Random-phase-shift Fizeau interferometer

Hagen Broistedt,1,* Nicolae Radu Doloca,2 Sebastian Strube,2 and Rainer Tutsch1
1

Institut fr Produktionsmesstechnik, Technische Universitt Braunschweig, Schleinitzstrae 20, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Bundesallee 100D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany *Corresponding author: h.broistedt@tubs.de Received 6 June 2011; revised 28 September 2011; accepted 28 September 2011; posted 4 October 2011 (Doc. ID 148803); published 13 December 2011

A new and potentially cost efficient kind of vibration-tolerant surface measurement interferometer based on the Fizeau-principle is demonstrated. The crucial novelty of this approach is the combination of two optoelectronic sensors: an image sensor with high spatial resolution and an arrangement of photodiodes with high temporal resolution. The photodiodes continuously measure the random-phase-shifts caused by environmental vibrations in three noncollinear points of the test surface. The high spatial resolution sensor takes several frozen images of the test surface by using short exposure times. Under the assumption of rigid body movement the continuously measured phase shifts of the three surface points enable the calculation of a virtual plane that is representative for the position and orientation of the whole test surface. For this purpose a new random-phase-shift algorithm had to be developed. The whole system was tested on an optical table without vibration isolation under the influence of random vibrations. The analysis of the root-mean-square (RMS) over ten different measurements shows a measurement repeatability of about 0.004 wave (approximately 2:5 nm for 632:8 nm laser wavelength). 2011 Optical Society of America OCIS codes: 120.3180, 120.3940, 120.6650, 110.3175.

1. Introduction

The interferometric measurement techniques provide the most accurate noncontact 3D measurement tests for reflective surfaces and most particularly for high-quality optical components such as lenses, microscope objectives, camera lenses, prisms, optical flats, or even large telescope mirrors. The high accuracy of the measurements is related to the wavelength of the light, which is used as the measuring reference in all interferometric measurements. In many applications frequency stabilized lasers are used. The basic principle of the interferometric 3D form tests of reflective surfaces is that the 3D shape of the surface is encoded in the reflected wavefront (known as the test wavefront). The test wavefront is compared to a reference wavefront, which is generated by reflection from a reference surface. The interference
0003-6935/11/366564-12$15.00/0 2011 Optical Society of America 6564 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 50, No. 36 / 20 December 2011

between the two coherent wavefronts generates the so called interference fringe pattern, which can be digitized using an image sensor array. In case of a flatness test, the deviations from planarity of the surface under test deform the ideal straight-line equidistant interference fringes. A single fringe pattern can be numerically analyzed using either data interpolation methods or Fourier analysis methods. These techniques are capable of a resolution of about =50, where is the laser wavelength [1]. In most cases, however, phase shifting interferometry (PSI) techniques are applied. These methods require a sequence of interference images. By sequentially shifting the reference plate with well-defined steps by means of a piezo-actuator, several interference images at well-known and predefined phase-shifts are sequentially acquired. The sequentially recorded gray values are used to calculate the 3D information of the test wavefront at each pixel. In this way a pixilated analysis of the test wavefront results.

Because the phase-shifted interferograms are sequentially recorded and very precise phase-shifts are required, the PSI methods prove to be very sensitive to vibration. This is why every PSI interferometer must be mounted and utilized on an optical table with vibration isolation and, even so, the measurements have to take place under special laboratory conditions far from the manufacturing process. The measurement accuracy of the PSI methods is anyway better, compared to the fringe pattern analysis methods. Commercial PSI interferometers typically show a resolution of about =1000. Nowadays there is a general tendency for integration of the quality testing in the manufacturing process. As a consequence, there is an increasing demand for new interferometric concepts that allow the utilization of the interferometers concomitant with and close to the manufacturing process. In this context, the purpose of this work is to develop and to verify an innovative interferometric system that copes with the presence of vibrations in order to omit vibration isolation equipment. As it will be described, this new measurement principle actually makes use of the vibrations.
2. Vibration-Tolerant Interferometers

