ISBN 952-10-2817-3 (pdf) ISSN 1235-4449

3.5. Nutrient fluxes in managed boreal forests

Leena Finr1 , Hannu Mannerkoski 2, Sirpa Piirainen1 , Ari Laurn1, Harri Koivusalo3, Teeemu Kokkonen3, Sari Penttinen4,5 Joensuu Research Centre, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P. O. Box 68, 80101 Joensuu, Finland, e-mail: leena.finer@metla.fi ( ); 2Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu; 3Laboratory of Water Resources, Helsinki University of Technology; 4Eastern Finland Office, Geological Survey of Finland; 5current address: Finnish Naval Research Institute
1

FUNCTIONING OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS

Basic structure Boreal forest ecosystems cover 73 % of the land area of Finland, and the rest of the area comprises mainly of open mires (5 %), inland water (8 %) and agricultural ecosystems (10 %) (Peltola 2001). Forest ecosystems are built up of organic and inorganic components (Fig. 1). The organic components consist of living and dead trees, understorey vegetation, fauna and microbes. Characteristic species in the Finnish and Scandinavian boreal forest ecosystems are the conifers: Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies Karsten). Associated to these coniferous species there are often deciduous trees such as birches (Betula pendula Roth, Betula pubescens Ehrh.), aspen (Populus tremula L.) and alders (Alnus incana L. Moench, Alnus glutinosa L. Gaertner). The deciduous species may be dominating in early successional stages. There is more variation in the understorey plant species composition between different forest sites than in the overstorey. Dwarf shrubs (e.g. Vaccinium myrtillus L., Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) are common in the field layer in most sites with medium or poor fertility. Grasses, sedges and herbs are typical in fertile sites. The forest bottom layer is often covered by mosses. The feather mosses (e.g. Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.) B. S.& G. and Pleurozium schreberi Brid.) are dominant on upland mineral soils and the Sphagnum mosses on mires. The dead organic components form an organic layer covering the mineral soil. In upland sites the organic layer is typically mor, moder or mull with thickness less than 30 cm. The living soil fauna and microbes are mainly found in the surface layers of soil. Accumulation of a thick organic layer (> 30 cm) indicates poor aeration of soil and formation of peat. One third of Finnish forests are located on peatlands, part of which have been drained to improve aeration in the root zone of trees. Inorganic components of a forest soil ecosystem are found in mineral soil beneath the organic surface layer. Three quarters of the upland mineral forest soils are glacial tills and the rest are glacial or postglacial sediments consisting mainly of gravel and sand deposits. Most of the clay soils are in agricultural use. Average thickness of the mineral soil layer is 7 m, but occasionally the underlying bedrock is exposed to the surface. The bedrock consists mainly of granites, gneisses and schists (Koljonen 1992). Both bedrock and mineral soil tend to have very low weathering rates (Johansson and Tarvainen 1997). The mineral Anneli Jalkanen & Pekka Nygren (eds.) 2005. Sustainable use of renewable natural resources from principles to practices. University of Helsinki Department of Forest Ecology Publications 34. http://www.helsinki.fi/mmtdk/mmeko/sunare

Finr et al.

Fig. 1. Schematic presentation of the nutrient pools and fluxes and the nutrient release and retention in boreal forests.

soil layers close to the surface (down to a depth of 1 m) have undergone podzolisation processes during the post-glacial period, and the eluvial and illuvial layers are often easily distinguished.

Nutrient pools and fluxes The water and nutrient pools and fluxes are intensively studied in eastern Finland at Kangasvaara catchment, which will be used as an example in this paper. Kangasvaara is a first-order catchment of 56 ha. Ninety-two percent of the catchment is covered by upland forest and the rest by peatland. Forests are mixed, Norway spruce dominated, and were pristine until the clear-cutting of 19 ha in 1996 and soil preparation before planting in 1998. Plot and catchment scale studies on nutrient pools and fluxes have been carried out on the catchment since 1992. More detailed description of the methods and results are in Finr et al. (1997, 2003, 2004), Palviainen (2004a, 2004b, 2005), Piirainen et al. (1998, 2002a, 2002b, 2002c, 2004) and the web pages of the project (http://www.metla.fi/hanke/3383/valu/index-en.htm, cited 22. Feb 2005).

