Soil Comp Action

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121
Part 2: Soil Compaction
GEOTECHNICAL & GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING CIVL 4121

Martin Fahey School of Civil and Resource Engineering
CIVL 4121: Compaction: 1
What is Soil Compaction?

Compaction is the densification of soils by the application of mechanical energy to reduce air void spaces in the three phase soil model
it reduces the air content, but not the water content cant compact saturated soil (almost always true)
Compaction refers to the mechanical bashing together of unsaturated soil to form a denser soil Do not confuse soil compaction with consolidation (long term reduction of void ratio of a given soil).
Consolidation refers to slow squeezing out water from a saturated soil, by application of a static load
Principal difference:
Compaction is direct & immediate Consolidation is a time-dependent process
Where/when is Compaction Used

Any time soil is used as a construction material, it is compacted to improve its engineering properties:
compaction of sand pad for house foundations compaction of soil/gravel/crushed rock/asphalt in road construction compaction of soil in earth dams compaction of soil behind retaining walls compaction of soil backfill in trenches
In this unit, compaction will be referred to in:

pavement construction dam construction construction of clay liners for waste storage areas construction of tailings dams ground improvement
What does compaction achieve

At most basic level, compaction increases the dry unit weight For soil containing (clayey) fines, well-compacted soil has high negative pore pressures (suctions)
high effective stress, even when at ground surface high strength
Good compaction results in:

higher stiffness (less compressible = less settlement) higher strength = higher bearing capacity reduced permeability (more later...)
Type of Soil and Compaction Equipment

The desired level of compaction is best achieved by matching the soil type and the compaction method. Other factors must be considered as well, such as compaction specifications and job site conditions Clayey soils:
At the water content required for construction, clayey soil tends to be in the form of semi-dry hard clods These need to be broken up (kneaded) to force the soil into a denser packing (otherwise the compacted soil will still consist of clods with large voids between them) The kneading action of a sheepsfoot roller (combined with vibration) is the best means of doing this
Granular soils: The particles require a shaking or vibratory action to move them; vibrating rollers (or vibratory plate compactors for small scale) are usually the best choice
Types of Compaction
There are four types of compaction effort on soil or asphalt:
Pressure alone (from the weight of the roller) Vibration (+ pressure) Kneading working the soil to break up lumps Impact
Wide variety of field compaction equipment, so correct choice of equipment (or mix of equipment) is vital for achieving the required result at the best possible cost (= usually in the minimum possible time)
Smooth-wheeled steel drum rollers Pneumatic tyred rollers Sheepsfoot rollers Impact rollers Vibrating rollers Hand-operated vibrating plate and rammer compactors
Smooth-Wheeled Steel Drum Rollers

Self-propelled or towed steel rollers ranging from 2 - 20 tonnes Suitable for: well-graded sands and gravels; silts and clays of low plasticity Unsuitable for: uniform sands; silty sands; soft clays
Pneumatic-tyred Rollers
Usually a container on two axles, with rubber-tyred wheels. Wheels aligned to give a full-width rolled track. Dead load (water) is added to give masses of 12-40 tonnes. Suitable for: most coarse and fine soils. Unsuitable for: very soft clay; highly variable soils.
Sheepsfoot Roller ('tamping roller' ; pad-foot roller)

Self propelled or towed units, with drum fitted with projecting club-shaped feet high contact stress, kneading action (and sometimes vibrating as well) Mass range from 5-8 tonnes Suitable for: fine grained soils; sands and gravels, with >20% fines; good for breaking down soil clods Unsuitable for: very coarse soils; uniform gravels
Impact Roller
Compaction by static pressure, combined with the impact of the 5-sided roller Higher impact energy breaks up soil clods, achieving better compaction (like a sheeps-foot roller in some ways)
Impact Roller, Mandurah area

Three-sided version
Effective to 2-4 m depth (?) in Perth
Vibrating Drum Roller

Vibratory compactor: Fitting a vibrating mechanism to a drum (or sheepsfoot) roller can increase its efficiency for many soils. It also levels and smoothens any rutting that may have been caused by tyre-roller. Sheepsfoot roller may also have vibration mechanism
Vibration Mechanisms
Vibrating mechanisms consist of internal rotating eccentric masses typically rotating at up to 30 Hz
Same direction of rotation gives forward-backward vibration (as well as vertical) discomfort to operator?
Counter-rotating masses vertical vibrationCompaction: 13 only CIVL 4121:
Plate and Rammer Compactors

Vibrating plate compactors
used for smaller confined areas common in house construction in Perth sand
Rammer compactors used for backfilling (trenches)
Factors Affecting Field Compaction (Soils)

