V WORKSPOT- INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON POWER TRANSFORMERS BELM, PA 15 A 18 DE ABRIL DE 2008

Anlises do Comportamento de Transformadores de Potncia Durante Curtos Circuitos Internos Behavior of Power Transformers during Internal Short-Circuits

Alan Sbravati Siemens Ltda So Paulo / Brazil Ferdinando Crispino Escola Politcnica da USP So Paulo / Brazil

Arthur T. de Resende Engbras So Paulo / Brazil Gervasio L. de Castro Neto VATech Hydro So Paulo / Brazil

Carlos Ossamu Kagikawa AES/Eletropaulo So Paulo / Brazil Guenther C. Krieger Filho Escola Politcnica da USP So Paulo / Brazil

SUMARIO This work presents a study on the internal explosion of power transformers. The respective data linked to the formation of gases and energy created by the electric arc, were initially collected. Thereafter, simulations of internal explosions in a real power transformer using computational fluid dynamics (CFD), were performed. During the analysis, it was considered the compressibility in both the gas bubble resulting from the arc and the oil of the transformer. The objective of the study was to determine the spatial distribution and time evolution of the pressure applied to the walls of the transformer, as well as possible features for preventing this load to causes a real explosion of the equipment. Results of the simulations as well as an analysis on the dynamic overpressures appearing inside the transformer are presented. It will also be analyzed the characterization of the mechanical parameters such as shock waves, pressure differences, flexibility of the tank and fluidstructure interactions;

PALAVRAS CHAVE Formation of Gases, Computational Fluid Dynamics, Electric Arc, Overpressure, Transformer Explosion.

Ferdinando Crispino fcrispino@fdte.org.br

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1. INTRODUCTION

The occurrence of an internal electric arc within a transformer submerged in insulating oil causes the evaporation of the oil and its further decomposition into steam. This occurs especially in fault cases linked with low impedances, where the high energy involved is transferred almost in its integrity to the oil, in which, considerable amounts of explosive flammable gases are produced. Under these conditions, the formation of gases makes the internal pressure in the tank to grow rapidly; thus, the interrupting total time of the systems can be insufficient to eliminate the electric arc before high overpressures are produced. These situations can cause the rupture of the tank, consequently some more dramatic consequences may follow such as the explosion and burning of the equipment. Despite the low probability of this fault to occur, once it happens, the damages can be significant such as the total loss of the transformer along with including some other equipment in the vicinity. This can also put under risk the integrity of people nearby, the environment and even affect the image of the company. The transformer explosion and burning problem has been investigated since the 1960s, when it was primarily focused to distribution transformers. So, it is necessary to develop a model for determining what and where the largest mechanical stresses within a power transformer are located. With the arrival of the computers and the development of new software, it is now possible to realize complex simulations using programs aimed to computational analysis of fluid mechanics. By using these numeric models it is possible to analyze problems related to the behavior of the fluid, once an overpressure within the transformer occurs, up to the dynamic reaction of the transformer structure towards resulting overpressures. In order to guarantee the requested operational reliability in a transformer, significant technological progresses have been implemented to its design, production, operation and maintenance. As for its operation and maintenance, the diagnoses and on-line monitoring methods have been improved and applied. However, despite these improvements, faults continue occurring in them. Both, the statistics and the studies performed [9] have shown that traditional devices for pressure relief are not able to act as satisfactorily as they should. Consequently, a transformer has a high risk of suffering an explosion and even gets burnt. The objective of this work is not to deepen the study over the causes of faults, but to find ways on how to minimize their potentials consequences. To mitigate these risks, an R&D project was set involving a manufacturer of transformers (Siemens), one public research entity (USP) and another private (Engbras) and a concessionary (AES Eletropaulo). These entities had the objective of studying electric and mechanical phenomena all related as subsidies for a specification proposal of more efficient protection systems for transformers. The initial results of such studies are presented in this work.
2. OCCURRENCE OF AN INTERNAL ELECTRIC ARC IN A TRANSFORMER