The data acquisition time in sequential PSI takes several frame times of the electronic camera, adding up to about 100 ms. The frequency spectrum of mechanical vibrations in buildings typically is dominated by the region between 20 Hz and 200 Hz [2]. Conventional PSI therefore is very sensitive to floor vibration, making expensive vibration isolation equipment necessary. In the last few years new PSI techniques have been developed that can be applied in the presence of vibrations. The basic idea of all these new techniques is to record the sequence of interferograms in a very short time interval or even simultaneously, resulting in the effect of shifting the sensitivity of the system to higher frequencies. In Wizinowich [3], a 2 1 algorithm is described that uses two interferograms with =2 phase-shift taken very rapidly by using a Pockels cell to switch between two phase-shifted, orthogonally polarized waves synchronously to the switch between the two half-frames of an interline-transfer CCD image sensor. A third image gives the average intensity across the aperture, which is obtained by superposition and averaging of two interferograms phase-shifted by . Several other approaches use the simultaneous phase-shifting interferometry. In Koliopoulos [4] and Millerd, et al. [5], a method is described where polarizing beam splitters and retardation plates are used to create four phase-shifted interferograms on four image sensors. In a similar way in Kihm [6] and Smythe and Moore [7] four phase-shifted interferograms are generated and imaged on one image sensor. In Millerd, et al. [8] an improved point diffraction interferometer that applies a polarizing point diffraction plate is presented.

With a further implementation of a holographic element in combination with a birefringent mask of four elements in front of the image sensor, also four phase-shifted interferograms are created on one CCD-chip. An alternative approach to the others is the use of a pixilated phase mask, which uses an array of micropolarizers very precisely matched to a CCD sensor array [9]. The array contains different types of elements with the transmission axis at 0, 45, 90, 135, which are arranged in groups of four and form the superpixel. Different types of phase-shiftinterferometers that make use of this method can be seen in Millerd [10] and Kimbrough [11]. Several vibration-tolerant phase-shifting solutions have been developed and demonstrated. Recording the interferograms at higher frame rates has the effect of moving the sensitivity to higher vibration frequencies. Instantaneous phase-shifting techniques use polarization components or holographic elements, splitting the beams in multiple paths, and phase-shifted interferograms are simultaneously recorded. In conclusion, the already available phaseshifting interferometric configurations that handle the presence of vibrations are quite complex and expensive systems. There is still a demand for lowbudget interferometers that work in the presence of vibration.
3. Random-Phase-Shift Interferometer

The interferometer presented in this paper was designed to work without vibration isolation and to use the random floor vibration as phase-shifter. In the case when the mechanical vibrations are not sufficient, the interferometer (more precisely the test plate) has to be deliberately perturbed to achieve random vibrations. This could be easily done by e.g. slightly striking the mechanical holder of the test plate with a finger or by mounting a small electromotor to the mechanical holder that has an imbalance. The challenging goal of this new approach is to determine the random-phase-shifts that are generated in this manner. We will begin by describing the experimental setup (Section 3.A) and randomly oscillating test plate (Section 3.B). We will then discuss the low spatial resolution detector system (Section 3.C), how it is used to determine the phase-shift (Section 3.D and 3.E) between interferograms, and how it is registered to the interferograms (Section 3.F). We complete this section by discussing a four-step algorithm appropriate to these random-phase-shifts.
A. Experimental Setup

The experimental arrangement of the Fizeau configuration is shown in Fig. 1. A He-Ne laser beam of 632:8 nm wavelength is directed to the spatial filter SF, using the mirrors M1 and M2 and is collimated with the collimating lens L1 to the test and reference round plates T and R.
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Fig. 1. (Color online) The experimental setup.