Soil type: Grain size distribution, shape of the particles, specific, gravity, quantity of clay in the soil Water content (CRUCIAL)! Compaction Effort: Controlled by the type of the equipment, thickness of the lift, and properties of the soil or mix. Layer (Lift) thickness: For soil, the thinner the layer is the better compaction, but more costly. Number of passes of the equipment and its speed: For soil, more passes lead to better compaction results Mix properties: Aggregate gradation, surface texture, and angularity of the particle surfaces. Environmental Effects (for asphalt): Air temperature, humidity, wind, temperature of the surface under the mix
LABORATORY COMPACTION
Aim of laboratory compaction: Simulate field procedures, aid in the control of placement conditions. Two common types of test:
Standard compaction test, steel rammer dropped on loose soil placed in a mold Modified compaction test similar, but heavier rammer, and more layers used
AS 1289 5.1.1 & 5.2.1 1993
Standard (or Proctor) Compaction

Mould is 105 mm diam. x 115.5 mm high (1 litre) & removable collar Hammer is 2.7 kg, drop height 300 mm Soil placed in mould in 3 layers, each compacted using 25 blows Total energy delivered = 596 kN.m/m3 Layers judged so that at the end of compaction, soil is just above the top of the lower mould Remove collar Strike off excess Weigh mould
determine wet density get water content get dry density
Repeat at different water contents Plot dry density versus water content
Modified Compaction
Standard compaction test too light to represent modern field compaction equipment (Standard test is from 1930s) Modified compaction test uses:
heavier hammer (4.9 kg) greater drop height (450 mm) same mould (1 litre) 5 layers 25 blows per layer Energy = 2703 kN.m/m3 Standard = 596 kN.m/m3
4.5 times more energy
Otherwise, procedure is the same

Automatic compaction machine
Various hammers
Maximum Possible Compaction

Compaction involves driving out the air Curves shows maximum possible dry unit weight for given water content for degree of saturation (Sr) = 100%, 95%, 90% and 85% These represent maximum possible density for zero air voids (ZAV), and air voids (A) of 5%, 10% and 15%
d =
(1 A ) Gs Sr G s = Sr + w .G s (1 A ) + w .G s
2.6
For G s = 2.65
2.4 Dry Density d (t/m 3 ) 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0 5 10 Water Content w (% ) 15 20 Sr = 1 Sr = 0.95 Sr = 0.9 Sr = 0.85
Actual Compaction Curve (Example)

For a given compaction energy, curve achieved shows:
a maximum dry density d max (MDD) corresponding to an optimum moisture content (OMC) near saturation on the wet side of OMC (Sr = 95% in this case) low degrees of saturation on the dry side of OMC (dry unit weight d rather than dry density d can be plotted)
Dry Density d (t/m 3 ) 2 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 5 10 15 20 Water Content w (% )
Air voids (%)
15 10 5 0
ZAV
For G s = 2.65
MDD = 1.87 t/m3
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC): The moisture content at which the maximum possible dry density is achieved for a particular compaction energy or compaction method CIVL 4121: Compaction: 20
OMC = 14.4%
Reasons for the Shape of the Curve

On the dry side of OMC, clayey soil shows high suction, hard strong lumps, difficult to break down = difficult to compact Increasing the water content reduces the suction, softens the lumps, lubricates the grains = easier to compact As water content increases, higher dry densities result, until we start approaching full saturation (say at Sr = 90-95 %) Now nearly impossible to drive out the last of the air further increase in water content results in reduced dry density (curve follows down parallel to the maximum possible density curve the Zero Air Voids curve) (Note, values of MDD and OMC depend on the compaction energy they are not unique soil properties) For sand, suction at low water contents also prevents compaction (but not if completely dry)
Cohesionless soil (clean sand)

Cohesionless soils d max achieved either completely dry, or completely saturated
at low water content, grains held together by suction (water at grain contacts only) this prevents compaction
Laboratory test for d max for sand requires fully saturated sample, and involves vibration
saturated sand in mould weight on top (=5 kPa) vibrate for certain time measure d max
MDD and OMC depend on input energy

As compaction energy increases, MDD (d max) increases and OMC reduces (curves constrained by ZAV line: parallel to ZAV line)
Modified
Standard
Compaction affects soil structure

Soil tends to be more flocculated on the dry side; more dispersed on the wet side
A: flocculated; C: dispersed
More compactive effort tends to disperse the soil

E more dispersed than A
It is these different structures, in conjunction with the different dry densities, that give different properties at different points on the compaction diagram Soil structure as defined here is referred to as soil fabric
Compaction and Permeability