An internal electric arc in a power transformer can occur whenever the existing electric condition in a certain area surpasses the insulating capacity. This can be motivated by the degradation of its insulating system (loss of insulation either solid or liquid), contaminations or due to transient conditions of overcurrents or overvoltages. As for its location, an electric arc occurring in internal areas of the windings has a major part of the arc energy consumed as heat, changing the condition of the solid materials in the proximity (copper, insulating paper, etc) leaving a smaller portion of this energy for the oil evaporation and for the cracking (breaking of molecules in smaller components such as hydrogen-H2 and

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acetylene-C2H2). Thus, short-circuits occurring outside the windings are considered to be more dangerous and critical to provoque explosion in transformers. In this case, nearly all the energy produced by the arc will be directly transferred to the oil creating greater gas volumes / pressures. These short-circuits will be referred to as low impedance short-circuits. In this project, all the analyses were based on a standard transformer owned by Eletropaulo, whose characteristics were: 40 MVA, 138/88-13.8 kV. Despite these transformers did not posse a history regarding such explosions, it was considered that it would be important to use both real dimensions and conditions instead of hypothetical conditions. Although the first investigation points, especially considering the statistics on faults available, are the bushings and tap changers, it was mainly focused on the active elements. In this way, critical points such as the connections between windings to bushings and tap changers were chosen. A more detailed analysis carried out showed some critical phase-to-earth distances at both the low and high voltage sides. Although these elements were carefully checked and would be correctly rated both mechanically and electrically, as well as they would be firmly fastened, it was considered that they would be the most critical points.
3. GAS CREATION DURING AN INTERNAL ELECTRIC ARC

During the occurrence of a low impedance internal electric arc, there will be a significant increase in temperature, forming oil steam at around 140C (atmospheric pressure). Thereafter, as the temperature increases, it will begin the formation of gases resulting from the decomposition of the oil steam. At 305C, acetylene will be formed inside the transformer. The formation of hydrogen begins at 300C and finishes with 950C. The full decomposition of the oil steam into gases will only be reached at high temperatures. According to some tests previously performed involving internal arcs in transformers, which were disconnected soon after by the transformer protection system [1], the values of temperature reached corresponded to those needed for the formation of acetylene. During the time the internal short-circuit lasts, the consumed energy resulting from the arc generates of oil steam and gases. Various previous works have been found reporting the quantity of gases produced. This quantity varies considerably according to the short-circuit level, type of oil and the conditions in which the tests were performed. In Table 3, the volume of gas generated by the internal arc, presented in those publications, is shown.
Reference (5) (6) Table 3.1 - Gas generated Quantity of gas generated 15 a 100 cm3/kJ (measured) 100 cm3/kJ -40C 80 cm3/kJ 20C (measured) 50 a 70 cm3/kJ (measured) 85 cm3/kJ (theoretical) 3 61 cm /kJ (theoretical) (2) 500 cm3/kJ (indicated)

Goodman Castonguay

Goto (3) Freidin (7) Goto (3) Report 12-02 CIGRE

According to [1], the equation obtained after several tests (involving internal shortcircuits) in transformers at CEPEL is: vol = 0.44 ln (E + 5474.3) 3.8 (1)

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Where: vol = volume of gas generated by the internal short-circuit (cm3); E = energy created by the internal arc (Joules). During the tests, it was found that the energy required to create the initial 2.3 m3 of gas steam, was 1 MJ, whereas to create rest 2.0 m3, it was consumed 99 MJ. So, it was evident that after the formation of the arc and the steam bubble, a lot of energy is consumed to heat the bubble and to crack the oil steam molecules into gases. From the measured temperatures inside the bubble, around 305C, it was found that this temperature was ideal to create acetylene gas.
4. DETERMINATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE MAIN ELECTRIC PARAMETERS AND ENERGY TRANSFERRED TO THE OIL OF THE TRANSFORMER

