SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

Cement manufacturing and use of electrical and electronic equipment in the cement plant.

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the course of B.TECH.

(Batch: 2008-2012)

KIIT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

GURGAON Under the Guidance of: AUSHOTOSH SAXENA GENERAL MANAGER NCCBM Submitted by: P.SRIDHAR 34023

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With profound respect and gratitude, I take the opportunity to convey my thanks to complete the training here. I do extend my heartfelt thanks to Mr.AUSHOTOSH for providing me this opportunity to be a part of this esteemed organization. I am extremely grateful to all the technical staff of NCCBM for their co-operation and guidance that helped me a lot during the course of training. I have learnt a lot working under them and I will always be indebted of them for this value addition in me.

I would also like to thank the training in charge of K.I.I.T COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING and all the faculty member of Electrical & Electronics department for their effort of constant co-operation which have been a significant factor in the accomplishment of my summer training.

P.SRIDHAR 34023

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ABSTRACT

ement is one of the core industries which plays a vital role in the growth and expansion of a nation. It is basically a mixture of compounds, consisting mainly of silicates and aluminates of calcium, formed out of calcium oxide, silica, aluminum oxide and iron oxide. The demand for cement, being a derived one, depends primarily on the pace of activities in the business, financial, real estate and infrastructure sectors of the economy. Cement is considered preferred building material and is used worldwide for all construction works such as housing and industrial construction, as well as for creation of infrastructures like ports, roads, power plants, etc. Thus, it can said to be a significant contributor to the Government's revenue collection and a pillar of overall planned development of an economy. The industry has been actively pursuing various avenues to improve its productivity and energy efficiency. There has been all-around upgradation of technology in all sections of the plant like mining, process, equipment and machinery, packaging and transportation. Cement industry in India is currently going through a technological change as a lot of upgradation and assimilation is taking place. Currently, almost 93% of the total capacity is based entirely on the modern dry process, which is considered as more environmentfriendly. Only the rest 7% uses old wet and semi-dry process technology. There is also a huge scope of waste heat recovery in the cement plants, which lead to reduction in the emission level and hence improves the environment. Different types of electrical and electronic equipment are used in the plant, these are used at various levels of operations in the plant like manufacturing of cement, detection of gases, testing of quality and for indicating safety levels. An understanding of these devices and continuous research with upgradation of technology in all of these devices can improve the performance of the plant as well as improve its productivity and energy efficiency.

Introduction
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Established in 1962, as Cement Research Institute of India and redesignated as National Council for Cement and Building Materials in April 1985, NCB is an apex body dedicated to continuous research, technology development and transfer, education and industrial services for the cement and building material industries. The entire range of services of NCB is delivered by eight Corporate Centers through its units in Ballabhgarh and Hyderabad. The main laboratories of the Council are located at Ballabhgarh, about 35 kms south of New Delhi. National Council for Cement and Building Materials (NCB) is the largest Industrial Support Organization of its kind in India, with units in the various regions of the country and in the field of Cement, Building Materials and Allied Areas and covers: Research Technology Development and Transfer Education Industrial Services NCB has an over 300 strong team of highly qualified and experienced engineers, scientists and other professionals. Manpower Training and continued efforts to upgrade knowledge base is always given highest priority in NCB. NCBs Services at a glance: Turnkey Consultancy for Greenfield Projects Basic and Detailed Engineering Plant Construction Supervision Geological Exploration Computer Aided Deposit Evaluation Mine Planning EIA & EMP. ISO-14000/EMS Raw Materials Investigation Limestone Consumption Factor Raw Mix Design Establishing Causes of Coating and Build-up Product Development Refractory Engineering and Management Wastes Utilisation Industry Oriented Training Simulator based Training Productivity Enhancement Energy Conservation Kiln Shell Ovality Studies Kiln Alignment Environmental Management Plan Maintenance Management Securing Project Funds TQM and Quality Systems (ISO 9000) Supply of SRMs Testing Services Calibration Services Laboratory Certification Training in Plant Operation Concrete Mix Design Diagnostic Studies for Distressed Structures
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Industrial Information Services Organising Seminars & Workshops