Nutrient fluxes in managed boreal forests

Fig. 2. Nitrogen pools (kg ha-1) in a mature Norway spruce dominated forest at Kangasvaara (stem volume 260 m3 ha-1) before and immediately after clear-cutting. Logging residues left on the site were added to the dead vegetation pool together with the root systems. For more details see Finr et al. (2003).

Vegetation and soil in the root zone (20-60 cm below the soil surface) contain the most important nutrient pools of the boreal forest ecosystem. This is also evident from Fig. 2, which shows the size of different nitrogen pools in the mature Norway spruce dominated forest located at Kangasvaara catchment (Finr et al. 2003). Nutrient cycles are dominated by fluxes between vegetation and soil. Plants take up carbon from the atmosphere and nutrients from the soil and accumulate them into the living biomass. Nitrogen is also taken up directly by the foliage from the precipitation intercepted by the canopy. Nutrients in the vegetation pool are transferred to the soil pool either relatively rapidly by throughfall, stemflow, and litterfall of leaves, branches and fine roots, or slowly (several decades) by the death of tree stems and coarse roots. Carbon and nutrients are released, when the litter is gradually decomposed by the soil fauna and microbes. While most of the carbon is released back to the atmosphere, some carbon is immobilised or adsorbed in the soil, or leached into the groundwater and watercourses. Other mineralised nutrients are either taken up by the vegetation, immobilised, adsorbed in the soil, or leached into the groundwater and watercourses. Nutrient additions into the ecosystem are received from the atmosphere by dry and wet deposition (bulk deposition) and from soil minerals by weathering. Usually the nutrient cycle in

Finr et al.

Fig. 3. Nitrogen fluxes (kg ha-1 a-1) in a mature Norway spruce dominated forest at Kangasvaara (stem volume 260 m3 ha-1) before (1993-1996) and after clear-cutting (1997-1999). For more details see Ahtiainen et al. (2003) and Piirainen et al. (2002a).

undisturbed boreal forests is almost closed with only minor losses (e.g. Tamm 1991). According to Piirainen et al. (2002a), this is also true for the nitrogen cycle in the Norway spruce dominated forest at Kangasvaara (Fig. 3). However, difficulties in estimating root and understorey vegetation turnover cause uncertainty to the nutrient uptake estimates. Wild fires have earlier been the major disturbance in the development of the Fennoscandian boreal forest ecosystem. Nowadays they are effectively controlled and forest management practices are partly playing the same role as the fires earlier. About 90 % of the Finnish forests are intensively managed for wood production (Peltola 2001). Some 250 000 ha of forest are cut annually, of which 120 000150 000 ha are subject to clear-cutting and subsequent soil preparation and the rest to thinnings. Harvesting is mostly carried out using the stem-only method, where only stems with bark are removed and other parts, i.e. logging residues, are left on the site. With the harvested stems, nutrients are removed from the forest ecosystem, and the nutrients released from the logging residues are susceptible to leaching if they are not retained by soil, ground vegetation or seedlings. Nutrients leaching into watercourses can cause eutrophication or they can affect the acidity of water. Further, the removal of nutrients from the forest with harvested timber can reduce productivity of the site. Figs 2 and 3 show as an example of the immediate changes in nitrogen pools after clear-cutting with stem-only method and the average fluxes before and after clear-cutting of the mature Norway spruce dominated forest at Kangasvaara.

Nutrient fluxes in managed boreal forests Nutrient fluxes at catchment level Water is the carrying agent of nutrients in soil. Water including dissolved nutrients moves vertically through the forest canopy and soil to the groundwater, where it is transported mainly horizontally to the watercourses. Water and dissolved nutrients can also move horizontally with surface runoff and with rapid subsurface flow in conductive layers close to the soil surface. The relative importance between different flowpaths has not clearly been quantified through experimentation in boreal forests. The water moving as groundwater to the watercourses has much lower nutrient concentrations than the water which is in contact with soil layers close to the surface. A catchment with all its forest and other land use compartments forms a basic unit for quantifying the water and nutrient fluxes transported to the downstream watercourse. The effects of forest management practises can be monitored in small forested first-order catchments where the downstream watercourse is often a brook or a small lake. In larger catchments comprising several land-use types, it is difficult to separate the effects of forest management from other factors controlling nutrient concentrations in a river or lake.