The parameters needed to determine the energy involved during the occurrence of a low impedance internal arc in a power transformer are: the voltage and the current of the arc. The voltage of the arc is not related to the current (in the arc), but it varies according to: the distance between the 2 electrodes forming the arc, the shape of the electrodes, pressure and the transformer oil condition. In Figure 4.1, it is shown the relation between the arc voltage and its length [2]. The arc current, regarding the occurrence of a phase-to-earth or phase-to-phase fault at the transformer high voltage side, is determined by the systems impedance, that is, the shortcircuit current for the system where the transformer is operating. For phase-to-earth or phaseto-phase short-circuits this current can be calculated at the fault point. The amount of energy per second created by the arc during an internal short-circuit, regarding the voltage curve and the current of the arc as a function of the time (Figure 4.1), can be calculated as follows:
Arc Current Voltage Arc

,V

2I

/2f

Figure 4.1 - Relationship between the voltage and lenght of the arc as well as the voltage and current of the arc as a function of the time. 1/ 2 f 2 2 Pot = 2 f U 2 I sen2f dt ; Pot = U I ; Pot = 0.9 U I (W) (2)
0

E = 0.9 U I t (J)

(3)

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Where, Pot = Power generated (W); E = Energy created during the arc (J); U = Voltage of the arc (V);

I = Current of the arc (A); t = Duration of the arc (s); f = frequency f the system (s-1).

5. OIL MASS ESTIMATION CONVERTED TO STEAM AND DECOMPOSED (CRACKED) INTO GASES

In Section 2, it was shown that the critical phase-to-earth distance of the transformers internal arc evaluated is 120 mm. If it is considered that fault occurs in the high voltage side (88/138kV transformer at AES Eletropaulo), the maximum values checked for this voltage level, were: - The maximum interruption time of the short-circuit was 7 cycles or 0.117 s; - The phase-to-ground short-circuit at the site were the transformer is in, was qual to 33.38 kA. For the 120 mm phase-to-ground arc distance adopted, it can be obtained an arc voltage of 1950 V (Fig. 4.1). Thus, the estimated energy during the arc, using (3), will be equal to: E = 0.91950(V)33380(A)0.117(s) = 6854082 J or 6 .854 MJ By using (1), the estimated gas volume formed by the internal arc will be: vol = 0.44ln ( E + 5474.3 ) - 3.8 = 0.44ln(6854082 + 5474.3 ) - 3.8 = 3.126 m3 From reference [1] it can be obtained: - Temperature of the transformers exit gas following the explosion: ~60C; - Temperature of the gas bubble surrounding the arc: ~305C; - Pressure of the gas bubble surrounding the arc: between 4 and 6 bar; - Gas density within the bubble surrounding the arc: estimated in 4.3 kg/m3; - Estimated volume of gas expelled: 3.126m3. Using the above data, for the expelled gas condition at ambient preassure, we will have: 1st Condition: T1 = 60C = 333 K; V1 = gas volume = 3.126 m3; p1 = gas pressure = 1 bar Once the gas is created, i.e. in the bubble near the arc, we will have: 2nd Condition: T2 = 305C = 578 K; V2 = gas volume = to be determined; p2 = gas pressure =4.5 bar (adopted valor) By applying the ideal law of gasses (Clayperons law) it can be estimated the gas volume V2 inside the bubble:

p1 V1 T1 = p 2 V2 T2

1 3,126 333 = 4,5 V2 578

V2 = 1.206 m3

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If it is adopted the gas density of the bubble at = 4.3 kg/m3, it can be ibtained the mass of the gas: = m / V2 = m / 1.206 = 4.3 m = mass of the gas = 5.19 kg Despite of these mass and energy estimations, in the simulations it was used the following parameters for the gas bubble: density 4.3 kg/m3, internal specific energy 2.9x105 J/kg (which corresponds to an over pressure of 4.0 bar) and diameter of 0.1m.
6. SIMULATION OF INTERNAL ELECTRIC ARCS WITHIN TRANSFORMERS AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE INTERNAL PRESSURE WAVES

