Chapter 4 Surfaces, Tribology, Dimensional Characteristics, Inspection and Product Q lit Assurance P d t Quality A

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Surface Characteristics and Tribology

Surface conditions of a manufacturing part directly influence the processing and end use of that part: friction at tool/workpiece interface and wear of tools effectiveness and control of lubrication during processing (forging, stamping, (forging stamping rolling) and in end use (bearing shafts (bearing, shafts, all rotating and moving elements) appearance and the role of the surface in subsequent surface finishing operations (painting adhesive bonding (painting, bonding, coating) initiation of surface cracks and residual stresses that influence fatigue life and corrosion properties heat transfer and electrical conductivity between two bodies contacting each other

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Surface Structure and Properties

Unless the metal is process and kept in an inert (oxygen free) environment, environment or it is a noble metal such as gold or platinum an platinum, oxide layer usually develops on top of the work-hardened or amorphous layer.

Cross-Section of Metal Surface

FIGURE 4.1 Schematic illustration of the cross-section of the surface structure of metals. The thickness of the individual layers depends on processing conditions and th environment. S d the i t Source: Aft E. Rabinowicz and B Bh h After E R bi i d B. Bhushan.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Examples of Oxide Layers Iron oxide (FeO layer+Fe3O4 layer+Fe2O3 layer) Aluminum oxide- Al2O3 (an amorphous layer) Copper oxide (Cu2O layer +CuO layer) Stainless steel Chromium oxide CrO (passivation)

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Surface Structure and Properties At microscale the surface of a manufactured part is not smooth and may show various different features: microcracks, craters, folds, laps, seams, inclusions, p plastic deformation, residual stresses, oxide layer , , y metallurgical transformations (heat affected zone, decarburization, recast layer, phase transformations, alloy depletion)

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Surface Finish and Surface Texture Surface finish should be considered in 3D. However, often the definition of surface parameters is based on a 2D profile section Flaws, or defects are random irregularities, such as cracks, scratches, seams, scratches seams or tears Lay, or directionality, is the direction of the predominant surface pattern Roughness consists of closely spaced, irregular deviations Waviness is recurrent deviation from a flat surface

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Surface Finish

FIGURE 4 2 (a) standard terminology and symbols used to describe surface finish. 4.2 finish The quantities are given in in. (b) Common surface-lay symbols. Manufacturing Processes Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Measuring g Surface Roughness

FIGURE 4.4 (a) Measuring surface roughness with a stylus. The rider supports the stylus and guards against damage. (b) Path of the stylus in measurements of surface roughness (broken line) compared with the actual roughness profile. Note that the profile of the styluss path is smoother than the actual surface profile source; D. H. Buckley. Typical surface profiles produced by (c) lapping, (d) finish grinding, (e) rough grinding, and (f) turning processes. Note the difference between the vertical and horizontal scales. Source: D. B. Dallas (ed.), Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, 3d. Ed. Copyright 1976 , McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Used with Permission.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Measured Surface Roughness Profile

FIGURE 4.3 Coordinates used for measurement of surface roughness, using Eqs. (4.2) and (4.2).

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Surface Roughness Profile Height, Pt is the vertical distance between two parallel straight lines enveloping the acquired unfiltered profile within the evaluation length, lm.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Surface Roughness Surface roughness is generally described with 1 of 2 methods Ra- Arithmetic Mean Value- the average of the absolute values Value of the deviations from the center line of the surface a + b + c + d +... Ra = n Rq (formerly RMS)- Root Mean Squareda 2 + b 2 + c2 + d 2 +... Rq = n

Both generally given in micrometers (microns) or microinches

1 m = 10-6 m 40 in human hair 40 m
Prof. Tugrul Ozel

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Surface Roughness (continued)

Arithmetic mean value, (Ra)

Ra

1 = L

a + b + c + d + ... Root-mean-square ) 0 y d x = average, (Rqn

L

Rq =

+ b2 + c2 + d n

+ ...