Structural Design, Detailing & Evaluation Architectural Planning

What is cement?
In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term "opus caementicium" to describe masonry which resembled concrete and was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives which were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cment and cement. Cement used in construction is characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic. Hydraulic cements (e.g. Portland cement) harden because of chemical reactions that occur independently of the admixture's water content; they can harden even underwater or when constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical reaction that results when the dry cement powder is mixed with water produces hydrates that are not water-soluble. Non-hydraulic cements (e.g. lime and gypsum plaster) must be kept dry in order to gain strength. The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concretethe bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is durable in the face of normal environmental effects. Concrete should not be confused with cement because the term cement refers only to the dry powder substance used to bind the aggregate materials of concrete. Upon the addition of water and/or additives the cement mixture is referred to as concrete, especially if aggregates have been added.

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In 2002 the world production of hydraulic cement was 1,800 million metric tons. The top three producers were China with 704, India with 100, and the United States with 91 million metric tons for a combined total of about half the world total by the world's three most populous states.

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Varieties of Cement in India

There are some varieties in cement that always find good demand in the market. To know their characteristics and in which area they are most required, it will be better to take a look at some of the details given below.

Portland Blast Furnace slag cement (PBFSC): The rate of hydration heat is found lower in this cement type in comparison to PPC. It is most useful in massive construction projects, for example - dams. Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement: This cement is beneficial in the areas where concrete has an exposure to seacoast or sea water or soil or ground water. Under any such instances, the concrete is vulnerable to sulphates attack in large amounts and can cause damage to the structure. Hence, by using this cement one can reduce the impact of damage to the structure. This cement has high demand in India. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement: The texture of this cement type is quite similar to that of OPC. But, it is bit more fine than OPC and possesses immense compressible strength, which makes casting work easy. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): Also referred to as grey cement or OPC, it is of much use in ordinary concrete construction. In the production of this type of cement in India, Iron (Fe2O3), Magnesium (MgO), Silica (SiO2), Alumina (AL2O3), and Sulphur trioxide (SO3) components are used. Portland Pozolona Cement (PPC): As it prevents cracks, it is useful in the casting work of huge volumes of concrete. The rate of hydration heat is lower in this cement type. Fly ash, coal waste or burnt clay is used in the production of this category of cement. It can be availed at low cost in comparison to OPC.

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Oil Well Cement: Made of iron, coke, limestone and iron scrap, Oil Well Cement is used in constructing or fixing oil wells. This is applied on both the off-shore and on-shore of the wells. Clinker Cement: Produced at the temperature of about 1400 to1450 degree Celsius, clinker cement is needed in the construction work of complexes, houses and bridges. The ingredients for this cement comprise iron, quartz, clay, limestone and bauxite. White cement: It is a kind of Ordinary Portland Cement. The ingredients of this cement are inclusive of clinker, fuel oil and iron oxide. The content of iron oxide is maintained below 0.4% to secure whiteness. White cement is largely used to increase the aesthetic value of a construction. It is preferred for tiles and flooring works. This cement costs more than grey cement.

Apart from these, some of the other types of cement that are available in India can be classified as:

Low heat cement High early strength cement Hydrophobic cement High aluminium cement masonry cement

The setting of cement

Cement sets when mixed with water by way of a complex series of chemical reactions still only partly understood. The different constituents slowly crystallise and the interlocking of their crystals gives to cement its strength. Carbon dioxide is slowly absorbed to convert the portlandite (Ca(OH)2) into insoluble calcium carbonate. After the initial setting, immersion in warm water will speed up setting. In Portland cement, gypsum is added as a compound preventing cement flash setting.

Environmental impacts
Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when operating machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used, and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after they have been closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating them.

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CO2 emissions
Cement manufacturing releases CO2 in the atmosphere both directly when calcium carbonate is heated, producing lime and carbon dioxide,[14] and also indirectly through the use of energy, particularly if the energy is sourced from fossil fuels. The cement industry produces about 5% of global man-made CO2 emissions, of which 50% is from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel.[15] The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industry is nearly 900 kg of CO2 for every 1000 kg of cement produced. In certain applications, lime mortar, reabsorbs the CO2 chemically released in its manufacture, and has a lower energy requirement in production. Newly developed cement types from Novacem[17] and Eco-cement can absorb carbon dioxide from ambient air during hardening.