The prediction of gas formation process is particularly complex as it involves chemical kinetics as well as heat and mass transfer processes between the liquid and gaseous phases. The numerical process used attempts to describe the interaction of the pressure between two compressible fluids. The gas formation process is not considered in the model. A mass of gas having certain energy is initially imposed to a region of the oil where the evolution of the oil pressure will be analyzed. The amount of gases and energy imposed as initial conditions should emulate the real case where an internal fault occurs. The oil, the gas bubble and the transformer walls compose the calculation domain. Computacional grids are generated and overlapped so as to solve the pertinent equations to the fluid and solid domains. The walls of the transformer are treated as a shell and the deformation equations of these elements are solved regarding the pressure imposed by the fluid domain. Next, the equations describing the evolution of the pressure inside the fluid domain are shown. The state equation of the gaseous phase, i.e. the gas bubble created during the electric arc, is given by: p = ( 1) e (4) where: e = specific internal energy [J/kg]; = density of the material [kg/m3]; = ratio of specific heat (C p / Cv ) . The oil is treated as a compressible liquid through the following state equation:
p = Po + K 1 , 0

(5)

where, K is the global compressibility module of the fluid, Po is the reference pressure and 0 is the reference density with null pressure. The wave pressure phenomenon appearing in both fluids is described by: the mass, momentum and energy conservation equations; shown next. In a general formulation, the transport equations can be represented by: q f (q ) g (q ) h(q ) + + + = 0, (6) t x y z
where the generic vector q is used to represent the conservated quantities inside the control volume.

The fist term on the LHS of eq. (6) stands for the time variation rate of q inside the control volume, the second, third and fourth terms stand for the net flux of q in the directions

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x, y and z, respectively. The conseved quantities mass, momentum in the three directions and energy can be stored in a column vector q as:
u q = v w E v u w 2 u + p uv uw uv g (q ) = v 2 + p h(q ) = vw f (q) = vw uw w 2 + p ( E + p) w (E + p )u ( E + p )v

(7)

where: u, v and w are the fluid velocity components in the x, y and z directions, respectively; f, g and h represent the flow of the conserved variables in the x, y and z directions, respectively. Using eq. (7) in eq. (6) togheter with the state equations (4) and (5) one has the system equations, which must be solved simultaneously for each control volume of the numerical grid (Figure 6.1 b) The numerical method used is based on the finite volume theory for the fluid and finite element for the solid and solves simultaneously the conservation equations for the two fluids and the solid. Details of the numerical procedure for solving the set of equations in (7) can be found in the code manual used [8]. The simulated geometry of the transformer and the computational grid are shown in the Figure 6.1. As initial condition, the density and internal specific energy of the gas bubble were set to 4.3 kg/m3 and 2.9x105 J/kg (which corresponds to an over pressure of 4.0 bar), respectively. The initial gas bubble has a diameter of 0.1m.The red point represents the point of the simulation of the explosion and the green points represent the points of measurement of pressure.

(C)

(B) (A)

Figure 6.1 Scheme of the simulated transformer, transformer representation (perspective) and Mesh generated inside the transformer (bottom view). Figure 6.2 shows the increase of the pressure at the three internal control points (A rose line), (B blue line) and (C red line). It is easy to see that at point A, which is nearest to the initial bubble, the pressure rises earlier than at point C, which is distant from the bubble. At the same Fig. 6.2, one can see that the final pressure level inside the transformer is

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about 2.5 bar. These pressure values are function of the initial conditions imposed to the gas bubble.

Figure 6.2 Evolution (in s) of the transient pressure (in Mpa) at the control points A, B and C, respectively. Figures 6.3 and 6.4, show the evolution of the pressure (in MPa) at the interface between oil and the transformer structure. It is shown the four simulated times including the beginning of the wave formation until the end of the simulation, when the pressure waves are reflected inside the transformer. It can also be observed the creation of pressure waves starting at the position of the bubble. The total simulating time was 0.008s.

Figure 6.3 Pressure distribution in the oil at 0.00063565 s and 0.00142551s once created the gas bubble.

Figure 6.4 Pressure distribution in the oil at 0.00221537s and 0.00769819s once created the gas bubble.

