DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE IN PRECAST CONCRETE DRAINS USED FOR HIGHWAY

BY

AWOYEMI TOYOSI TOLULOPE F/ND/08/3410148

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING YABA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, YABA, LAGOS

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND) IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

NOVEMBER, 2010

ABSTRACT The main objective of design and construction technique in precast concrete drains used for highways e.g. the drainage is used to remove surface water from the roadway so as to prevent it from damaging the roadway. While precast concrete is prepared in a purpose made site or workshop, mixed poured into patented formwork of mold, cured and allowed to gain strength before erection it can be prepared in site or offsite in workshop then transported to the site.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page Certification Dedication Acknowledgement Abstract Table of contents CHAPTER 1 Introduction CHAPTER 2 Literature Review CHAPTER 3 Methodology Precast Drainage Design Calculations Pictorial Result Analysis CHAPTER 4 Discussions of Results Recommendation Conclusion Reference 41 42 11- 40 6-10 1-5 i ii iii iv v

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CHAPTER ONE 1.1 INTRODUCTION For centuries, highway engineers have discovered that the provision and maintenance of adequate and functional drainage system on highways is a SINE QUA NON for the highways to perform effectively through the design life span.

This shows that the drains system is an integral part of the highway. Thus, drains is considered a very important element towards ensuring good pavement performance. A highway drain system can be defined as a means of collecting, transporting and disposing of surface runoff from the highway within shortest time possible. Highway drains is also defined as the process of interception and removal of water from over, under and the vicinity of the road surface. An adequate and efficient highway drains is essential to the highway and the environment. Much of highway engineering is devoted to the planning and construction of facilities to drain the highway and to carry stream across the highways right of way.

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Poor or lack of drains facilities has very adverse effects on the highway its immediate vicinity and the environment in general. The highway is not properly drained, and the drainage system is neither nor functional, pot-holes appear and pavement failure occurs. This leads to astronomical increase in road users costs due to the increase in travel time, delays in traffic on highways, as well as increased wears and tears on the vehicles. Poor drains leads to flooding of the road and its abutting properties.

Non-functionality of the drain could lead to the collapse of buildings which most of the time drains lives.

Road surface or pavement s the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic. In the past cobble stones and granites salts were extensively used, but these surfaces have mostly been replaced asphalt or concrete and mostly precast concrete is used. Such surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic. Today permeable paving methods are beginning to be used for how impact roadways and walkways.

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Concrete surface (specifically, Portland cement concrete) are created using a concrete mix of Portland cement, gravel, sand and water. The material is applied in a freshly-mixed slurry, and worked mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the thinner cement slurry to the surface to reduce a smoother, denser surface free from honeycombing. The water allows the mix to combine molecularly in a chemical action called hydration.

Pavers (or paviours) generally in the form of pre-cast concrete blocks, are often used for aesthetic purposes, or sometimes at port facilities that see long duration pavement loading. Pavers are rarely used in areas that see high-seed vehicle traffic.

Run-off helps to determine the depth and size of the drain. Run-off is the balance of rain water which flows or runs over natural ground surface after losses by evaporation,

interception and infiltration. The yield of a catchment is the net quantity of water available for storage, after all losses for the purposes of water resources utilization and planning, like irrigation, water supply. The most common method of estimating run-off is the rational method due to the fact that
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it combines engineering judgment with calculations made from analysis measurement or estimation. The run-off is related to the rainfall intensify by a formula. Q=Cx1xA Where, Q C Quantity of run-off in cubic meter second (m3/S), Co-efficient of run-off expressed as a percentage of

imperviousness of the water shed surface. The co-efficient depends on the type of material of the watershed and the slope of the watershed. I Intensity or rate of rainfall expressed in meter per second (m/s) A Area of the watershed in square meter (m2).

Sectional properties of the drains required Mannings formula which is given as Q = 1/nAR2/3S1/2 Where, Q the quantity of water in cubic meter per second

that a given size conduit will carry. A N R the cross sectional area, in square meter of the flow. co-efficient of conduit roughness Mean hydraulic radius in meter => area of section A in

square meter divided by wetted perimeter in meter.