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Surface Roughness (continued) Datum line AB is located such that the sum of the areas q above the line is equal to the sum of areas below the line Maximum roughness height (Rt) is the height from the deepest valley to the highest peak Values Ra, Rq, Rt are given in m or in (1m=40in) (1m 40in) Symbols for surface roughness

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Tribology: Friction, Wear and Lubrication gy ,

Real Area of Contact (a) Interface of two contacting surfaces, showing the real areas of contact (b) the proportion of the apparent area to the real area of contact.

The ration of the areas can be as high as four to five orders of magnitude.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Friction
Friction is defined as the resistance to relative sliding between two bodies in contact under a normal load. It is useful to consider that at microscale the interface between these two bodies is not entirely smooth and flat.

Coefficient of friction = F/N Ar/ Ar=/ F/N= A /A / Ar B Ar

Ar= real area of contact, junction, high stress, plastic deformation, g adhesive bonding B= area filled with oxides, lubricant or air
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Coulomb Friction and Friction Factor

N Ff

f A f = = = N n A n
Ff

(1)

Area, A Coulomb Law Co lomb La = coefficient of friction Constant Shear Stress Law m m= friction shear factor f = friction factor
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f = n

f = f = m

= mk (2)

0 m1
Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Friction (continued)
Limits of Friction Force

Fmax = A max = A k = A
Fmax = A

3
3

At values of larger N, it is better to use Constant Shear Stress Law of Friction,

F
Fig 4.8

F/N =F/N N

f = m / 3 = mk

F A

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Friction Force vs. Normal Force

FIGURE 4.6 Schematic illustration of the relation between friction force F and normal force N. Note that as the real area of contact approaches the apparent area, the friction force reaches a maximum and stabilizes. Most machine components operate in the first region. The second and third regions are encountered in metalworking operations, because of the high contact pressures involved between sliding surfaces, i.e., die and workpiece.

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Coefficient of Friction in Metalworking

PROCESS Rolling Forging g g Drawing Sheet-metal forming Machining

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION () COLD HOT 0.05-0.1 0.2-0.7 0.05-0.1 0.1-0.2 0.03-0.1 0.05-0.1 0.1-0.2 0.5-2 -

Table 4.1 Coefficient of friction in metalworking processes.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Practical Values of Friction

Constant Shear Stress Law is more practical to use in forging while is more practical in sheet metal forming. For various forming conditions, the value of m is:
0.05 to 0.15 0.2 to 0.4 0.1 to 0.3 0.7 to 1.0 in cold forging (conventional lubricant) in hot forging of steels (conventional lubricant) in hot forging of Ti & Ni alloys (with glass lubricant) in hot rolling (no lubricant)

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Determination of Friction in Metal Forming Lubricant and heat transfer interact. Therefore, friction test must consider th effects of temperature (die chilling) t id the ff t f t t (di hilli ) In hot forming, a good friction test must assure that: a) specimen and die temperatures, and contact time between specimen & die must be the same as that in practice b) surface / original surface must be approximately the same as that in practice c) relative velocity and surface pressure between deforming metal and dies must be the same as that in practice.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

The Ring Compression Test The dimensions of the ring sample, temperatures and deformation speed must be selected to represent practical deformation conditions. A flat ring is compressed bet een t o flat between two platens. By measuring the I.D. of the deformed ring and comparing it with the calibration curves, the value of or m can be determined.
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Friction and Barreling

FIGURE 4.7 (a) The effects of lubrication of barreling in the ring compression test: (a) With good lubrication, both the inner and outer diameters increase as the specimen is compressed; and with poor or no lubrication, friction is high, and the inner diameter decreases. The direction of barreling depends on the relative motion decreases of the cylindrical surfaces with respect to the flat dies. (b) Test results: (1) original specimen, and (2-4) the specimen under increasing friction. Source: A. T. Male and M. G. Cockcroft.