The reflected wavefronts from the test and reference surfaces are deviated by the beam splitter BS-1 and traced through a pinhole aperture. Further using the beam splitter BS-2 the interference field is divided and directed at two different detector systems. The reflected part is projected onto a CCD sensor array of a camera, which actually means a high spatial but low temporal resolution detector. The transmitted part is collimated by the collimating lens L2 and hits a high temporal but low spatial resolution detector system consisting of three photodiodes. The functional principle is basically as follows: the CCD camera records a few interferogram images with random-phase-shifts due to the influence of the vibrations. The camera runs at 25 fps with an exposure time of only 11 s, short enough to freeze mechanical vibrations. While the camera grabs several interferograms, the detector system consisting of three photodiodes continuously records the light intensities that occur at three locations in the interference field aperture, making possible as will be later described, the determination of the phase-shift for the entire test surface at each moment during the entire measurement. The reference plate is made of quartz, is 50 mm in diameter, and has a wedge angle of about 0:5 to prevent interference between waves reflected at front- and back-side. The front-side surface has =20 flatness, and the back-side surface, which is used as reference surface, has =27 flatness, as measured by the supplier. For the investigation of the new technique we used a test plate made of BK7 glass with a diameter of 50 mm and a wedge angle of 7. The surface topographies of both surfaces are measured and specified by the supplier as reference.
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From the peak-to-valley values flatness deviations of =8 and =11 result, respectively.
B. Randomly Oscillating Test Plate

A characteristic advantage of the Fizeau configuration against the TwymanGreen interferometer is the common paths for reference and test waves. This reduces the sensitivity of the optical components against internal vibrations and thermal effects considerably. In good approximation, only the relative movement of the reference and test plates generates the phase-shifts. The first distinguished element of the interferometer is the flexible postholder of the test plate. In Fig. 2 a cross-section of the mounting system of the test and reference plate is depicted. The postholders are fixed on the rail system of the interferometer. The geometric

Fig. 2. The mounting systems for reference and test plate. Both consist of a mechanical holder, but with a rigid postholder for the reference surface and a flexible postholder for the test plate.

form of the flexible postholder decides the character of the oscillations of the test plate under the influence of the mechanical vibrations. In-plane oscillations of the plate do not have an influence on the interferogram (at least as long as they are small in the order of a few m). In case of a flexible postholder in form of a parallelepiped like in the figure above, the width must be much larger than the thickness in order to suppress the in-plane oscillations. This form allows mostly only out-of-plane movements in form of tilt oscillations of the entire system formed by the flexible postholder, the mounting system and the test plate, about the X-axis at the base of the holder. We assume the vibration-induced movements of the plate as rigidbody shifts and tilts and we consider the flexible postholder as being the dominant elastic component of the system. In Fig. 2 it can be seen that the mechanical holder is the most massive component, so the mass of the plate can be neglected. It can be assumed that the eigenfrequencies of the oscillations are mainly determined by the flexible postholder form and dimensions and the mass of the mechanical holder. The characteristics of the oscillations depend only slightly on the tested object because its mass is considerably smaller than that of the mechanical holder. Several tests were made with postholders manufactured from aluminum with different profile thickness. As a result, different elastic constants and implicit different eigenfrequencies of the oscillating system were observed. The local intensity I of the interference field as a function of time t becomes Ix; y; t I 0 x; y; t I 00 x; y; t cosx; y x; y; t; 1 where I 0i is the intensity bias and I 00 the half peaki to-valley intensity. The x- and y-directions are perpendicular to the z-direction, which runs parallel to the optical axis. The main goal still remains to determine the random phase shifts x; y; t at every pixel for each interferogram recorded with the CCD camera. Preliminary tests were performed on a vibration isolation optical table, so to produce oscillations we used a piezoelectric transducer that acted directly on the flexible postholder. Starting with simple oscillating functions, like a sinusoidal signal, the system was gradually complicated with random oscillations, to simulate the influence of the floor vibrations. In this way, the oscillations of the test plate produced a continuous phase-shift between the test and reference plate.
C. Low Spatial Resolution Detector System

Fig. 3. (Color online) (a) Detector system consisting of three photodiodes. (b) The three corresponding noncollinear measurement points P1, P2, and P3 on the test surface which define the oscillating plane .