EFFECTS OF FOREST CUTTING ON NUTRIENT EXPORT TO THE GROUNDWATER AND WATERCOURSES, AND ON THE SOIL NUTRIENT STATUS

Importance of different elements Forest clear-cutting has a significant effect on the magnitude of water fluxes and on the water quality. The effect of forest thinning has been estimated to be less important (Kenttmies and Alatalo 1999). Water quality parameters potentially affected by a clearcutting include: the concentrations of suspended solids, different forms of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, base cations, sulphate, different fractions of aluminium and iron, heavy metals, mercury and hydrogen. Among the most important and common water quality parameters monitored after clear-cutting are the nitrate concentration of groundwater, and the concentrations of different nitrogen and phosphorus fractions in surface waters. Low phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations limit the productivity in surface water ecosystems and therefore increased export of these nutrients causes eutrophication. High nitrate concentrations limit the use of groundwater as drinking water. Different forestry operations like maintenance of the drainage ditch network, forest harvesting, and fertilization account for 7 % of the total nitrogen load of 46 730 000 kg and 9 % of the total phosphorus load of 3 660 000 kg to the watercourses in Finland (Kenttmies 2003). At the national level, agriculture is the greatest contributor to nutrient loads to watercourses. The role of different forest management practices on the nitrogen and phosphorus loads has been evaluated for the year 2010 based on the specific load estimates and the extent of different management practices in the National Forestry Programme 2010 (Kenttmies and Alatalo 1999). In 2010, final cuttings and related soil preparations will account for 24 % of the forestry nitrogen load and 15 % of the forestry phosphorus load. Forest ditch maintenance will cause the largest loads of all forestry operations in 2010 as they do today. Forest fertilization has also some importance in controlling the amount of nutrient loads leaching from managed forest areas.

Finr et al.
Table 1. The increase in annual runoff, (mm per removed 10 m3 of harvested timber per catchment area in hectares) and annual total phosphorus (Tot. P), phosphate phosphorus (PO4-P), total nitrogen (Tot. N), nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) and ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N), suspended solids and potassium (K) loads (kg ha-1) before clearcutting and their increase, i.e. specific load, (kg ha-1) induced by clear-cutting and soil preparation on four forested catchments in eastern Finland (Ahtiainen and Huttunen 1999, Ahtiainen et al. 2003). B = before cutting, C = average for years 1-3 after cutting, CS = average for years 3-6 after cutting.
Runoff Tot. P* PO4-P Tot. N NO2+3-N NH4-N Suspended K solids 0.04 0.18 0.63 0.02 0 0.01 0.06 0.13 0.29 0.04 0.20 0.58 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.03 0 0.18 3.6 5.1 1243 4.0 5.8 1 2.5 4.7 2.4 1.54 1.95 5.70 1.36 1.95 2.05 1.36 1.52 4.79

Murtopuro

B C CS B C CS B C CS

9.7 5.2

0.15 0.82 1.10 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.06 0 0.12

0.1 0.6 0.4 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.013 0 0.004

2.06 3.15 6.50 1.57 0.55 0.43 1.78 0 1.64

Kivipuro

3.6 5.1

Iso-Kauhea

0 8.6

Kangasvaara B C CS 4.5 7.2 0.017 0.005 0.006 0.003 0 0.004 0.48 0.34 0.58 0.02 0 0.23 0.01 0 0 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.90 0.73 1.07