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Average slope of ground in the drainage area in meter per

1000 meter. Reinforcement Spacing Main reinforcement Distribution bar 200 c/c

Y12

Y10

Concrete biscuit prevents exposure of reinforcement. Concrete made with PC is widely used as in construction material because of its many favorable characteristic. One of the most important is a large strength-cost ratio in many application. Another is that concrete while plastic may be cost in forms easily at ordinary temperature to produce almost any desired shape. The exposed face may be develops into a smooth or rough hard surface capable of withstanding the wear of track. In addition, concrete has high resistance of fire and penetration of water. But concrete also has disadvantage. An important one is that quality control is not so good. Also, concrete is a relatively brittle material its densile strength, is small compared with its compressive strength, it can be offset by reinforcing or prestressing concrete with steel. In the slump test, a specimen of the mixture is placed in a mould shaped as the frustum of a cone. When the test is made in accordance with the ASTM specification, the change n height may be taken as the slump. Tapping the slumped specimen gently on one side with a tamping rod after completing the test.
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CHAPTER TWO 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW The Egyptians were pouring concrete in 2500BC, and the Romans used it to construct the Pantheon and the Coliseum by the mid 1800s, Europeans were building bridges with concrete and the first modern concrete highway pavements appeared n the latter part of the 19th century. Naturally occurring asphalts, which have been used for waterproofing for thousands of years, came into common use in road construction in the 1800s.

The first iron bridge was constructed in 1774, but by the end of the 19th century, steel had largely replaced iron in bridge construction. These materials concrete, asphalt and steel are now the mainstays of highway and bridge construction throughout the world, as well as of most types of public works infrastructure. Concrete and steel, the most versatile of these materials are used for bridges and other highway structures: concrete and asphalt, are used for roadway pavements.

For example, concrete which is a mixture of Portland cement, sand, aggregate/gravel or crushed stone and water. Its
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performance characteristics are determined by the proportion and characteristics of the components, as well as water by how is mixed and formed. The underlying chemical reaction of concrete are surprisingly complex, not completely understood and very with the type of stone. Steel may be added for tensile strength (reinforced concrete) and a variety of additives have been identified to improve the workability and performance of concrete in particular applications and conditions. Damage and environmental conditions, such as freeze-thaw cycles and chemicals reactions with salt used for deicing. Concrete is the mostly heavily substance in the world after water (Sedgwick, 1991). Worldwide, concrete construction annually consumes about 1.6million tons of cement, 10billion tons of sand and crushed stone, and 1billion tons of water (M.S Kahn 2007). Given transportation costs, there is a huge financial incentive to using local sources of stone, even if the properties of that stone are less than ideal. Thus concrete is not a homogenous material. In truth, an unlimited number of combinations and permutations are possible.

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2.2

FACTORS THAT AFFECT HIGHWAYS All other things being equal, stronger, longer lasting less costly highway materials there are are desirable plenty and of given the of

quantities

involved,

incentives

innovation. N highway transportation, however, all other things are not equal. A number of the factors contribute to the urgent and continuing need for innovation. The U.S Department of Transportation (DOT) estimates. That in metropolitan areas the annual cost of traffic congesting for businesses and citizens is nearly and 170billion (IB Consult Inc. 2007). The 47000 mile interstate highways system today carries more traffic than the entire US highway system carried in 1956 when the interstate were laid out. On rural interstates; overall traffic more than double between 1970 and 2005. Designs to promote safety, measures to mitigate a growing list of environmental impacts and attention to aesthetics have fundamentally changed the scope of major highway projects in the United States. For example, on Maryland and 24billion inter-country connector project is suburban Washington, D. C. which is now under constructive

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environmental mitigation accounts for 15percent of project costs or about $15million per mile (AASHTO, 2008).

Casting basing constructed adjacent to four point channel during Bostons central Artery. Tunnel project, for

manufacturing, 30 to 50 ton concrete tunnel sections; when the sections were complete, the basin was flooded and the sections were floated into position and submerged. The casting basin was 1000feet wide and 300 feed wide, 60 feet deep-big enough to held an aircraft carrier or three titanics. Side by side. (Photo: Massachusetts Turnpike Authority).

2.3

SPECIALTY PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETES New generations of specialty concretes have improve one or more aspects of performance and allow for greater flexibility in highway design and construction. High-performance

concrete typically has compressive strengths of at least 10,000 Psi. Today, ultra-high performance concretes with formulations that include silica fume, quartz flour, water reducers and steel or organic fibers have even greater durability and compressive strengths up to 30,000 Psi. These

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new concretes can enable construction with thinner sections and longer spans (M.S. Kahn, 2007).