Under the assumption of rigid-body shifts and tilts of the test plate, the profile of the surface under test does not suffer any changes under the influence of the vibrations. Knowing this, any noncollinear combination of three measurement points on the test

surface defines an oscillating plane that describes exactly the oscillation of the entire surface [Fig. 3(b)]. In other words, it is sufficient to measure the vibrations at three locations with high temporal resolution in order to find the occurring phase-shifts at every point across the test surface. This is the reason why we use in this work a detector system consisting of three photodiodes, shown in Fig. 3(a). We have integrated three photodiodes with internal operational amplifier that ensures high signal-tonoise ratio even for low light intensities. The typical response times (the rise time and the decay time) of about 8 s provide a continuously high temporal resolution sampling. The sensitive area of each photodiode is 1 mm2. The analog signals of the photodiodes are connected through a National Instruments data acquisition card to a computer and show the dependence in time of the intensity of the He-Ne fringes at three different sampling points. In classic phase-shifting interferometry the reference plate is shifted with constant velocity in the direction of the Z-axis and introduces a linear phaseshift in time. In this case the signal of a photodiode has a sinusoidal form. Now having a look at Eq. (1), where the phase-shift x; y; t randomly varies due to the vibrations, we expect frequency modulated signals of the photodiodes. In order to make a correlation analysis between the photodiode signals and the test plate oscillations, a laser vibrometer from the company Polytech was used as a reference in the early phase of the project. The laser vibrometer signal is also connected through the acquisition card to the computer. Directing the laser spot onto the mechanical holder of the test plate, we obtain a quantitative evaluation of the test plate oscillation in the direction of the laser vibrometer beam. In Fig. 4 the analog signals from the photodiodes are shown together with the vibrometer signal on the same time axis. In this special case a sinusoidal oscillation with 100 Hz frequency was generated using the piezoelectric actuator. The signals have an arbitrary intensity
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the related shifts. The Eq. (2) enables the modulo 2 determination of the phase-shift time dependence at the three points on the test surface. Without loss of generality, considering i 0 we obtain ij t cos1 I i t I 0i ; I 00 i t ftj g; 3

Fig. 4. (Color online) The simultaneous photodiode signals and the vibrometer signal indicating correlation between the main extreme values and the extreme positions of the oscillating test plate.

bias. According to Eq. (1), the frequency modulation character of the signals can be observed. We can also identify on the photodiode signals the particular extreme values that are related to the extreme positions of the test plate, and we call them main extreme points. Between two main extreme values, the signals present a series of maxima and minima, concluding that phase-shifts up to several wavelengths are introduced. The value of the introduced phase-shift is a realistic assumption for the movement of the test plate under the influence of room vibrations. This was proved by experiments with random oscillations of the test plate caused by vibrations. A feature that has to be mentioned is the synchronous occurrence of the main extreme points at the three signals, a fact that proves the rigid-body oscillation of the plate and the dominance of a single bending mode of the post holder. The intervals defined by consecutive extreme points of the signals are related to =4 shifting of the three corresponding sampling points on the test surface. The signals present unequal numbers of extrema during a period of oscillation of the plate. This is caused by the different heights of the sampling points and proves the tilt oscillation of the plate about a rotation axis that is located outside of the plate.
D. Description of the Method

where j assigns the time intervals tj defined by consecutive extreme values of the signals. The successive deconvolution of the modulo phase from the Eq. (3) provides the time variation of the phase over the entire interval of the measurement. We can use for I 0i the average value of the signal. But this process correctly functions only when the same I 00 would exist i along the entire interval. The continuous variation of the fringes spatial frequency has influence on the fringe contrast and a slight amplitude modulation of the photodiode signals will always exist. But if we try to find an average value for I 00 during the entire meai surement time, there is an imminent risk to get the ratio jI i t I 0 =I 00 j > 1 for some regions of the interi vals. The noise of the signal can also lead to this unwanted effect. In these cases the Eq. (3) cannot be applied because the cos1 function would not be defined.
E. Fitting Process of the Photodiode Signal

