable for employees to work without having to worry about the possible occurence of fire accident? One of the best investments a business must make is its protection from fire. To do this, the workplace must be fully equipped with all necessary fire safety tools. Together with fire extinguishers, fire safety boxes, and fire blankets, fire alarm must be installed in strategic locations in business premises. To prevent fire from devouring the business, the alarms are needed to notify the people in the workplace and give them all the chances to put out the fire or escape from the blazing building. Fire can happen anytime and anywhere in the workplace. In case it does, employees must be alarmed to enable them to save the business and themselves. This fire alarm can be implemented using micro controllers. And we can implement this fire alarm by connecting a GSM based system for automatic controlling of fire accidents.

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REFERENCE
1. http://www.nicet.org/nicetmanuals/alarms.pdf 2. http://wtc.nist.gov/pubs/NISTNCSTAR1-4cdraft.pdf 3. http://www.circuitstoday.com/low-cost-fire-alarm-circuit. 4. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostrecentissue.jsp?Punumber=5472906 5. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/9481547/Fire-Alarm-Systems 6. http://www.slideshare.net/guestdbe029/automatic-fire-detection
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7. http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/obj/irc/doc/pubs/nrcc48321/nrcc48321.pdf 8. http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/obj/irc/doc/pubs/rr/rr252/rr252.pdf 9. http://www.electronicsforu.com/electronicsforu.htm 10. http://www.fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/fire93/PDF/f93021.pdf 11. http://www.tollesonaz.org/documentview.aspx?DID=300 12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/555_timer_IC10 15. http://www.google.co.in/images 16. http://www.electronicsforu.com/electronicsforu/default.asp

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