2.4

WASTE AND RECYCLED MATERIALS Highway construction has a long history of using industrial waste and by-product materials. The motivations of the construction industry were simple to help dispose of

materials that are otherwise difficult to manage and to reduce the initial cost of highway construction.

2.5

VISUALIZATION GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS AND OTHER NEW TOOLS For more than 20years highway engineers, have used twodimensional computer aided drafting and design (CADD) system to design process and reduced costs. The benefits of CADD systems have derived essentially from automating the conventional design process, with engineers doing more or less what they had done before, although much faster and with greater flexibility. Engineers can use visualization to resolve sequencing (Image: issues Charles and L. develop Haxon cost-efficient III, Bergman

approaches. Associates).
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CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY This chapter emphasis the physical process adopted both in site and laboratory test. The precast concrete manufacture attach great importance to the handling, stacking and transportation of their finished products. This is because heavy precast units can undergo severe strain when travelling distances on road transporters and allowed to come contact with one another, they will almost certainly after actual damage. The reinforcement is designed to carry these tensile forces which are transferred by bond between the interface of the two material.

3.1

PRECAST CONCRETE

This is concrete prepared in a purpose made site or Workshop, mixed poured into patented formwork or mold, cured and allowed to gain strength before erection, it can be prepared in site or offsite in workshop then transported to the site. This is a technology of the present but meant for the future.

Precast concrete can be used for any type of structure ranging from building, bridges fittings. Decks on piles etc, all depending on the hoisting equipment available.
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The manufacturer of precast concrete most follow in accordance of the specification stated below. Precast construction should be treated as a substitute for insitu concrete. Because of its very nature, many and varied used can be made of precast concrete in the field of building and structure engineering.

The concrete should be designed in accordance to the general requirement of the reinforced concrete specification and shall apply to all the precast concrete work except where specifically indicated by the code of practice. Precast concrete works have been designed generally in accordance with the recommendation of British Standard Code of Practice C.P 116 unless otherwise stated in this specification. The concrete mix on all precast units shall be grade 20 unless stated.

The grout used for filling cavities and ducts shall be made with ordinary portland cement and water subject to the approval of the Architect or site Engineer, additions may be used provided they do not contain chlorides or nitrates. The maximum pressure of the grout shall be 5.5N/M2. The water/cement ratio of the grout shall not exceed 0.45. The morter used for dry-packing in joints shall be

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made of ordinary portland cement, sand and water in the preparations of 1 part cement to parts sand by volume.

Morter used for dry-packing shall be of such consistency that it can be properly compacted by ramaning.

Reinforcement shall not be bent up within the formwork unless approved by the Architect or site officer. All projecting

reinforcement shall be suitably treated to prevent rust staining of the finished concrete surface without affecting the bond resistance of the bar.

3.2

STEAM CURING

Precast units made with ordinary Portland Cement may be steam cured at atmospheric pressure. The temperature of the unit shall be raised at steady rate which shall not exceed 5 degree per hour and in addition the curing shall comply with the following: Time taken to reach temperature from Temperature of Units 30 degree 100 degree Not Common cement of steam curing Not less than 2 hours Not less than 6 hours

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The contractor shall ensure that unit are stored and delivered to the site to suit construction requirements. Before removal from the casting beds, the concrete should have obtained sufficient strength to prevent any damage or distortion or overstressing of the precast units.

Immediately after removal from the casting beds, all units shall be marked in a manner and in a position approved by the Architect.

3.3

ERECTION

Prior to the commencement of erection, the contractor shall submit for approval, the Architect's details of his proposed arrangement for lifting and erecting units.

3.4

ELEMENTS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PRECAST CONCRETE

The common element used in the manufacture of Precast and Insitu concrete can be grouped into two: (i) (ii) Materials Equipments

MATERIALS The materials used are:

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(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

Cement Aggregates Water Reinforcement Formwork CEMENT All cement shall be stored in a waterproof shed of adequate size having a raised dry floor or in silos of approved design. Ordinary Portland Cement is generally satisfactory.

(1)

330Kg/M3 minimum cement content for normal industrial wear. For heavy industrial wear gremolithi concrete ordinary Portland cement at aggregate cement 3.1 approximately 550 570kg/m3.

(2)

AGGREGATES All aggregate shall comply with the recommendation of B.S 882. Aggregate shall be washed in an approved Plant and not by hand bucket, sieves or other means for structural concrete grades the maximum size of the fine aggregate shall be 5mm and the course aggregate shall be 20mm.