The time dependency of the intensity measured by the photodiodes can be described as I i t I 0i I 00 cosi i t; i i t 4 z t; i i 1; 2; 3; 2

where i is the photodiodes index, i t is the time varying phase-shift introduced to the test beam corresponding to the three sampling points, and zi t are
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As a consequence of the amplitude modulation and of the noise, our approach is to fit, and further to normalize the signals. In case of pure sinusoidal or attenuated sinusoidal vibration oscillation, the fitting process may work on the entire measurement interval. But we must take into account that in reality we have random oscillations, and finding a proper fitting function becomes impossible. By properly dividing the signals in intervals, the fitting can be processed successively on each interval, see Fig. 5. First we subtract the average value I 0i and then we define the intervals between two consecutive zero crossing points. One may first tend to perform sinusoidal fits on the intervals, but due to the frequency modulated signals, this would not work correctly. We apply a polynomial fit and, due to the fact that the signals present one or three maxima on each interval, the fitting process with polynomials Pij t of sixth-order should be accurate enough. With the increase of the fringe spatial frequency, the modulation in amplitude becomes observable, but at the same time the number of the extreme points increases accordingly and the intervals get considerably narrower. Under these circumstances, it can be considered with good approximation that during each interval Pij t the signal contrast does not change. The absolute value of the fitting polynomials Pij t at the extreme points gives the value of the amplitudes I 00 for each j interval. Dividing now each Pij t ij polynomial by I 00, we get all normalized polynomials ij

PN t. After this we can apply the Eq. (3) in the ij form ij t cos1 PN t; ij 4

obtaining the modulo variation of the phase shift, for the related sampling point on the test surface, during the entire measurement time. By deconvolution of the modulo output the real variation in time of the phase-shift at the sampling point is obtained.

In Fig. 5 the intervals in which the phase result is added or subtracted, can be distinguished. Knowing the movement of three surface points in time and assuming the test plate to move as a rigid body the calculation of the local phase shift x; y; t as a function of time is straightforward. Knowing the position of three points of the shifted plane they can be inserted into the plane equation: A X B Y C Z D; 5

Fig. 5. Deconvolution of the modulo phase, resulting in the phase variation at the sampling point on the test plate. 20 December 2011 / Vol. 50, No. 36 / APPLIED OPTICS 6569

A, B, C define a vector normal to the plane, D the perpendicular distance between the plane and the origin. X, Y, Z are the coordinates of a point lying in the plane. With the three points X 1 ; Y 1 ; Z1 , X 2 ; Y 2 ; Z2 , X 3 ; Y 3 ; Z3 of a plane, the equation can be solved by calculation of A, B, C, and D using the determinants  1 Y  1   1 Y2 A   1 Y3  X  1 1  B  X2 1    X3 1  X  1 Y1  C  X2 Y2    X3 Y3  X  1 Y1  D  X2 Y2    X3 Y3  Z1 t    Z2 t ;   Z3 t   Z1 t    Z2 t ;   Z3 t   1   1 ;   1

 1 y  1  M  1 y2    1 y3  x 1  1  N  x2 1    x3 1   x1 y1   O  x2 y2  x y 3 3   x1 y1   P  x2 y2  x y 3 3

 1 t    2 t ;   3 t   1 t    2 t ;   3 t   1   1 ;  1  1 t    2 t :  t 
3

The resultant phase-shift at each x; y pixel becomes:

 Z1 t    Z2 t :   Z3 t 

x; y; t

P Mx Ny : O

Having only small amounts of tilt (about 5 105 ) of the test plate, the in-plane movement of the surface is neglected and only the rotational out-of-plane movement is considered to create phase-shifts. Hence the ZX; Y; t coordinates of the plane represent the phase-shifts due to vibration at every point of the testplate,

ZX; Y; t

D AX BY : C

In the same manner the phase-shift of the interference images for every pixel on the camera can be evaluated. The whole plane movement of the test surface can be calculated due to the measurement of the plane movement or phase-shift in three points by the photodiodes. Let x1 ; y1 , x2 ; y2 , and x3 ; y3 be the pixel coordinates of the sampling points on the CCD sensor and the Z1 , Z2 , Z3 coordinates are replaced by the phase-shifts 1 t, 2 t, 3 t in Z-direction. Applying Eq. (5) with the measured phase-shifts 1 t, 2 t, 3 t, the determinants are:
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Fig. 6. Measured photodiode signal dependent on the aperture position of the calibration mask in front of the sensitive photodiode area. (a) Shows the signal with partial overlapping between aperture and sensitive photodiode area, (b) with maximum overlapping.