* Samples from Murtopuro and Kivipuro not filtered

Fluxes to surface waters Several catchment studies have been carried out in Fennoscandian boreal forests to study the effects of clear-cutting on the nutrient load to watercourses (e.g. Grip 1982, Rosn 1984, Rosn et al. 1996, Lepist et al. 1995, Ahtiainen and Huttunen 1999, Ahtiainen et al. 2003). The results have been variable and affected by e.g. the amount of removed timber, the area of the catchment, the distance to the watercourse, the type of the buffer zone, the time from the cutting, and the type of the soil preparation method. Since nutrients are transported with the water, the increase in runoff also increases the export of nutrients. This relationship is not always linear. According to Ahtiainen and Huttunen (1999) and Ahtiainen et al. (2003) the annual runoff from a catchment increases by 410 mm for every 10 m3 of removed timber per hectare of the catchment area (Table 1). The export of most nutrients also increases soon after the clear-cutting. The export peaks within 35 years and returns to the pre-treatment level in 515 years (Rosn et al. 1996, Ahtiainen and Huttunen 1999). Nutrients can leach from logging residues, dead ground vegetation, and soil organic pool. Water, which is moving

Nutrient fluxes in managed boreal forests

Table 2. Mean annual concentrations (mg l-1) of different compounds in bulk precipitation, throughfall, and in groundwater and stream water during calibration period at forested Kangasvaara catchment in eastern Finland (Piirainen 2002a, 2002c, Ahtiainen et al. 2003, Mannerkoski et al. 2003).
NH4-N Bulk precipitation Throughfall Groundwater Streamwater 0.25 0.11 0.09 0.003 NO3-N 0.21 0.15 0.002 0.002 Ca 0.17 0.57 0.75 1.23 K 0.20 0.20 0.62 0.302

horizontally at the soil surface or in the organic layer just below the soil surface, has high nutrient concentrations (e.g. Piirainen et al. 2002a, 2002c). If it comes into a contact with deeper mineral soil layers most nutrients can be immobilized in the soil. An uncut buffer zone between the stream and the clear-cut area retains elements and decreases especially the export of suspended solids (Ahtiainen and Huttunen 1999, Ahtiainen et al. 2003) (Table 1).

Fluxes to groundwater Concentrations of mineral nitrogen are lower and the concentrations of base cations tend to be higher in groundwater than in the bulk precipitation or soil water (Table 2). Nitrogen is taken up effectively from soil water in nitrogen limited ecosystems but more base cations enter the soil water by atmospheric deposition and weathering than are taken up by plants or immobilised in soil (Starr et al. 1998). Forest soils consisting of glacial tills or peat have often low hydraulic conductivities, whereas forest soils consisting of glaciofluvial sediments (i.e. gravel and sand) have much higher conductivities making areas with such soils important for groundwater formation. In Finland, groundwater resources have been inventoried and those, which are potential sources for household water cover 9 235 km2 (Class I and II) i.e. 3.5 % of the land area. Forest management methods applied in the groundwater formation areas do not differ from those that are in use in the other forest areas. Only heavy soil preparation methods and fertilizations are avoided to diminish the risk of nutrient leaching to groundwater. Clear-cutting has increased only the nitrate nitrogen concentrations of groundwater with glacial till and sandy soils (Kubin 1995, 1998, Rusanen et al. 2004). The increase has been long-lasting, but nitrate nitrogen concentrations have in all cases remained low even after the treatments and far below 11 mg l-1, which is the upper limit for household water in Finland (Sosiaali- ja terveysministerin 2000).

Removal of nutrients in forest harvesting The amount of nutrients removed from forest sites with harvested timber is much bigger than the amount that leaches into the watercourses. Finnish boreal forests on upland mineral soils are nitrogen limited, unlike forests in some southern Scandinavian areas, which are nitrogen saturated due to a high atmospheric deposition. On drained peatlands 7

Finr et al.
Table 3. Distribution of nutrients (kg ha-1) between stem (including bark) and logging residues (tops, branches and foliage) in a mature and a young Scots pine stand (Mlknen et al. 2001).
Amount of removed timber 210 m ha 40 m ha
3 3 -1