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Good quality gravel or crushed rock with emphasis on harder care needed with softer limestones and sandstone use largest practical aggregate size. Natural sands prepared to crushed rock fines in accordance with BS 882 in grading and cleanliness. (a) (b) (c) Shell content in sea-dredged material Avoid to much fine material Avoid aggregate which produce a drying shrinkage in the concrete of exceeding 0.06% .

(3)

WATER Water used for mixing and curing concrete shall be clean, fresh waters from an approved source and it shall be free from injurious oils, chemicals vegetable mattes, organic and other impurities and shall comply with the requirements of B.S 3148 (1958). The contractor shall ensure that all pipes, tanks and other receptacles for the storage of water intended for use in the making of concrete are kept in a clean condition. The minimum practical amount, generally waters cement ratio should not exceed 0.50. Aim for low workability for normal industrial wear.

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(4)

REINFORCEMENT The reinforcement shall be one of the following: i. Rolled steel bars or hard drawn steel wire complying with the requirement of B.S 785 rolled steel bars and hard drawn steel wire for concrete reinforcement. ii. Cold twisted steel bars complying with the requirement of B.S 1144 cold Twisted steel bars for concrete Reinforcement. iii. Steel Fabric complying with the requirements of B.S 1221 steel fabric for concrete Reinforcement. iv. Such other reinforcement as may be suitable having regard to the stress, ductility, tensile strength and others essential properties.

1.

DIAMETER OF BAR: The diameter of any bar for the purpose of this project should be taken as that of a circle having an area equal to the cross-sectional area of the bar.

2.

TEST CERTIFICATE: For each consignment of steel reinforcement used in the work, the contractor shall supply a certificate giving the ultimate strength, yield stress, elongation and result of the cold bend test

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described

in

the

appropriate

British

Standard.

Reinforcement obtained from re-rolling scrap metal shall not be used. All bars shall be delivered to the site firmly tied together in bundles, with length diameter and number clearly indicated.

Reinforcement shall be stored on site in racks off the ground and shall be protected from rusting, damage, oil or other deleteries matter and shall be clean and free from all such matter before concrete is placed.

(5)

FORMWORK All formwork shall be adapted in every respect to the structure and to the required surface finish for the concrete. It shall be fixed in perfect alignment and securely propped and braced so as to withstand without displacement, distortion or movement of any kind the weight of construction and the movement of persons materials and plant. It shall be sufficiently watertight to prevent any loss of liquid from the concrete and shall be capable of being removed without shock, vibration or damage to the concrete. No formwork shall be removed without the prior approval of the engineer.

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The formwork are patented often coming as steel. Some of the design factors that is to be considered are: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Concrete pressures Stiffness and strength Adjustability Grout Seal Handling and storing Man access.

3.5

MOULDS FOR PRECAST

Units are to be made in strongly constructed moulds which are closely joined perfectly smooth and true in alignment. The mould must be constructed so that no bulging or distortion can occur during consolidation of the concrete and should be fitted with suitable fastenings to facilitate easy removal without injury to the units.

The manufacture of moulds and formwork for precast follows a factory precast with specialized equipment.

y Equipment: Some plant items used for handling and Placing of Precast.

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y Transport: Basically, Dumpers are used for the transportation 01 concrete bath in-situ and precast concrete in the

construction site or to the site. The machine has been modify to meet its needs, it is now four wheel drive and centre pivot steel. They are different types of dumpters depending the purpose it serve on site.

All joint surface shall be thoroughly cleaned Dry-packed molted joints shall be formed by compacting the morter in one inch lager with a steel tool.

y TOLERANCE Unless otherwise indicates on the drawings all dimensions of the precast units shall be within the tolerance given below: All dimensions of 3m and over 5mm All dimensions of less than 3m 3mm

Precast units shall also comply with each of the following tolerance which may modify those tolerances given above for particular conditions. Permissible bow 5mm in 3m

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Permissible twist from any plan surface as defined by any three exterior corners 3mm.

3.6 THE MANUFACTURING METHODS OF PRECAST^CONCRETE The use of precast concrete in reinforced concrete structure becomes efficient when we have repetite production. This re-used in continuous improvement of manufacturing process and quality o finished product as well as reduction in labour and cost.