In consequence, according to the Eq. (1) this enables the application of a PSI algorithm for random phase-shifts x; y; t.
F. Calibration of the Interferometer

Rx; y

I 1 x; y I 2 x; y ; I 3 x; y I 4 x; y 12

c12 cos 1 x; y cos 2 x; y; s12 sin 1 x; y sin 2 x; y; c34 cos 3 x; y cos 4 x; y; s34 sin 3 x; y sin 4 x; y:

Before the measurement, the interferometer was calibrated by determining the x, y position of the three photodiodes which measure the phase 1 t, 2 t, 3 t. Therefore a calibration mask is applied between reference and test plate crossing the beam path. This mask has an aperture with a diameter, which is equal to the width and height of the photodiode sensitive area. The light is reflected only through the aperture of the mask from the test plate. Thus interference can be recognized only at the location of the mask aperture on the CCD sensor. The photodiode can recognize interference in a case of the aperture overlapping [Fig. 6(a)]. If the mask aperture is accurately adjusted in x- and y-directions, the photodiode shows maximum intensity for the interference [Fig. 6(b)]. After adjustment, the aperture position, respectively the photodiode position, has to be found. For this purpose one image from a sequence is chosen, on which a bright interference fringe overlaps the aperture. Hence a bright spot with aperture size at the photodiode position appears on the CCD sensor. An algorithm for ellipse finding gives the x- and y-positions x1 ; y1 , x2 ; y2 , x3 ; y3 in pixels of the center point on the CCD sensor with subpixel accuracy.
G. Four-Step Algorithm with Random Phase-Shifts

The mod 2 ambiguities are then removed by applying an unwrapping algorithm as explained in detail in Greivenkamp [1]. The measured wavefront x; y is related to the height profile hx; y of the tested surface hx; y x; y: 4 13

4. Noise Sensitivity

Since the basic Eq. (1) of phase-shifting interferometry has three unknowns, a system of at least three equations is necessary. However, an algorithm with more than three equations will reduce the sensitivity to errors in the phase-shifts. We propose in our case an algorithm with four equations. Let us consider four interference frames recorded at the moments tk , with k 1, 2, 3, 4 and the random phase-shifts at each pixel k x; y. The following system results [12]: I 1 x; y I 0 x; y I 00 x; y cosx; y 1 x; y; I 2 x; y I 0 x; y I 00 x; y cosx; y 2 x; y; I 3 x; y I 0 x; y I 00 x; y cosx; y 3 x; y; I 4 x; y I 0 x; y I 00 x; y cosx; y 4 x; y; 10 with three unknowns: I 0 x; y, I 00 x; y, x; y for each pixel. Since the phase-shifts are random, the system does not simplify as in conventional PSI. The analytical solution can be given as  x; y tan with
1

This section deals with specific noise and its origin, which can appear during the analysis of the real surface topography from the taken interferograms, that leads to invalid data in some points. It is further described how to eliminate this noise by replacement of the invalid data points by valid data points. According to the phase-shift algorithm described above, the first measurements were performed by recording four interference images with random phaseshifts, shown in Fig. 7. For the topography analysis with the phase-shift algorithm, only the relative phase-shifts between the interference images are relevant. To obtain the relative phase-shift for every pixel it is possible to subtract one of the phase planes from all the other phase planes. The result is a quantitative analysis of the wavefront. Subtracting e.g. the first phase plane x; y; t1 , where tn depicts the acquisition time for the respective interference image, the phases become x; y; t11 x; y; t1 x; y; t1 0; x; y; t21 x; y; t2 x; y; t1 ; x; y; t31 x; y; t3 x; y; t1 ; x; y; t41 x; y; t4 x; y; t1 : 14

The result for the modulo 2 phase map is the first interference image. Because the first phase plane is subtracted we call it map 1234. The solution of the

 Rx; yc34 x; y c12 x; y ; s12 x; y Rx; ys34 x; y

11
Fig. 7. Measurement set with four sequentially recorded interference images with random phase shifts. 20 December 2011 / Vol. 50, No. 36 / APPLIED OPTICS 6571

Fig. 8. (a) Direct raw phase map solution 1234 of the algorithm given by the Eq. (11). (b) Wrapped phase map 1234 with values in the interval 0; 2.