Heavy metal emissions in the air

In some circumstances, mainly depending on the origin and the composition of the raw materials used, the high-temperature calcination process of limestone and clay minerals can release in the atmosphere gases and dust rich in volatile heavy metals, a.o, thallium,[19] cadmium and mercury are the most toxic. Heavy metals (Tl, Cd, Hg, ...) are often found as trace elements in common metal sulfides (pyrite (FeS2), zinc blende (ZnS), galena (PbS), ...) present as secondary minerals in most of the raw materials. Environmental regulations exist in many countries to limit these emissions.

Heavy metals present in the clinker

The presence of heavy metals in the clinker arises both from the natural raw materials and from the use of recycled by-products or alternative fuels. The high pH prevailing in the cement porewater (12.5 < pH < 13.5) limits the mobility of many heavy metals by decreasing their solubility and increasing their sorption onto the cement mineral phases. Nickel, zinc and lead are commonly found in cement in non-negligible concentrations.

Use of alternative fuels and by-products materials

A cement plant consumes 3 to 6 GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and byproducts with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln, replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and iron can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale, and limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always

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clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value, and burns to give ash containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix.[20]

Different Types of Processes

Raw materials which already possess correct composition in their natural state are found in very few places. Hence in the vast majority of cases, cement is made from an artificially proportioned mixture of raw materials. The manufacturing process over the years of development may be classified under the following categories: - Wet process - Semi-wet / semi-dry process - dry process a) Wet Process In the wet process raw mix is fed into the kiln in the form of slurry which may have water content of 30 to 40%. The slurry which is easy to blend and homogenise is directly fed into the kiln which in the case of wet process is a relatively long tube. The wet process becomes indispensable in those cases where the naturally occurring raw materials have high moisture content of more than 12% like chalk and marl. This is also essential where relatively poor grade limestone have to be enriched through the process of beneficiation requiring use of water as a process media. In fact, in the earlier times i.e. before 1950 most

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of the kilns were wet process kilns due to the fact that in the form of slurry it is easy to blend and homogenise the various components of the raw mix. In this process the fuel consumption is the highest (in the region of 1300 to 1600 K.cal/Kg of clinker) the power consumption is lower at 110-115 Kwh/tonne of cement. b) Semi-wet/Semi-dry Process This process was evolved to counter the main drawback of the wet process which is high fuel consumption. In this process powdered raw meal is either converted into nodules by adding controlled quantity of water in a nodulising pan or by dewatering slurry in a filter press to form filter cake of the raw material. These nodules or the cake thus formed are fed on to a moving grate where the raw meal gets partially calcined. This partially calcined raw mix in the form of nodules/cake is further charged into a rotary kiln for complete calcining and sintering in the form of clinker. However, this process poses a number of operational problems and capacity problems. The fuel consumption however, improves reasonably to about 900-1100 K.cal/Kg of clinker but the power consumption increases to 115-120 Kwh/tonne of cement. c) Dry Process In the dry process, the raw materials are dried in a combined drying and grinding plant to reduce the moisture content below 1%. The drying of materials is achieved by using kiln exhaust gases which may be supplemented by auxiliary hot furnaces during rainy season. The ground raw mix is homogenised in large silos. In fact, development of suitable homogenising and blending systems are mainly responsible for making the dry process popular and practicable. The blended and homogenised raw is fed into either a long dry kiln or a short kiln with air suspension preheater in which partial calcination of the raw mix takes place. In fact, long dry kilns have now practically gone out of use and the dry process is mainly confined to the use of air suspension preheater. This process gives the maximum benefit as far as the heat consumption figures are concerned. As a further refinement and development of the dry process, the air suspension preheaters are now being fitted with Precalcinators which ensure complete calcining of the raw mix before it enters the kiln. Fuel consumption is lowest in this process and is in the range of 750-950 Kcal/Kg of clinker. The power consumption is in the range of 120-125 Kwh/tonne of cement. A flow process sheet of all the cement production processes including Pre-calcinator system is indicated in Fig.