Many of the technical advantage that may be gained by using precast instead of in-situ concrete depend on the standard and skill shown in the manufacturing procedures and methods. Operations making mould and placing concrete in warm dry conditions inside modern shops are casting sheds should achieve better result than their counterpart working in almost all weather on building sites where material are finished product are constantly in danger of accidental damage.

The design and manufacturing methods may be standard but the moulds are usually have to be adopted to some degree in each case to suit specific details for any particular project. Because of the repetitive demand which proprietary systems are designed to meet, the moulds are usually of a semi-permanent construction using
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glass reinforcement fixing and the installation of services duct or filling pieces, then they will pass under a concreting hopper fed with fresh concrete of the required mix by an automated batching and mixing plant once changed, the mould with travel to the tamping station where vibration is applied by a mechanical vibratory roller or by the mould itself being heed on a vibratory platform. The filled mould than passes into the curing chamber, followed by the removal of the piece from the mould. Removal is often facilitated by the use of a tilling mechanism by which the mould and unit are tipped into a position where demoulding can be more simply carried out and the unit lifted for vertical stacking. To ensure that mould may be removed speedily and without damage very careful detailing is necessary by the mould designer.

Precast concrete manufactures attach great importance to the handling, stacking and transportation of their finished products. Before a unit leaves the factory it should be thoroughly checked by the engineer and his representatives to see if it meets the specification. If it does not, it must be rejected, on arrival on site it should be checked.

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Heavy Precast units incorrectly stacked, can undergo seven strain when travelling distances on road transports and if allowed to come into contact with one another, they will almost suffer actual damage.

The degree of care, which should be exercised by site operative .not "be over-emphasized. All the advantages gained by having precast units manufacture is a high degree of accuracy and standard of finish can be lost in a very short time by clumsy handling, it is probably true to say that a unit is in its most vulnerable state when suspended by a crane and about to be positioned on a prepared base. Each time it is lifted, lowered and swung towards its final position the chances of damage occurring are increased.

Precast floor units to be placed on a completed frame erection will be a fairly simple. Operation as each unit can be lifted and lowered into prepared beds by crane. Lightweight unit which can be manhandled into final position can be lifted by pincer-type grapples or rope slings which are very quietly removed and do not require any special attachment to the units while crane is used for heavy units.

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3.7 STABILITY This poses the major problem in the erection of Precast structures, which is not the case in other form of construction. Therefore, it is important to consider problems of erection at the design stages and in a well design structure. The design of joint is of major

consideration and special care should be taken here. Some of the common Joint used in precast construction to achieve maximum stability is shown below:

3.8

JOINT CONNECTION

Connection are defined as the hardwork used for joining the precast element to the building frame and to each other. Design of connection, are function of the Structural Engineer, should be taken very care of, when the member are designed as both members and connections share the responsibility for structural adequately with the building frame Analysis of building failure were the result of improperly designed or installation and connections rather than any weakness of the building units. These Joint

connections poses the greatest problem and these joint have to be made under site conditions skill is required to design and details of joint that can be easily formed on site and that will provide the necessary strength. Clumsy details can impair the ultimate
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appearance of the structure. jointed are: (i) (ii) (iii) BEAM to slab connection

Some of the critical area that is

BEAM, WALL, Slab connection The erection Boits from Grade BEAM

They are shown below:

3.9

FORMS OF PRECAST

We have steel, wood, fiberglass, reinforced polyethen concrete and plastic. They can be used for forming material depending on the configuration of the units, number to be made and performance of the manufacturer.

3.10 STEEL These are required when in any reuses of the form are required and where complicated irregular and surfaces are not necessary. Rivel and joins between sheets must be carefully smooth. Steel forms must be opened up to permit removal of casting. Sheet steel contact area must be checked at time to defect buckling or

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dimpling and must be coated with a light form oil before each usage.

3.11 FIBRE GLASS It can be moulded to complicate shape on a master pattern and be used on varied times. The material is strong but requires support to give it rigidity.

3.12 WOOD They are easily fabricated into intricate details but are not so strong as steel or fibre glass for many reuses. Wood forms when treated with a sealant to protect the wood, should be coated with a parting compound when used.

3.13 FABRICATION OF PRECAST ELEMENT Precast concrete element are fabricated on factories and in mechanisms casting yards which absent 20% of the total output of precast reinforced concrete are produced in the casting yards. Factories and prefabrication yard contain the following items: stocks of binder i.e. cement etc as explain above. The production of reinforced concrete units include the following means of manufacturing process. i) The preparation of the concrete mix

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ii)

The fabrication of the reinforcement and reinforcing of element

iii) iv)

The forming The curing ie the hydro-thermac treatment, and quality control of the finished product.