equation system (10) provides the raw map of the measured wavefront shown in Fig. 8(a), with discontinuities at =2 to =2. To generate the real surface topography of the measured test surface by the unwrapping algorithm, first a conversion of the =2 phase map to a wrapped phase map with the interval 0 to 2 had to be implemented. The phase jumps of this wrapped phase map shown in Fig. 8(b) characterize the intensity maximum of the interference image. By comparing the wrapped phase map with the first interference image, it is obvious that the position of the intensity maximum fits exactly to the position of the phase jumps. That is a first proof for the validity of the measurement results generated by the algorithm. For the map 1234 the whole phase map has valid data without any gaps. But most often it appears that in some regions of the phase map a significant noise influence leads to invalid surface information. This case is shown in Fig. 9 where the tilt angle between reference and test plate is related to the fourth interference image, the phase of which is subtracted from all the others and thus results in the map 4123. Further investigation showed that the noise is caused by the argument of the tan1 function that is used for the solution of the measured wavefront in Eq. (11). In Fig. 9 the values for the nominator and denominator over the image pixels are shown. The intensity signals, which form the nominator and denominator (Eq. (12)), are effected by a high frequency noise that appeared during the image acquisition process. The errors on the phase map occur in case, when both, the values of the nominator and denominator are close to zero. Thus the noise has a significant influence on the result of the tan1 function because in a very small interval the phase can e. g. change very often the algebraic sign and vary between large or small values. Taking into account

Fig. 9. Phase map 4123 with the calculated nominator N and denominator D over a pixel column xi . The interval at which both Nxi ; y and Dxi ; y present small absolute values is characterized by nonaccurate data points. 6572 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 50, No. 36 / 20 December 2011

Fig. 12. (Color online) Surface topography of the test plate, measured by the manufacturer.

Fig. 10. Several modulo 2 phase maps for different combinations of four out of six interference images. The last image illustrates the final unwrapped result.

the Eqs. (12), it is also obvious that it is possible to get undefined values for two cases. First case is tan1 0=0 if the first image pair has the same intensity values at x and y position with an integer number of 2 phase difference. Second case is tan1 = if the second pair of images has the same intensity at x and y position. In conclusion, four interference images are not sufficient to provide accurate results

across the entire test surface. Each measurement may present regions of nonaccurate data. To overcome this problem it is possible to evaluate several phase maps with different error regions and cut out the invalid data points. Followed by averaging the grey values of the correspondent pixels over all phase maps, the error regions will be filled with obtained valid data. This is done by using the approach applied in the last example. By just changing the order of the interference images the resulting phase maps show the invalid data points in different positions. By taking e.g. six instead of four images, fifteen different combinations for four interference images are possible. This is already equivalent with fifteen multiple measurements with four images. The advantage of this method compared to

Fig. 11. (Color online) Surface topography of the test plate, measured by random-phase-shift interferometry. 20 December 2011 / Vol. 50, No. 36 / APPLIED OPTICS 6573

Fig. 13.

Distribution of the local RMS error, demonstrating the repeatability of random-phase-shift interferometry over two days.

the multiple measurements method is that every phase map is related to the same tilt angle of the test plate for four images. As told before, the subtraction of the tilt involves the subtraction of the fitting plane equation of the phase map. Consequently, the fitting planes may not exactly describe the tilts, since each measurement presents different domains with lack of data points. In Fig. 10 seven modulo 2 phase maps with different combinations of four interference images from totally six taken images are shown. The combinations are always related to the first interference image. The error regions with invalid data points were first identified by a threshold value of 0.3 for the absolute value of nominator N and denominator D, Nx; y jRx; yc34 x; y c12 x; yj < 0:3; Dx; y js12 x; y Rx; ys34 x; yj < 0:3; 15

and finally cut out. An image fusion technique is applied for all raw phase maps in Fig. 9 that allows obtaining the complete raw phase map. This is done by averaging the valid image information pixel by pixel over all raw phase maps. In this manner the error regions are filled with the average values of the remaining valid raw phase image information. The last image depicts the complete unwrapped surface map with the error regions filled with valid data points.
5. First Measurement Results