Lowest permeability for clayey soils compacted wet of OMC
Where permeability (rather than stiffness or strength) is important, could be best to compact wet of OMC More likely to undergo shrinkage if allowed to dry = cracking possible, leading to gross reduction in overall permeability
Balance between low permeability and avoidance of shrinkage cracking is a primary concern in dam (core) construction, and in clay liners for waste disposal areas
Suctions
Compacted clay samples show negative pore pressure (suction)
depends on type of compaction & moulding water content one of the contributing factors to soil strength and stiffness (suction = effective stress = strength) will see later that keeping water away from compacted subgrade is important factor in life of pavement
1 psi ~7 kPa
Amount of total shrinkage on complete drying varies with moulding water content and type of compaction
has implications for cracking of dam cores and clay liners for waste storage areas
Range of OMC & MDD for various soils

Different soils show different compaction curves, even for the same compaction energy Slight changes in soil from a borrow area can change the compaction characteristics Frequent checking of the compaction curve essential, to ensure that the correct target values are being used
Shear strength of compacted samples

For same compaction energy, dry samples are much stronger than wet samples, even though dry density may be less Dry samples more brittle
if deformation cracking
MF
Wet samples ductile

may be an advantage can tolerate movement integrity of dam cores, liners
Slide 28 MF1
Martin Fahey, 6/07/2006
Achieving the desired outcome

In many cases (e.g. road construction), aim is to get densest possible state
aim for high % of Modified MDD, and close to OMC (e.g. +0 2%)
In other cases, aim might be to have lowest permeability

compact wet of OMC, perhaps accepting lower density
BUT
soil compacted wet of OMC may undergo excessive shrinkage if allowed to dry (cracking of dam cores, clay liners high overall permeability, even if intact permeability is low soil compacted very dry of OMC is strong, but brittle soil compacted wet of OMC is ductile can accommodate larger deformations without cracking
Crucial to consider not just properties as compacted, but potential changes in properties with time due to exposure to drying, water, etc. CHOOSING THE CORRECT COMPACTION STRATEGY REQUIRES CAREFUL CONSIDERATION OF ALL THESE ISSUES
Drying Back
Common technique used in road construction in WA Compact at close to OMC, to close to MDD Leave exposed to drying for a period (weeks)
reduces water content, but not density
may even increase density
achieves much stiffer, much stronger result
Relative Desirability for Various Uses

(1=best; 14=least desirability)
Suitability of Soils to Compaction
* if gravelly ** erosion critical *** volume change critical - not appropriate for this type of use
Group Symbol GW GP GM Soil Type Well-graded gravels, gravel/ sand mixes, little or no fines Poorly-graded gravels, gravel/ mixtures, little or no fines Silty gravels, poorly-graded gravel/sand/silt mixtures
Rolled Earth Fill Dams
Canal Foundations Sections
Roadways
2 1 4 3
4 1 5 2
1 2 3* 4* -
1 2 4 3 6 7* 8* 5
4 1 5** 2
1 2 3 4
1 3 4 6 2 5 7 8
1 3 4 5 2 6 6 7
1 3 9 5 2 4 10 6
3 5 1 4 6 2
Clay-like gravels, poorly GC graded gravel/sand/clay mixtures Well-graded sands, gravelly SW sands, little or no fines SP SM SC Poorly-graded sands, gravelly sands, little or no fines Silty sands, poorly-graded sand/ silt mixtures Clay-like sands, poorlygraded sand/clay mixtures
Inorganic silts and very fine sands, rock flour, silty or clayML like fine sands with slight plasticity Inorganic clays of low to medium CL plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays OL Organic silts and organic siltclays of low plasticity
6**
10
11
10
8 9 7 10
8 9 7 10
10 -
7** 8** -
7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14
11 12 13 14
12 13 8 14
Organic silts, micaceous or MN diatomaceous fine sandy or silty soils, elastic silts Inorganic clays of high CH plasticity, fat clays OH Organic clays of medium high plasticity
Control/Monitoring of Field Compaction

Field compaction is normally specified in terms of the maximum dry density obtained from the laboratory
Example: Must achieve 95% of MDD, and OMC 1% In the diagram, tests falling into yellow zone meet these two requirements often, only minimum density ratio specified (e.g. 95% MDD)
Dry Density d (t/m 3 ) 2
Meets specification
1.9 1.8 1.7
MDD
For G s = 2.65 ZAV
95% MDD
OMC
1.6
OMC - 1% OMC + 1%
1.5 1.4 5 10 15 20 Water Content w (% )
Adequate compaction requires compaction in layers (generally <150 mm thick) Must have tests to check on field density & moisture content, to determine if requirements are met
Sand Replacement Method