The preparation of concrete mix is done by a rule in the concrete mixing shop, located in direct proximity to the forming shop. Preparation of reinforcement ie ordinary instressed reinforcement in the form of wielded units, and formworks is fabricated in the reinforcement shop of reinforced concrete factories. The

reinforcement that is brought in the factory as coils or as rods are straightened and cut into rods of required length. The separate rods are joined together in meshes and prestressed before connecting on streshuit stands by means of hydraulic sacks.

The casting of reinforced concrete members consists of the following ways of operations. A cleaning, assembling and

fabrication of the form, placing of reinforcement in the form pouring of concrete and compaction of the concrete in the form.

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3.14 MODE OF CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE The casting or construction of precast concrete are done with and of a mould. Before casting starts, the mould are first cleaned with Air "host to remove any particles, the mould is then oiled with purpose-made oil. After all this, the mixed concrete normally mixed and water/cement ratios as specified above is used) is poured from a skip carried by a mobile crane, which will also be used to life and stack the hardened units.

The mould are moved through the various stages of manufacture staring with reinforcement fixing and the installation of services ducts or filling pieces, then they will pass under a concreting hopper fed with fresh concrete of the required mix by an automatic batching and mixing plant.

Once charged, the mould will travel to tampering station where vibration is applied by a mechanised vibratory roller or by the mould self being held on a vibratory platform. The filled moult then usses into the curing chamber followed by the removal of the pile from the moult. The removal is often facilitated by the use of a

tilling mechanism by which the mould and unit are tipped into a

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position where de-moulding can be more simply carried out and the unit lifted for vertical stacking.

3.15

THE

MODE

OF

TRANSPORTATION

OF

PRECAST

CONCRETE The Precast concrete manufacture attach great importance to the handling, stacking and transportation of their finished products, is because heavy precast units can undergo severe strain when contact with one another, they will almost certainly suffer actual damage. Normally dumpers are used for the transportation of precast concrete, in the construction site or to the site. The machine has been modify to meet its needs, it is now four wheel drive and centre pivot steer. They are different types of dumps depending the purpose it serves. Other options are: Hydraulic tipping of high discharge, side/showing discharge and fork-lift plus skip. The equipment option: Hydraulic tipping high discharge, side/slewing discharge and fork-lift plus skip. Tower crane and skip used both in the site and in the factory for the manufacture of precast concrete. The principal crane types

are: (i) Base crane which are of different types. We have staticail mounted/mobile, used in the site for placing and lifting the precast to the required position.
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Beach crane used in the factory for arranging and parking the precast in the site. HOIST commonly, we have - Generally purpose platform type (ii) Automative Skip discharge type.

PUMPING The pumping machine is used to pump mixed concrete from batching point to the formwork. We have fairly mechanical types and Hydraulic piston pumps. They can be used for pipeline grouting disposal of unsuitable batches, pipeline layout and access, distribution, compaction and finishing. It can be used to clean out pipeline and washout. Basically, we have static/tract or and lorry mounted on or of lorry.

3.16 THE USES OF PRECAST CONCRETE Precast concrete as earlier described is product made of concrete under factory condition either in a permanent factory or in a temporary casting yard on a construction site and erected on site a finished articles. Precast construction should be treated as a building system in the own right and not as a substitute for insitu concrete. Because of its very nature, many and varied used can be made of precast concrete in the field of building and structural engineering. It can easily be considered in two ways - NonPage | 30

structural and structural natures. Non-Structural: The range of precast concrete product for these are kerbs, paving slab where the material is now used to replace natural stone thus making possible the production of large quantities of these products at a much cheaper price than previously.

In Minor Structural Nature: Such as lintols lamp posts, conduit luvers and pipes are made where precast concrete has superseded other materials. Small complete building such as domestic garages and bus shelters can be made quickly and cheaply when combined with pre-fabricated cladding materials.

For single or two storey structure precast concrete can be made for beam, slab staircase, floor, walls etc. NOTE The choice of any precast concrete element depends on the hoisting equipment available.

3.17 AGGREGATES Good quality gravel or crushed rock with emphasis on hardness care needed with softer limestones and sandstones.

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3.18 WATER Minimum practical amount generally water cement ratio should not exceed 0.50. Him for low workability.