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The Ring Compression Test

Schematic of Metal Flow

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The Ring Compression Test

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Friction In Ring Compression Tests

FIGURE 4.8 Charts to determine friction in ring compression tests: (a) coefficient of friction, ; (b) friction factor m. Friction is determined from these charts from the percent reduction in height and by measuring the percent change in the internal diameter of the specimen after compression compression.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Wear is defined as the progressive loss or undesired removal of materials from a surface. Wear has important technological and economic significance, especially if it alters the shape of the workpiece, tool and die interfaces, adversely affecting the manufacturing process include dull drill, worn cutting tools, and dies in metal working operations. Adhesive wear takes place as shearing of the junction at the interface of two contacting bodies under a g tangential force. Adhesive wear is caused by sliding of the two bodies in contact. p y junction between two Based on the probability that a j sliding surfaces will lead to formation of a wear particle, the Archard wear law provides an expression for LW adhesive wear. V =k
3p
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Wear

Adhesive, Corrosive and Fatigue Wear

Abrasive wear is caused by a hard and rough surface, or a surface with hard protruding particles, sliding against another surface. i t th f This type of wear removes particles by producing microchips, resulting in grooves or scratches on the softer surface. ft f Corrosive wear, also called oxidation or chemical wear, is i caused b chemical or electrochemical reactions d by h i l l t h i l ti between the surfaces and the environment. Fatigue wear is caused by surfaces being subjected to cyclic loading, such as in rolling contact in bearings.

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Adhesive Wear

FIGURE 4 10 Schematic illustration of (a) two asperities contacting (b) adhesion 4.10 contacting, between two asperities, and (c) the formation of a wear particle.

Abrasive Wear
FIGURE 4.11 Schematic illustration of abrasive wear in sliding. Longitudinal G S f scratches on a surface usually indicate abrasive wear.

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Changes In Surface Profiles After Wear

FIGURE 4.9 Changes in originally (a) wire-brushed and (b) ground-surface profiles after wear. Source: E. Wild and K. J. Mack.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Wear Coefficient

LW V =k 3p
k -10 10 to 10
-7

UNLU BRICA TED Mild steel on m steel ild 60-40 brass on hardened tool steel Hardened tool steel on hardened tool steel Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE ) on tool steel Tungsten carbide o mild s n teel

k -3 10 to 10 -3 10
-2

10 10 10

-4

-5

LUBR ICATE D 52100 steel on 52100 steel Aluminum bronze on hardened steel Hardened steel on hardened steel

10 10

-8

-9

-6

Table 4.2 Approximate order of magnitude for wear coefficient k in air f f ff

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Types Of Wear in Hot Forging

FIGURE 4 12 Types of wear observed in a single die used for hot 4.12 forging. Source: T. A. Dean.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Lubrication
In plastic deformation, there are three basic friction conditions: Dry conditions (no lubricant, only oxide layers) Hydrodynamic lubrication (film thickness, larger than asperities, analysis possible) Boundary lubrication (asperity contact, empirical knowledge)

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Regimes of Lubrication
a) Thick film c) Dry contact b) Elasto-Hydrodynamic d) Boundary film

FIGURE 4.13 Types of lubrication generally occurring in metalworking operations. Source: After W. R. D. Wilson. W R D Wilson

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Characteristics of Lubricants Used in Metal Forming Reduce friction / good lubricity Prevent sticking and g g galling g Provide good insulation especially in hot forming (glass as lubricant) Reduce chemical reaction (inert) Reduce erosion and wear (non-abrasive) Non polluting Non Easily applicable and removable (glass, graphite, dipping, spraying) p y g) Available at reasonable cost

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Metal working fluids

Metal working fluids are used to: Reduce friction Reduce wear, seizure, and galling Improve material flow in dies and molds Act as a thermal barrier between the workpiece and tool and die surfaces, thus prevent workpiece cooling in hot working processes. Act as a release or parting agent to help in the removal or ejection of parts from dies and molds. Types: yp 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Oils (mineral, animal, or vegetable based oils) Emulsion (a mixture of oil and water usually) Synthetic solutions y Soaps Greases (semi-solid lubricants) Waxes (paraffin based) Solid lubricants Graphite Molybdenum disulfide Soft metals and polymer coatings Glass fullerenes

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Surface Treatments, Coatings, and Cleaning

1. Improve resistance to wear, erosion, and indentation. indentation 2. Control friction 3. Reduce adhesion 4. Improve lubrication 5. Improve resistance to corrosion and 5 I i t t i d oxidation 6. Improve fatigue resistance 7. Rebuild surfaces on components 8. Improve surface roughness 9. Impart decorative features, color, or special surface texture Manufacturing Processes

Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Surface Treatments, Coatings, and Cleaning

1. Shot peening, water-jet peening, and laser shot peening 2. Roller burnishing (surface rolling) 3. Explosive hardening 4. Cladding 5. Mechanical plating 6. Case hardening 7. Hard facing 7 H df i 8. Thermal spraying 9. Surface texturing 10. Ceramic coating g 11. Vapor Deposition 1. Chemical vapor deposition 2. Physical vapor deposition 12. 12 Diffusion coating 13. Electroplating 14. Anodazing 15. Diamond-like Carbon coating

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Roller Burnishing
The surface is cold worked by a hard polished roller.

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

A thermochemical process to p deposit coatings on metal surfaces.

FIGURE 4.15 Examples of roller burnishing of (a) a conical surface and (b) a flat surface and the burnishing tools used. used Source: Cogsdill Tool Products. Products

FIGURE 4.16 Schematic illustration of the chemical vapor deposition process. Prof. Tugrul Ozel

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Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)

Main types of PVD Ion Beam Sputtering the physical removal of material Uses He or Ar ions to sputter material Material deposits on substrate Electron Beam Evaporation Employs high power E-Beam to evaporate target material t t t t i l
Hard coatings for cutting tools Multi-layered coatings for cutting tool applications M lti l d ti f tti t l li ti Surgical tools Prosthetic devices Self-lubricating coatings for bearing applications

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Electroplating
A surface treatment process, i which th in hi h the workpiece (cathode) is p plated with a different metal (anode) in a bath containing water-base electrolyte solution. solution
FIGURE 4.18 A coordinate measuring machine, measuring di hi i dimensions on an i engine block. Source: Courtesy of Sheffield Measurement Division, Giddings & Lewis.

FIGURE 4.17 Schematic illustration G S of the electroplating process.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Engineering Metrology
Engineering metrology is the science of measurement of dimensions such as length, angle, form, and position. It is critical of importance for control of manufactured part quality. fi t f t l f f t d t lit Accuracy is the agreement between the measured dimension and its t it true magnitude. it d Precision (or repeatability) is the degree to which the instrument gives repeated measurements. i t d t Resolution is the smallest dimension that can be read on an instrument. i t t Sensitivity is the smallest difference in dimensions that the instrument can detect or distinguish. i t t d t t di ti i h
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Vernier Measuring Devices

The fixed (main) scale gives the coarse measurement. Read the value before or even with the 0 on the sliding scale. The sliding (vernier) scale is used to discriminate between the reading of the main scale. Look for the line that matches up with (one of) the coarse scale gradations for final value

Figure C-84, Kibbe ,et al. Machine Tool Practices 5th Ed, Prentice Hall,1995.

Previous mark just inside vernier

Aligned g ed

Next mark just inside vernier

1.326 1.326
Figure C-90b, Kibbe ,et al. Machine Tool Practices 5th Ed, Prentice Hall,1995.

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Micrometers
Micrometers use a finely threaded screw to allow fine discrimination. The coarse scale (sleeve) divisions represent the it h f the th pitch of th screw. Th fi scale (thi bl ) di id each The fine l (thimble) divides h rotation into many (25) small increments. First get the coarse measurement from the fixed scale. Take the largest value that can be seen below the rotating part part. The fine value is the largest value before the fixed 0.

0.072 0.237
Figure C-134e, Kibbe ,et al. Machine Tool Practices 5th Ed, Prentice Hall,1995. Figure C-134c, Kibbe ,et al. Machine Tool Practices 5th Ed, Prentice Hall,1995.