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CEMENT PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS USED IN A CEMENT PLANT. CT & PT

Current Transformers
A current transformer (CT) is a type of instrument transformer designed to provide a current in its secondary winding proportional to the alternating current flowing in its primary. They are commonly used in metering and protective relaying in the electrical power industry where they facilitate the safe measurement of large currents, often in the presence of high voltages. The current transformer safely isolates measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages typically present on the circuit being measured. Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the operation of the power grid. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses (for example, protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs). Similarly potential transformers are used for measuring voltage and monitoring the operation of the power grid.

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The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:

Burden Burden Class /Saturation Class Rating factor Load External electromagnetic fields temperature and Physical configuration.

Potential Transformers Protective Current Transformers are designed to measure the actual currents in power systems and to produce proportional currents in their secondary windings that are isolated from the main power circuit. These replica currents are used as inputs to protective relays which will automatically isolate part of a power circuit In the event of an abnormal or fault condition therein, yet permit other parts of the plant to continue in operation. Satisfactory operation of protective relays can depend on accurate representation of currents ranging from small leakage currents to very high over currents, requiring the protective current transformer to be linear, and therefore below magnetic saturation at values up to perhaps 30 times full load current. This wide operating range means that protective current transformers require to be constructed with larger cross-sections resulting in heavier cores than equivalent current transformers used for measuring duties only. For space and economy reasons, equipment designers should however avoid over specifying protective current transformers ITL technical staff are always prepared to assist in specifying protective CT's but require some or all of the following information:

Protected equipment and type of protection. Maximum fault level for stability. Sensitivity required. Type of relay and likely setting. Pilot wire resistance, or length of run and pilot wire used. Primary conductor diameter or bus bar dimensions System voltage level.

Power Distribution Board

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A distribution board (or panel board) is a component of an electricity supply system which divides an electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits, while providing a protective fuse or circuit breaker for each circuit, in a common enclosure. Normally, a main switch, and in recent boards, one or more Residual-current devices (RCD) or Residual Current Breakers with Over current protection (RCBO), will also be incorporated. Following are the application Application:These are widely used for :1. 2. 3. 4. Protection against electrical Short Circuit, overload and earth fault of the system. Control & monitoring of the entire electrical system of an industry / plant. Systematic power catering to various load of an electrical system. Normally used in Hospitals, Multi-storied buildings, steel industries, cement industry, open cast mines, shopping mall etc.

Motor Control Centers

A motor control center (MCC) is an assembly of one or more enclosed sections having a common power bus and principally containing motor control units. Motor control centers are in modern practice a factory assembly of several motor starters. A motor control center can include variable frequency drives, programmable controllers, and metering and may also be the electrical service entrance for the building. Motor control centers are usually used for low voltage three-phase alternating current motors from 230 volts to 600 volts. Medium-voltage motor control centers are made for large motors running at 2300 V to around 15000 V, using vacuum contactors for switching and with separate compartments for power switching and control. Motor control centers have been used since 1950 by the automobile manufacturing industry which used large numbers of electric motors. Today they are used in many industrial and commercial

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applications. Where very dusty or corrosive processes are used, the motor control center may be installed in a separate air-conditioned room, but often an MCC will be on the factory floor adjacent to the machinery controlled. A motor control center consists of one or more vertical metal cabinet sections with power bus and provision for plug-in mounting of individual motor controllers. Very large controllers may be bolted in place but smaller controllers can be unplugged from the cabinet for testing or maintenance. Each motor controller contains a contactor or a solid-state motor controller, overload relays to protect the motor, fuses or a circuit breaker to provide short-circuit protection, and a disconnecting switch to isolate the motor circuit. Three-phase power enters each controller through separable connectors. The motor is wired to terminals in the controller. Motor control centers provide wire ways for field control and power cables. Each motor controller in an MCC can be specified with a range of options such as separate control transformers, pilot lamps, control switches, extra control terminal blocks, various types of bi-metal and solid-state overload protection relays, or various classes of power fuses or types of circuit breakers. A motor control center can either be supplied ready for the customer to connect all field wiring, or can be an engineered assembly with internal control and interlocking wiring to a central control terminal panel board or programmable controller. Motor control centers (MCC) usually sit on floors, which are often required to have a fireresistance rating. Firestops may be required for cables that penetrate fire-rated floors and walls. Application :These are widely used for :Protection against electrical Short Circuit, overload and earth fault of the system. Control & monitoring of the entire electrical system of an industry / plant. Systematic power catering to various load of an electrical system. Normally used in Hospitals, Multi-storied buildings, steel industries, cement industry, open cast mines, shopping mall etc.