3.19 CURING Effective curing improves resistance to abrasion and reduces dusting potential. Curing should be continued for as long as possible but for not less than 7 days.

3.20 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that can be formed into many varied shapes and sizes ranging from a simple rectangle column to a slender curved dome or shell. It utility and versatility is achieved by combining the best features of concrete and steel. Some of the differing properties of those two Material that are listed below are: i) ii) iii) Strength in tension Strength in compression Strength in shear, durability and fire resistance.

All these can be analysed thus, when combined, the steel will provide the tensile strength and probably, some of the shear

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strength while the concrete strong in compression protect the steel to give durability and fire resistance.

The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 percent of the compressive strength, for these reason nearly all reinforced oncrete structure are designed on the assumption that the concrete does not resist any tensile forces.

Reinforcement is designed to carry these tensile forces which are transferred by bond between the interface of the two material. If this bond is not adequate the reinforcing bars will just skip within the concrete and these will not be a composite action. Thus member should be detailed so that the concrete can be well compacted around the reinforcement during construction. In addition, some bars are ribbed or twisted so that there is an extra mechanical grip.

In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is assumed that there is perfect bond, so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the strain in the adjacent concrete. This ensures that there is what is as 'compatibility of strains' across the cross-section of the member. The coefficients of
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thermal expansion for steel and for concrete are of the order of 10 x 10'6 per C and 7- 12 x 10 = 6 Per C respectively.

3.21 DRAINS Water is collected from the road surface in either of two ways. The 1st case is to allow water to flow over the edge of the road pavement into an open drain or ditch, and the 2nd is when water flows in a channel formed by a raised kerb, verge or other boundary and discharges into gullies or outlets placed at regular intervals. Gutter inlets can be divided into three major types, which are kerbopening inlets, gate inlets, and combination inlets. The kerbopening inlets consist of a vertical opening in the kerb through which the gutter flow passes. The grate inlets consists of an opening in the gutter covered by one or more grates while the combination inlets consist of both a kerb-opening and a grate inlet acting as a unit. Drainage is of two type: i. ii. Surface drainage Sub-surface drainage

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SURFACE DRAINAGE It measures taken to control the flow of surface water and t entails the removal and diversion of surface water and it entails the removal and diversion of surface water from highway and adjoining land. Is the means of transverse slopping of carriageway and the shoulder and the provision of longitudinal ditches (channels) culverts and bridges.

SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE It is provided to take care of water that has permeated the pavement and surrounding soil. It is the adjacent roadways, shoulder and median areas or upward through the subgrade soil from the ground water. It eliminate the damaging effect of water intrusion into the granular base and sub-based courses. The design of a sub-surface drainage must take into account variables such as: i. ii. iii. iv. Permeability of the soil or aggregate Locations of seepages areas. The required type of filter material and The type and size of the pipe under-drain.

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The stabilization trenches are trenches that are backfilled with porous, granular material. Drainage structure include culverts, bridges, storm sewers and canals.

3.22 DRAINAGE MAINTENANCE It requires that all structures and appurtenances pertaining to removal of water from the highway have to be kept in good working condition so as to provide free and unobstructed flow. Good surface drainage is maintained by having the pavement surface as waterproof smoothness that the water will flow freely to the road edge and onto the shoulders. The side ditch, which runs longitudinally with the outside the shoulder should be maintained below the grade of subgrade that water from the subgrade such that water from the subgrade are drained to the side ditch. The ditch should be kept about 300mm to 450mm minimum below the top of the subgrade and should be kept sufficiently large to carry the run-off of the area draining to it.

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3.23 DRAINS SYSTEM This is a system whereby waste product from bathroom, wash hand, basin water closet, sink and rain are collected and discharged into public savers, septic tanks and soak-way pits.

PRINCIPLES OF DRAINS 1. 2. 3. Drains must be air tight and water tight It must have adequate ventilation. Traps must be self-cleaning and have adequate water seal sieve. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Water closet must connect directly to drains. Avoid passage of drains under building. Pipes must be laid as straight as possible between chambers. It must be solid foundation and with uniform gradient. You must use quality materials. You must provide adequate increase of inspection of cleaning e.g. introducing inspections chamber.

There are 2 drains system i. ii. Combined drain system Separate drain system

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COMBINED DRAIN SYSTEM Water form and paved areas together with the effluence of similarity fillings are collected together into a sewer or soak-away or septic water.