N Stem Residues Stem Residues 58 79 17 41

P 5.6 6.1 0.9 4.6

K 38 34 7.8 13.0

-1

forest growth is mostly limited by low supply of phosphorus and potassium. The stem only harvesting, which is the main harvesting method in the Fennoscandia leaves the tops, branches, leaves and root systems in the forest. This results in a smaller nutrient loss from the ecosystem compared to the whole tree harvesting where all above-ground parts are removed from the site (Table 3). Whole tree harvesting has reduced growth of young stands of Norway spruce by 17 m3 ha-1 (12 %), and Scots pine by 5 m3 ha-1 (7 %), in upland mineral soils over a period of 10 years after thinning. This is most probably caused by the reduction in nitrogen supply (Jacobson and Kukkola 1999, Mlknen et al. 2001). Nutrient budget studies on peatland forests show that the reduction in potassium and boron of the ecosystem can be significant in drained peatland forests and can reduce productivity of the site (Finr 1991). In upland soils, the nutrient additions come from atmospheric deposition, biological nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere and weathering from soil minerals. These inputs are, however, small and most probably cannot compensate for the losses of regular whole tree harvesting. In the drained peatlands, the situation is even more critical since there is hardly any net input of elements into the root zone. Fertilization can be used to compensate for the losses, and the recycling of wood ash back to the forest could be a possibility for compensating the mineral nutrients (excluding nitrogen) removed from the site (Mlknen et al. 2001).

Tools for managing nutrient fluxes in forest ecosystems Long-term nutrient budget and flux estimates at stand and catchment level, including the changes induced by different forestry operations, would be useful tools in managing the nutrient status of forest soils and nutrient fluxes into the watercourses in a sustainable way. Advances in geoscientific methods, in environmental and ecological modelling and in GIS-based data processing can be utilised in multi-disciplinary process modelling when predicting environmental impacts of forest management. One of these new computational tools under development is the FEMMA system, which is constructed by combining existing hydrological, forest ecological, and solute transport models. In the FEMMA system, the one-dimensional FINNFOR model accounts for the hydrological and biochemical processes taking place in the forest canopy and in the soil-root system (Kellomki et al. 1993). The forest routine is run for the predominant vegetation types, and it produces an input to models describing lateral water and nutrient fluxes within the study catchment. Two different schemes, which account for the transport in surface and subsurface waters, are applied. One is a two-

Nutrient fluxes in managed boreal forests dimensional hillslope hydrological model (CPM) (Karvonen et al. 1999), which describes the soil water movement, runoff generation and nitrogen dynamics along a typical longitudinal section from a water divide to a stream. The other scheme tested is a three-dimensional groundwater and solute transport model (MODFLOW) (McDonald and Harbaugh 1988, Zheng 1990, Zheng and Wang 1998, Konikow et al. 1996). The aim of the FEMMA system is that, in the future, it can be operated with easily available forest management plan data, geoinformation data, and climatic data to make calculations of the effects of different forest management practices on soil nutrient status and export of nutrients into watercourses.

CONCLUSIONS

Boreal forest ecosystems effectively retain nutrients even after disturbances like clearcutting and the nutrient losses are small compared to the amounts of nutrients cycled in the system. Catchment scale studies and modelling exercises are important in quantifying the importance of different water and nutrient pathways within the catchment. Process models can be developed in the future to offer an operational tool to foresters and environmental officers for managing the water and nutrient fluxes of forested catchments.

REFERENCES

Ahtiainen, M., Finr, L., Haapanen, M., Kenttmies, K., Mattsson, T. & Rm, A. 2003. Nkyvtk hakkuun ja maanmuokkauksen vaikutukset valumaveden laadussa tehoavatko ympristnsuojeluohjeet? In: Finr, L., Laurn, A. & Karvinen, L. (eds.) Ajankohtaista metstalouden ympristkuormituksesta tutkimustietoa ja tykaluja seminaari Kolin Luontokeskus Ukko 23.9.2002. Metsntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 886: 25-34. (in Finnish) & Huttunen, P. 1999. Metstaloustoimenpiteiden pitkaikaisvaikutukset purovesien laatuun ja kuormaan. Boreal Environment Research 4 (2): 101-114. Finr, L. 1991. Effect of fertilization on dry mass accumulation and nutrient cycling in Scots pine on an ombrotrophic bog. Acta Forestalia Fennica 223. 42 p. , Mannerkoski, H., Piirainen, S. & Starr, M. 2003. Carbon and nitrogen pools in an old-growth, Norway spruce mixed forest in eastern Finland and changes associated with cleat-cutting. Forest Ecology and Management 174(1-3): 51-63. , Kortelainen, P., Mattsson, T., Ahtiainen, M., Kubin, E. & Sallantaus, T. 2004. Sulphate and base cation leaching from unmanaged forested catchments in Finland. Forest Ecology and Management 195:115-128. , Ahtiainen, M., Mannerkoski, H., Mttnen, V., Piirainen, S., Seuna, P. & Starr, M. 1997. Effects of harvesting and scarification on water and nutrient fluxes. A description of catchments and methods, and results from the pretreatment calibration period. The Finnish Forest Research Institute. Research Papers 648. 38 p. Grip, H. 1982. Water chemistry and runoff in forest streams at Kloten. Uppsala Universitet Naturgeografiska Institutionen UNGI 58. 144 p.