Control & Relay Panel

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Application :These are widely used for: 1. Protection and Control for Transformers. 2. Protection and Control for Transmission and distribution lines 3. Protection and Control for Bus Section and Bus Coupler

Drum Controller & Master Controller

Air break drum controllers are suitable for controlling A.C & D.C motors used in E.O.T cranes, haulages in mines, winches, steel works. Mainly three sizes are manufactured, 40 Amps, 60 Amps, 150 Amps. Provided with stator reversing contacts. A star wheel and roller arm give definite step location. The crank type-operating handle is provided with off position trigger to prevent accidental starting or unwanted reversing. Operating handle is provided with deadman handle if required by the client Auxiliary contacts are provided for Electrical inter locking.

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Arc Shields: Arc shields

are

provided

on

both

D.C

and

A.C.

type

controllers.

Cable Entry: Standard cable entry is through a base plate, other type of fittings, can also be provided as per clients desire. Construction: Robust construction, top & bottom made of M.S. Plate. The fingertips are made of Hard drawn copper, grinding finish. Removable front cover made of sheet steel. Drum: The contact segments are of Hard drawn Electrolytic copper, turned after assembly to maintain concentricity. The contact assembly of controllers fixed on to insulated M.S. Shaft. Concepts in switching technology with miniaturization & sophistication for used in automatic control circuit like master control switch where mechanical positions is translated into electrical signals for controlling remote starters, contactors and work in highly contaminated atmosphere and extremely high shock and vibrating condition. Every Limit Switch goes under rigorous testing before it is supplied. A wide variety to afford a high degree of versatility is available. The range includes:

Grab differential limit switch. Spindle type rotary geared limit switch. Heavy duty lever type limit switch. Roller lever. Counter weight. Forked lever. V-shaped lever. Double Roller lever Foot Pedal Heavy duty cam operated Rotary Geared Limit Switch. Push rod limit switch. Heavy duty pull cord switch. Explosion proof limit switch for Hazardous atmosphere. Heavy duty snap action limit switch.

Technical Specification & Features

Utilisation category: AC 11 & DC 11 as per IEC IS 6875.

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Thermal current 10 amp to 40 amps. Insulation voltage 600 V AC & 240 DC. Operating temperature 20C to 110C. Mechanical life 20 million cycle. Contact life: 10 million cycles. Terminal capacity: 2.5 mm2. Operating Torques: 6.804 to 14.968 KLS depending on switch size and cam selected. Enclosure: IP 67 Characteristics Oil tight, Water tight & Dust proof. Time tested, extremely reliable design

Resistance Boxes

Resistance boxes & starting resistors are used for both AC and DC applications. It is widely used for controlling and developing higher torque and have extensively applicable in: Cement Plants. The grids of starting resistors are made from stainless steel and punched steel sheet and are suitable for maximum temperature rise of 375 degree C as per BSS standards.

AC / DC Tachogenerators

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The AC Tacho generators provide the AC voltage output proportional to the speed of its mover. Their main application areas include indication & display purposes. On basis of simple calculations, the frequency of 2 pole, 8 pole and 48 pole will produce 16.66 Hz, 66.66 Hz and 400 Hz, respectively. Some of the salient attributes of our AC/DC Tacho generators include:

Compact Light weight High linearity High stability and extreme reliability in hostile industrial environments

Its technical specifications are tabulated below: Current Speeds Voltages Pole Design Up to 50 mA Up to 4000 rpm 4V to 40 V / 1000 rpm 2, 8 and 48