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From the above results, it can be conclude that the transformer structure is exposed to different levels of pressures, depending of the location and intensity of the arc formation.
7. ENERGY RELIEF

The main aspect to be highlighted is the high levels of energy reached during such catastrophic failures of the equipments. The design of a structure to withstand this level of energy does not seam to be the most feasible solution. Instead of holding all this energy inside a strong (huge) structure, the most reasonable solution drives to find ways of relieving this energy. The most traditional way, largely used by the general industry, is the installation of rupture discs, acting as relief valves. Actually any device which releases the energy from the tank in a very short time, capable to prevent the internal pressure to go over some critical limits can be used. To simulate the rupture discs some regions of the tank sidewalls were created. The rupture stress has been reduced at these regions to a value reached when the internal pressure reaches a defined pressure level. This pressure set point is one of the parameters to be defined. Next picture presents the instant of discs rupture.

Figure 7.1 Stress at some sidewall points during the overpressure. The curves of the figure 7.1 was calculated based on a tank with only one rupture region. It can be seen that the stress at tank sidewall keeps the increasing tendency (blue, pink and black lines) even after the opening of the region (red line). Next figures present the stress distribution at the tank sidewalls for several configurations, starting from no rupture region up to 16 rupture regions.

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Figure 7.2 Stress distribution at tank sidewall for no rupture region at left and for one rupture region at right.

Figure 7.3 Stress distribution at tank sidewall for four rupture regions at left and for sixteen rupture regions at right. To study the influences of the pressure set point, gas bubble energy and quantity of rupture regions, the analyses have been repeated for several different conditions. Next figures present the results of stress distribution at tank sidewall for different quantities of rupture regions with a total energy larger than the previous consideration. At these figures it is really clear the influence of the quantity of rupture regions for the stress. The main conclusion from these analyzes is presented in next table. Independent from the absolute values of pressure, which is directly related with the energy applied, it is really clear the influence of the quantity of rupture regions Table 7.1 Maximum pressure reached inside the tank for same energy levels and different rupture regions quantity
Reliefs Quantity Pressure Level No relief 1,9 bar One Relief 1,6 bar Four reliefs 1,4 bar Sixteen reliefs 1 bar

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Figure 7.4 Stress distribution at tank sidewall for one rupture region at left and for sixteen rupture regions at right.
8. SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON THE MECHANICAL FLEXIBILITY AND THE FLUID-STRUCTURE ITERATIONS RESISTANCE, TANK

From the analysis done, it can be concluded that the referred phenomenon can be divided in two different stages. In the first stage, we have a transient period where peaks of pressure and their shock waves propagating in the oil are generated. The pressure values measured in this stage are high, however, they do not generally have a high total energy, in other words, they are composed by short duration peaks of pressure. On the other hand, the pressure gradients among the different regions within the tank are high. The regions nearby the fault occurrence reach pressure levels that could cause hazardous conditions to the structure of the tank with possible points facing risks of rupture. In the second stage, we have a reduction in the pressure gradients among the regions of the tank, showing a rising internal pressure as a whole. At this point, it is assumed that they would be closer conditions to a hydrostatic distribution of the pressure, and the points of critical rupture would be a function of the tank mechanical resistance. In other words, in this stage, the largest rupture possibility would lay on the weak points of the tank, whereas in the first stage it would be much more linked to the point where the arc occurs. It is understood that the relation between the duration and the intensity of each of these stages is internally linked to the power of the transformer as well as to the system energy, where the transformer is operating. Thus, increasing both characteristics may imply an increase of the first stage condition. The structure of the tank, besides the differences among manufacturers, is defined to withstand all the test conditions and operation. Generally, the most critical conditions are the full vacuum condition (i.e. absolute internal pressure of the tank equal to 134 Pa = barometric pressure of 101.2 kPa on the tank) and the overpressure test (pressure of the oil column + 50 kPa, acc. IEC 60076-1 / NBR 5356). The operational conditions and the eventual overloads on the transformer are also taken into account. As transformers are designed for these conditions, mainly as a function of the yield point of the materials used, the difference among these system elements is the type of the structures used to reinforce them. Depending on the structure used for this reinforcement there may exist a significant variation in the structures elastic deflection before reaching the yield point material.