Finr et al. Jacobson, S. & Kukkola, M. 1999. Skogsbrnsleuttag i gallring ger knnbara tillvxtfrluster. Skogforsk. Resultat 13. 4 p. (in Swedish) Johansson, M. & Tarvainen, T. 1997. Estimation of weathering rates for critical load calculations in Finland. Environmental Geology 29 (3/4): 158-164. Karvonen. T., Koivusalo, H. Jauhiainen, M., Palko, J. & Weppling, K., 1999. A hydrological model for predicting runoff from different land use areas. Journal of Hydrology 217 (3-4): 253-265. Kellomki, S., Visnen, H. & Strandman, H. 1993. Finnfor: A model for calculating the response of boreal forest ecosystem to climate change. University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry. Research Notes 6. 120 p. Kenttmies, K. 2003. Tilanne ja tavoitteet metstalouden ympristkuormituksen vhentmiseksi. In: Finr, L., Laurn, A. & Karvinen, L. (eds.) Ajankohtaista metstalouden ympristkuormituksesta tutkimustietoa ja tykaluja seminaari Kolin Luontokeskus Ukko 23.9.2002. Metsntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 886: 9-16. (in Finnish) & Alatalo, M. 1999. Metstalouden toimenpiteiden aiheuttama kasviravinteiden huuhtoutuminen ja kansallisen metsohjelman suositustason vaikutus siihen. Liite 6.4. In: Hildn, M., Kuuluvainen, J., Ollikainen, M., Pelkonen, P. & Primmer, E. (eds.) Kansallisen metsohjelman ympristvaikutusten arviointi. Maa- ja metstalousministeri. Loppuraportti 17.9.1999. (in Finnish) Koljonen, T.E. 1992. Bedrock. In: Koljonen, T. (ed.). The Geochemical Atlas of Finland. Part 2: Till. Geological Survey of Finland. Espoo. p. 51-59. Konikow, L. F., Goode, D. J. & Homberger, G. Z., 1996. A three-dimensional methodof-characteristics solute-transport model. U. S. Geological Survey. Water Resources Investigations Report 96-4267. Kubin, E. 1995. The effect of clear cutting, waste wood collecting and site preparation on the nutrient leaching to groundwater. In: Nilsson, L. O., Huttl, R. F. & Johansson, U.T. (eds.) Nutrient uptake and cycling in forest ecosystems. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 661-670. 1998. Leaching of nitrate nitrogen into the groundwater after clear felling and site preparation. Boreal Environment Research 3 (1): 3-8. Lepist, A., Seuna, P., Saukkonen, S. & Kortelainen, P. 1995. Hakkuun vaikutus hydrologiaan ja ravinteiden huuhtoutumiseen rehevilt metsvaluma-alueilta Etel-Suomessa. In: Saukkonen, S. & Kenttmies, K. (eds.)1995. Metstalouden vesistvaikutukset ja niiden torjunta. METVE-projektin loppuraportti. Suomen ymprist 2: 73-84. (in Finnish) Mlknen, E., Kukkola, M. & Finr, L. 2001. Energiapuun korjuu ja metsmaan ravinnetase. In: Nurmi, J. & Kokko, A. (eds.) Biomassan tehostetun talteenoton seurannaisvaikutukset metsss. Metsntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 816: 3143. (in Finnish) Mannerkoski, H., Finr, L., Piirainen, S. & Starr, M. 2005. Effect of clear-cutting and site preparation on the quality of groundwater in some headwater watersheds in eastern Finland. University of Joensuu. Forest Ecology and Management (in print). McDonald, M. G. & Harbaugh, A. W. 1988. A modular three-dimensional finitedifference ground-water flow model. USGS, Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the United States Geological Survey, Book 6, Chapter A1. 586 p. Palviainen, M., Finr, L., Kurka, A.-M., Mannerkoski, H., Piirainen, S. & Starr, M. 2004a. Release of potassium, calcium, iron and aluminium from Norway spruce, Scots pine and silver birch logging residues. Plant and Soil 259: 123-136. 10