Stepper Motors with Controller

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely

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without any feedback mechanism (see Open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application. Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors (which are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole count, and generally are closedloop commutated.) Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step," with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle. Stepper motor characteristics 1. Stepper motors are constant power devices. 2. As motor speed increases, torque decreases. (most motors exhibit maximum torque when stationary, however the torque of a motor when stationary 'holding torque' defines the ability of the motor to maintain a desired position while under external load) 3. The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the driving voltage (sometimes referred to as a 'chopper' circuit, there are several off the shelf driver chips capable of doing this in a simple manner). 4. Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another, (this is important as at certain speeds the motor can actually change direction). 5. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause the motor to lose torque (or lose direction). 6. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the problem speeds range, physically damping (frictional damping) the system, or using a microstepping driver. 7. Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother operation than those with fewer phases (this can also be achieved through the use of a micro stepping drive)

Stepper motor with controller or controlled stepper motor having high torque density, rugged design and long life bearings. Stepper motors possess following attributes:

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Thermal protection Short circuit and wrong polarity protection Opt isolated signal input Low vibration, high speed and high torque Potentiometer LEC for adjustable current reduction Potentiometer SA for adjustable precision of micro step High Torque to inertia for quicker start and stops Higher Power, rare earth magnets

These stepper motors have following technical specifications: Supply voltage Output Current Step Modes Current Adjustments Clock Frequency Pulse Width (Clock) Amblent Temperature Connection Type Holding Torque Frame Size 20 .. 80 V DC 1.9 .. 4.0 A 1.8 via DIP switches 0.. 400 kHz max. Min 1.25 high / low 0oC .. 100oC Screw Type Terminals Up to 30Nm 42 mm square to 110mm square

Relays

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A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch contacts as shown in the diagram. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical. The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification

Relay showing coil and switch contacts

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts,

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Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay. The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil. The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT. The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch. NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off. NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on. Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on. Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.

Choosing a relay You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
1. Physical size and pin arrangement

If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the supplier's catalogue.
2. Coil voltage

The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays

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are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance

The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use Ohm's law to calculate the current: supply voltage Relay coil current = coil resistance
4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400

passes a current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to amplify the current. The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".

5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)

6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)

Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further information please see the page on switches.

Protection diodes for relays

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (eg 1N4148) is connected 'backwards' across the relay coil to provide this protection

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Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

Reed relays

Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a reed switch. Reed switches are normally operated with a magnet, but in a reed relay current flows through the coil to create a magnetic field and close the reed switch. Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than standard relays (1000 for example) and a wide range of supply voltages (9-20V for example). They are capable of switching much more rapidly than standard relays, up to several hundred times per second; but they can only switch low currents (500mA maximum for example). The reed relay shown in the photograph will plug into a standard 14-pin DIL socket ('IC holder'). . Relays and transistors compared Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching small DC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay. However, transistors cannot switch AC (such as mains electricity) and in simple circuits they are not usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil! The main advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below:

Advantages of relays:

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors.

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Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).

Relays can switch many contacts at once. Disadvantages of relays:

Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents. Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per second. Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil. Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Switchgear

The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid, refers to the combination of electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers used to isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream. Switchgear is already a plural, much like the software term code/codes, and is never used as switchgears. The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted on insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly escalated, making open manually-operated switches too dangerous to use for anything other than isolation of a de-energized circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely controlled. By the early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would be a metalenclosed structure with electrically-operated switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today, oil-filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6 equipment, allowing large currents and power levels to be safely controlled by automatic equipment incorporating digital controls, protection, metering and communications. Types Switch Gear
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Sheet Metal Deep Drawn Boxes Switch gears are for the use of single phase and three phase power supply as well as for disconnection through fuse. Switch is fitted in elegant deep drawn box.

16 x 240 DP 32 x 240 DP 16 x 415 Triple Pole 32 x 415 Triple Pole 63 x 415 Triple Pole 100 x 415 Triple Pole 200 x 415 Triple Pole

Fuse Units with Silverside Heavy Copper Contacts

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16 AMP 32 AMP 63 AMP 100 AMP 200 AMP A piece of switchgear may be a simple open air isolator switch or it may be insulated by some other substance. An effective although more costly form of switchgear is gas insulated switchgear (GIS), where the conductors and contacts are insulated by pressurized sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other common types are oil [or vacuum] insulated switchgear. The combination of equipment within the switchgear enclosure allows them to interrupt fault currents of many hundreds or thousands of amps. A circuit breaker (within a switchgear enclosure) is the primary component that interrupts fault currents. The quenching of the arc when the ciruit breaker pulls apart the contacts open (disconnects the circuit) requires careful design. Circuit breakers fall into these four types:

Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc. Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 to quench the stretched arc. Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (<23 mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 35,000 volts. Air circuit breakers may use compressed air (puff) to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc.