supplied by the manufacturer of the test plate (Fig. 12). The peak-to-valley distance measured by the random-phase-shift interferometer is 0.134 wave and 0.125 wave measured by the manufacturer. It has to be mentioned that in our interferometer the mounting ring of the test plate reduced the visible aperture of the test plate by 4 mm diameter, so the outer rim of the test surface in Fig. 12 is not visible in Fig. 11. Our laboratory setup was built from off-the-shelf components and is by no means optimized. The focus of our work was to investigate the repeatability of the results. This is not primarily governed by the quality of the optic but by the capability of the evaluation technique. We repeated the measurement ten times within two working days to get an estimation of the longterm stability. Between the single tests there were always time lapses of a few hours. The test plate remained in the mounting system and was adjusted before each measurement. The root-mean-square (RMS) over the ten different measurements was calculated. According to the definition, the RMS error function was applied to each data point x; y as follows: v u N u 1 X  hx; y hx; y2 ; RMSx; y t N 1 i1

16

Figure 11 shows the surface topography map of our test plate. It is in good agreement to the data
6574 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 50, No. 36 / 20 December 2011

where hx; y is the surface height, x; y is the average height value at each pixel, and N 10 is the number of measurements. The RMS map is shown in Fig. 13. Analyzing the map, an RMS 0; 004 can be evaluated, corresponding to approximately

2:5 nm for the 632:8 nm laser wavelength. The few spots of higher RMS values can be assigned to dust particles or multiple reflections.
6. Conclusions

Random-phase-shift interferometry has been demonstrated that has the potential of offering a lowcost alternative to sophisticated concepts of simultaneous-phase-shifting interferometers. Compared to conventional PSI systems not only the vibration isolated table can be omitted but also the precision device for introducing well-defined phase-shifts. Implemented on a quite simple experimental Fizeau setup our first results show excellent repeatability. This encourages us to continue the work. Our current focus is on developing a calibration procedure to transfer repeatability to measurement uncertainty. The authors gratefully acknowledge project funding by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) under grant TU 135/15.
References
1. J. E. Greivenkamp and J. H. Bruning, Phase shifting interferometry, in Optical Shop Testing, D. Malacara, ed. (Wiley, 2007), pp. 504505, 514515. 2. J. Hayes, Dynamic interferometry handles vibrations, in Proceeding of Laser Focus World, March 2002, pp. 109113.

3. L. Wizinowich, Phase shifting interferometry in the presence of vibration: a new algorithm and system, Appl. Opt. 29, 32713279 (1990). 4. C. Koliopoulos, Simultaneous phase-shift interferometer, Proc. SPIE 1531, 119127 (1992). 5. J. E. Millerd, N. J. Brock, and J. B. Hayes, Modern approaches in phase measurement metrology, Proc. SPIE 5856, 1422 (2005). 6. H. Kihm, A point-diffraction interferometer with vibrationdesensitizing capability, Proc. SPIE 6293, 62930B (2006). 7. R. Smythe and R. Moore, Instantaneous phase measuring interferometry, Opt. Eng. 24, 361364 (1984). 8. J. E. Millerd, N. J. Brock, J. B. Hayes, and J. C. Wyant, Instantaneous phase-shift point-diffraction interferometer, Proc. SPIE 5531, 264272 (2004). 9. N. Brock, J. B. Hayes, B. Kimbrough, J. E. Millerd, M. B. North-Morris, M. Novak, and J. C. Wyant, Dynamic interferometry, Proc. SPIE 5875, 58750F (2005). 10. J. E. Millerd, N. J. Brock, J. B. Hayes, M. B. NorthMorris, M. Novak, and J. C. Wyant, Pixelated phasemask dynamic interferometer, Proc. SPIE 5531, 304314 (2004). 11. B. Kimbrough, J. E. Millerd, J. C. Wyant, and J. B. Hayes, Low coherence vibration insensitive Fizeau interferometer, Proc. SPIE 6292, 62920F (2006). 12. N. Doloca and R. Tutsch, Random phase shift interferometer, in Proceeding of Fringe 2005The 5th International Workshop on Automatic Processing of Fringe Patterns, W. Osten, ed. (Springer Verlag, 2005), pp. 167174.

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