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Gage Blocks
Gage blocks provide an excellent way to establish a wide variety of heights. The key feature of gage blocks is the ability to stack them together in such a way as to drive out most of the air from the interface area this process is called wringing area-Gage blocks are usually stacked-- this allows a small set to obtain virtually any height over a large range Gage blocks must be wrung when stacked-- otherwise the air layer at the interface introduces error A properly wrung stack of g g blocks is held together by p p y g gage g y atmospheric pressure

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Sine Bar
The Sine Bar is a precision instrument used to measure or establish angles
l

h h

h=l*sin(), or = sin-1(h/l)
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CoordinateMeasuring M hi M i Machine

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure : (a) Schematic illustration of a coordinate-measuring machine. (b) A touch coordinate measuring signal probe. (c) Examples of laser probes. (d) A coordinate-measuring machine with a complex part being measured. Source: (b) through (d) Courtesy of Mitutoyo Corp. Manufacturing Processes Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Coordinate-Measuring Machine for Car Bodies

Figure 35.16 A large coordinate-measuring machine with two heads measuring various dimensions on a car body. Source: Courtesy of Mitutoyo Corp.

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Probes
1. Contact touch trigger, analog scanning probe made of ruby attaches to machines zaxis manually or motorized 2. Non-Contact optical, laser measuring small, narrow co p e shapes complex s apes objects that cannot be measured by contact p probe sharp workpiece images
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CMM Errors Systematic errors reproducible between readings caused by time, temp, probe deformation Statistical errors measures quality of machine uncertainty of machines readings software cannot compensate

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Dimensional Tolerances
Dimensional Tolerance is defined as the permissible or acceptable variation in the dimensions (height, width, depth, diameter, angles) of a part. Tolerances are unavoidable because it is virtually impossible and unnecessary to manufacture two parts that have precisely th same di t th t h i l the dimensions. F th more, b i Further because close l dimensional tolerances substantially increase the product cost, specifying a narrow tolerance range is undesirable economically.

Basic size, deviation, and tolerance on a shaft, according to the ISO system. Bilateral tolerances Unilateral tolerances Limit dimensions.
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Tolerances and Surface Roughness

FIGURE 4.20 Tolerances and surface roughness obtained in various manufacturing processes. These tolerances apply to a 25-mm (1 in ) 25 mm (1-in.) workpiece dimension. Source: J. A. Schey, Tribology in Metalworking: Friction, Friction Lubrication, and Wear, ASM International, 1983.

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Engineering Drawing Symbols

Figure: Geometric characteristic symbols to be indicated on engineering drawings of parts to be manufactured Source: manufactured. Courtesy of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Quality assurance
Quality assurance is the total effort by a manufacturer to ensure that its products conform to a detailed set of specifications and standards. Quality must be built into a product Total quality management

Statistical methods of quality control

Sample size Random sampling Population Lot size

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Arithmetic Mean x + x + ... + xn x= 1 2 n Standard deviation

Frequency Distribution

(x1 x )2 + (x2 x )2 + ... + (xn x )n

n 1

FIGURE 4.21 (a) A plot of the number of shafts measured and their respective diameters. This type of curve is called a frequency distribution. (b) A normal distribution curve indicating areas within each range of standard deviation. Note: The greater the range, the higher the percentage of parts that fall within it. (c) Frequency distribution curve, showing lower and upper specification limits.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel

Control Charts
UCLx = x + 3 = x + A2 R LCLx = x 3 = x A2 R UCLR = D4 R LCLR = D3 R

FIGURE 4 22 C t l charts used i 4.22 Control h t d in statistical quality control. The process shown is in statistical control, because all points fall within the lower and upper control limits. In this illustration, the sample size is five, and , p , the number of samples is 15.

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Control Chart Constants

SAMPLE SIZE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 A2 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0 337 0.308 0.266 0.223 0.180 D4 3.267 2.575 2.282 2.115 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1 816 1.777 1.716 1.652 1.586 D3 0 0 0 0 0 0.078 0.136 0.184 0 184 0.223 0.284 0.348 0.414 d2 1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 2 970 3.078 3.258 3.472 3.735

Table 4 3 Constants for control charts 4.3 charts.

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Control Chart Examples

(a) Process begins t b ( )P b i to become out of t f control, because of factors such as tool wear. The tool is changed, and p the process is then in statistical control. (b) Process parameters are not set properly; thus, all parts are around the upper control limit. (c) ( ) Process becomes out of control, f because of factors such as a sudden change in the properties of the incoming material.

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Prof. Tugrul Ozel