Find sand loose density (lab.) - min Known weight of sand in bottle Calibrate how much left after opening cone on level surface (A) Dig hole collect, weigh and dry the soil removed (B) Fill hole with sand weigh what is left in bottle (C) Slow (costly), accurate
B
Coring
Drive coring tube into ground surface using special hammer and protective collar Dig out the coring tube, trim the ends, weigh the contents Obtain water content
work out the dry density
Driving collar (dolly)
Used also for obtaining samples for determining the in situ CBR value (California Bearing Ratio)
discuss later in the pavements section
130 mm
100 mm
Nuclear Density Meter

Measures absorption of radiation (function of density) Fast, accurate (after calibration) Most common method in WA
Control of Field Compaction

Field Density Testing Method
Sand Cone Balloon Dens meter Shelby Tube Nuclear Gauge
Advantages
* Large sample * Accurate
* Large sample * Direct reading obtained * Open graded material
* Fast * Deep sample * Under pipe haunches * Small Sample * No gravel * Sample not always retained * Overdrive * Rocks in path * Plastic soil * Low
* Fast * Easy to redo * More tests (statistical reliability) * No sample * Radiation * Moisture suspect * Encourages amateurs * Miscalibrated * Rocks in path * Surface prep required * Backscatter * High
* Many steps * Slow * Large area required Disadvantages * Slow * Balloon breakage * Halt Equipment * Awkward * Tempting to accept flukes Errors Cost * Void under plate * Sand bulking * Sand compacted * Soil pumping * Low * Surface not level * Soil pumping * Void under plate * Moderate
Perth Sand Penetrometer

Developed at UWA (Glick & Clegg)
from Scala Penetrometer- similar but has cone at the tip (used for CBR testing see later in pavements)
Top stop
6 kg sliding mass, drop onto anvil
Widely used in Perth for compaction control in sand

house sand pads (every two-bit contractor has one) backfilling of trenches
N = number of blows for penetration from 150 mm to 450 mm (penetration of 300 mm) Correlations between N and percentage MDD (Glick and Clegg, UWA)
for house pads, typically N 7 or 8
600 mm free drop height
Fixed anvil
Can fit extension rods (up to 3 m) - much abused test

overburden stress increases the N value without any increase in density therefore, N = 8 at 3 m depth indicates a much lower density than N = 8 at surface 16 mm diameter bar
50 mm graduations
Count number of blows (N) for 300 mm penetration

Ignore first 150 mm of penetration
Intelligent Compaction
Based on vibrating drum roller being equipped with accelerometers, to measure the ground response to the vibrations. Not yet widely used in Australia, but will be much more so in the future. The principle is that the accelerations measured in the drum depend on the ground stiffness (if you drop something onto soft ground, the (negative) acceleration is much lower than if you drop the same object onto hard ground). As the ground stiffness increases with ongoing compaction, the acceleration response changes. By automatically logging the ground response, and mapping this onto a 2-D plan of the ground surface, soft spots can be readily identified. So, even as a simple indicator of where to concentrate the compaction effort, the system would be useful. The systems in use in Europe go further. The ground response is used to change the vibration mode of the drum to improve compaction efficiency, and to indicate where compaction effort should be concentrated.
From the Bomag Brochure
At UWA in the early 1980s, Dr Baden Clegg (since deceased) invented the CLEGG IMPACT HAMMER. This is simply a modified compaction hammer, equipped with an accelerometer. The hammer is dropped onto the ground surface from a given height, and the acceleration measured. The CLEGG IMPACT VALUE is an indication of ground stiffness, and hence an indirect indication of the degree of compaction.

Soil Comp Action

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Soil Comp Action

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

GEOTECHNICAL & GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING CIVL 4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

What is Soil Compaction?

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

Where/when is Compaction Used

In this unit, compaction will be referred to in:

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 3

What does compaction achieve

Good compaction results in:

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 4

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

Type of Soil and Compaction Equipment

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

Smooth-Wheeled Steel Drum Rollers

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 7

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 8

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

Sheepsfoot Roller ('tamping roller' ; pad-foot roller)

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 9

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 10

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

Impact Roller, Mandurah area

Effective to 2-4 m depth (?) in Perth

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 11

Vibrating Drum Roller

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 12

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

Counter-rotating masses vertical vibrationCompaction: 13 only CIVL 4121:

Plate and Rammer Compactors

Rammer compactors used for backfilling (trenches)

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 14

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

Factors Affecting Field Compaction (Soils)

AS 1289 5.1.1 & 5.2.1 1993

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 16

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

Standard (or Proctor) Compaction

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 17

Otherwise, procedure is the same

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 18

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

Maximum Possible Compaction

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 19

Actual Compaction Curve (Example)

MDD = 1.87 t/m3

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction

Reasons for the Shape of the Curve

Cohesionless soil (clean sand)

CIVL 4121: Compaction: 22

Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering CIVL4121

Part 2: Soil Compaction