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While the general understanding is that this elastic deflection should be minimized, from the viewpoint of the withstanding capacity to overpressures the perception is contrary to the former understanding. Structures designed for the similar conditions, though more rigid (more rigid conditions being those presenting a less elastic deflection for the same loading) would generate higher tension concentrations in the supporting elements (junctures, edges, etc.). Additionally, we should consider that the electric arc creates an additional volume of gas. The smaller the elastic deflection of the structure, the more quickly the pressure will reach critical values. The elastic deflection could act as a damper against the rise of the tank internal pressure. Some papers, namely [2], [3], show that to compute the internal pressures this additional volume should be considered as part of the structural verification of the tank. Coming back to the initial concepts, the inclusion of rupture regions should always prevent the transformer to pass to the phase two of the short circuit, creating the relief area before the total pressure starts to increase. The time delay for those regions to start relieving pressure is directly connected with the maximum pressure reached inside the tank. Additionally, later openings of those regions would require more relief area, since the pressure inside the tank is already closer to the defined limitations. The ideal solution, based on the numerical analysis, would be to have an instantaneous opening of the relief regions and creating the maximum possible relief area.
9. CONCLUSIONS

The simulation of both dynamical behavior of the fluid and the structure under internal arc conditions is quite possible. The numerical simulations showed the increase of the oil pressure as a function of the gas bubble at high pressures and the density formed by the electric arc. Significantly high values were reached (up to 2.5 bars) at the beginning of the bubble expansion process. It can be seen that the numeric model reproduces well the phenomenon of physical wave formation inside the transformer. Further work is necessary to validate the numerical model making the compatibilization between the arc energy and the energy imposed to the bubble. The high pressure gradients reached in the first stage of the analyzed phenomenon in different regions of the tank, as well as the overpressure reached in the whole tank in the second stage, can cause cracking at points close to the arc as well as in weaker points of the tank, depending on the stresses present in each region of the tank and in each stage of the phenomenon. The precise determination of the critical situation in each stage depends on the evaluation not only of the arc, but also on the structural project conditions of the tank. The application of relief regions (rupture regions) for preventing the internal pressure of the tank to keep the internal pressure under some defined limits is completely possible. However, the reached pressure inside the tank is directly dependent on the quantity of rupture regions. Less rupture regions will allow reaching higher pressures than if using more rupture regions. Theoretical and experimental deep analyzes regarding the physical-chemical process of gas formation during the internal arc is required. Finally, keeping in mind the discrepancies observed in the literature, it is recommended to perform more analyses and tests mainly concerning the gas formation mechanism and its quantification.

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BIBLIOGRAFIA [1] G. Perigaud, H. Cuny, S. Prigent e P. Magnier, Transformer Exploxion and Fire Prevention Live Tests on Large Transformers: Analysis and Simulations, Report, 2006. [2] T. Kawamura, M. Ueda, K. Ando, T. Maeda, Y. Abiru, M. Watanabe e K. Moritsu Prevention of Tank Rupture Due To Internal Fault of Oil-Filled Transformer, CIGRE, Report 12-02, 1988. [3] K. Goto e Y. Miura The Pressure Rise During the Internal Fault, CIGRE, 1987. [4] J. Dastous e M. Foata, Analysis of Fault in Distribuition Transformer with MSC/PISCES 2DELK, IREQ, 1985. [5] E. Goodman, L. Zupon, Static Pressures Developed in Distribuition Transformer Due to Internal Arcing Under Oil, IEEE paper F76 006-7, 1976. [6] J. Castonguay, L. Ouellet Efficacit Comparative dHuiles Isolants Naphtniques et Paraffiniques Comme Agents dExtinction dArcs, IREQ report N 2720, 1982. [7] V. Freidin, N. Shilin, Vapor Bubble Parameter Calculations Around an Electric Arc in Transformer Oil Elektrotekhnika, Vol. 48, N 10, 1977. [8] MSC.Dytran Theory Manual 2005, MSC.Software Corporation. N. H. Karroud, S. Prigent, R. Farinati, P. Maruane, M. Darcherif, P. Magnier, " Clculo de la Eficacia de la Vlvula de Alivio de Presin en Comparacin con el Transformer Protector Sergi en un Transformador Durante un Cortocircuito".