SEPARATE DRAIN SYSTEM Water is kept separate from full water from house. Rainwater is collected and discharged into tanks for re-use or discharged into a water course. This is of great benefit where rainfall is scanty. The fill water is collected separately and discharged into a septic tank or soak-away pit for appropriate treatment.

CO-EFFICIENT EQUATION

OF

ROUGHNESS

(n) USED IN

MANNINGS

PIPE Absestos Cement Bituminous fibre Cast Iron Clay vitrified Concrete, Portland cement 0.011 0.015 0.12 0.013 0.011 0.015 0.011 0.015

Corrugated Metal Paved invert 100% of periphery paved 25% of periphery paved 0.012* 0.015 0.021*

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Corrugated Metal - Unpaved Asphalt-coated or non-coated Plastic Open Channels Paved Asphalt concrete, smooth texture Asphalt concrete, rough texture Concrete, Portland cement Unpaved Bare earth, shallow flow 0.020 0.025 0.013 0.016 0.011 0.020** 0.024 0.012

Bare earth, depth of flow over 300mm 0.015 0.020 Turf, shallow flow Turf, depth of flow over 300mm *Depending upon depth of flow. **Lowest value for trowel finish; highest value for wavy gunite VALUES OF COEFFICIENT OF RUNOFF Type of runoff area Pavement and roofs Earth shoulders Drives and walks Gravel pavement City Business Areas Apartment Dwelling Areas Suburban, Normal Residential
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0.060 0.080 0.040 0.060

Flat 0.90 0.50 0.75 0.50 0.80 0.50 0.45

Rolling 2%-10% 0.90 0.50 0.80 0.55 0.85 0.60 0.50

Hilly over 10% 0.90 0.50 0.85 0.60 0.85 0.70 0.55

Dense Residential Sections Lawn, Sandy Soil Lawn, Heavy Soil Grass Shoulder Side Slopes, Earth Side Slopes, Turf Median Areas, Turf Cultivated Land, Clay and Loam Cultivated Land, Sand and Gravel Industrial Areas, Light Industrial Areas, Heavy Parks and Cemeteries Playgrounds Woodlands and Forests Meadows and Pasture Land Unimproved Areas

0.50 0.10 0.20 0.25 0.60 0.30 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.60 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.25 0.10

0.65 0.15 0.25 0.25 0.60 0.30 0.30 0.55 0.30 0.70 0.80 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.30 0.20

0.70 0.20 0.35 0.25 0.60 0.30 0.30 0.60 0.35 0.80 0.90 0.25 0.30 0.20 0.35 0.30

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CHAPTER FOUR 4.1 DISCUSSION OF RESULT

When using precast concrete units, scaffolding materials are needed only as a temporary support for the placed structure, but the materials necessary for this purpose is not more than 1% of that required construction if the mould is handled carefully, it can be used from 10 to 30 times contrary to the formwork. It tends to be less suitable for building with irregular features.

RECOMMENDATION It is appeared the most widely use for construction drainage it is very effective in countries with good industrialized building system like Saudi Arabia, Span, England. Precast concrete is vary economical durable and time saving, several construction

industries have attested to these facts. It is very easy for precast concrete to be monitored because it is moulded and fabricated in a controlled environment. It is recommended for various aspects that involves highway and structural construction in highway it can be used in a rail road. Airport road and tarred road.

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During the research, I gained a lot on site both insight on very sure that precast concrete is the best and is the most simpliest device means of highway and structural construction.

CONCLUSION Design and construction techniques in precast concrete drains used for highways. It enlightens the reader on the effect of time saving culture of precast concrete. It basically idolized precast concrete has a case study and has dealt with the various aspects that discuss about precast concrete.

Highway and drainage design is only importance in the urban region that requires the use of precast concrete for drains because they required the design of walk-way on both sides of the road which must be designed. It discusses about the forms of precast concrete, we have and how we use it, and the arrangement. On site, it point out construction both European and Africa countries that utilized the precast concrete.

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REFERENCES Adeniyi, T. Akinpelu (2005): Introduction to Highway Engineering. Votak Ventures, Lagos. British Standard Institution. BS 1377, Method of Test for Soil for Civil Engineering Purpose, 1976. Power Works P. W. Ojuelegba Yaba. Ramsay, J. P. Wilson. Land Surveying M. and E. Handbooks Series. MacDonald Evans Ltd. London. Reynolds et al. Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook. 9th Edition. A Viewpoint Publication, London 1981. www.google.com

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