Nutrient fluxes in managed boreal forests , Finr, L., Kurka, A.-M., Mannerkoski, H., Piirainen, S. & Starr, M. 2004b. Decomposition and nutrient release from logging residues after clear-cutting of a mixed boreal forest. Plant and Soil 263: 53-67. , Finr, L., Mannerkoski, H., Piirainen, S. & Starr, M: 2005. Changes in the aboveand below-ground biomass and nutrient pools of ground vegetation after clearcutting of a mixed boreal forest. Plant and Soil (in print). Peltola, A. 2001. Finnish Statistical Yearbook of Forestry 2000, Jyvskyl, Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery 2001:52. 374 p. (in Finnish with English summary) Piirainen, S., L. Finr, L., Mannerkoski, H. & Starr, M. 2002a. Effects of forest clearcutting on the carbon and nitrogen fluxes through podzolic soil horizons. Plant and Soil 239(2): 301-311. , Finr, L., Mannerkoski, H., & Starr, M. 2002b. Effects of forest clear-cutting on the carbon and nitrogen fluxes through podzolic soil horizons. Plant and Soil 239: 301-311. , Finr, L., Mannerkoski, H. & Starr, M. 2004. Effects of forest clear-cutting on sulphur, phosphorus and base cations fluxes through podzolic soil horizons. Biogeochemistry 69: 405-424. , Finr, L. & Starr, M. 1998. Canopy and soil retention of nitrogen deposition in a mixed boreal forest in eastern Finland. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 105: 165174. , Finr, L. & Starr, M. 2002c. Deposition and leaching of sulphate and base cations in a mixed boreal forest in eastern Finland. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 133(1-4): 185-204. Rosn, K. 1984. Effect of clear-felling on runoff in two small watersheds in Central Sweden. Forest Ecology and Management 9(4): 267-281. , Aronson, J.-A. & Eriksson, H.M. 1996. Effects of clear-cutting in forest catchments in central Sweden. Forest Ecology and Management 83(3): 237-244. Rusanen, K., Finr, L., Antikainen, M., Korkka-Niemi, K., Backman, B. & Britschgi, R. 2004. The effect of forest cutting on the quality of groundwater in large aquifers in Finland. Boreal Environment Research 9: 253-261. Starr, M., Lindroos, A.-J., Tarvainen, T., Tanskanen, H., 1998. Weathering rates in the Hietajrvi Integrated Monitoring catchment. Boreal Environment Research 3: 275-285. Sosiaali- ja terveysministerin asetus talousveden laatuvaatimuksista ja valvontatutkimuksista. 2000. Suomen sdskokoelma 2000(461): 1111-1123. (in Finnish) Tamm, C. O. 1991. Nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems: Questions of productivity, vegetational changes, and ecosystem stability. Ecological Studies 81. Springer. Berlin. 115 p. Zheng, C. 1990. MT3D, a modular three-dimensional transport model. S.S. Papadopulos & Associates, Inc., Rockville, Maryland. & Wang, P. P., 1998. MT3DMS, A modular three-dimensional multispecies transport model for simulation of advection, dispersion and chemical reactions of contaminatns in groundwater systems. Documentation and Users Guide. Departments of Geology and Mathematics, University of Alabama.

11