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Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly: typically between 30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and construction of the device. Several different classifications of switchgear can be made[1]:

By the current rating. By interrupting rating (maximum short circuit current that the device can safely interrupt) o Circuit breakers can open and close on fault currents o Load-break/Load-make switches can switch normal system load currents o Isolators may only be operated while the circuit is dead, or the load current is very small. By voltage class: o Low voltage (less than 1,000 volts AC) o Medium voltage (1,00035,000 volts AC) o High voltage (more than 35,000 volts AC) By insulating medium: o Air o Gas (SF6 or mixtures) o Oil o Vacuum By construction type: o Indoor (further classified by IP (Ingress Protection) class or NEMA enclosure type) o Outdoor o Industrial o Utility o Marine o Draw-out elements (removable without many tools) o Fixed elements (bolted fasteners) o Live-front o Dead-front o Open o Metal-enclosed o Metal-clad o Metal enclose & Metal clad o Arc-resistant o By IEC degree of internal separation [2] No Separation (Form 1) Busbars separated from functional units (Form 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b) Terminals for external conductors separated from busbars (Form 2b, 3b, 4a, 4b)

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Terminals for external conductors separated from functional units but not from each other (Form 3a, 3b) Functional units separated from each other (Form 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b) Terminals for external conductors separated from each other (Form 4a, 4b) Terminals for external conductors separate from their associated functional unit (Form 4b) By interrupting device: o Fuses o Air Blast Circuit Breaker o Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker o Oil Circuit Breaker o Vacuum Circuit Breaker o Gas (SF6) Circuit breaker By operating method: o Manually-operated o Motor-operated o Solenoid/stored energy operated By type of current: o Alternating current o Direct current By application: o Transmission system o Distribution.

A single line-up may incorporate several different types of devices, for example, airinsulated bus, vacuum circuit breakers, and manually-operated switches may all exist in the same row of cubicles. Ratings, design, specifications and details of switchgear are set by a multitude of standards. In North America mostly IEEE and ANSI standards are used, much of the rest of the world uses IEC standards, sometimes with local national derivatives or variations. Functions One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which is interruption of short-circuit and overload fault currents while maintaining service to unaffected circuits. Switchgear also provides isolation of circuits from power supplies. Switchgear is also used to enhance system availability by allowing more than one source to feed a load.

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Safety To help ensure safe operation sequences of switchgear, trapped key interlocking provides predefined scenarios of operation. James Harry Castell ([1]) invented this technique in 1922. For example, if only one of two sources of supply are permitted to be connected at a given time, the interlock scheme may require that the first switch must be opened to release a key that will allow closing the second switch. Complex schemes are possible.

PORTABLE INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASUREMENTS

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS (AMPS, VOLTS, POWER, POWER FACTOR)
GAS ANALYSERS (OXYGEN, CO, CO2)

TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (CONTACT & NONCONTACT) AIR FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (PITOT TUBE, MICROMANOMETER, VANE ANEMOMETER) PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (MICROMANOMETER, DIAL GAUGE)

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FLUE GAS ANALYSER

Flue gas is gas that exits to the atmosphere via a flue, which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace, oven, furnace, boiler or steam generator. Quite often, it refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants. Its composition depends on what is being burned, but it will usually consist of mostly nitrogen (typically more than two-thirds) derived from the combustion air, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor as well as excess oxygen (also derived from the combustion air). It further contains a small percentage of pollutants such as particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides. Portable flue gas analyzers are used to measure both the efficiency of combustion and the levels of pollutant gases. Improving the efficiency of a combustion process can not only make significant financial savings but also help to reduce atmospheric pollution. Analyzers range from single gas pocket analyzers to portable multi-gas data logging units for semi-continuous monitoring

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GAS ANALYSER (CO2)

In a gas analyser, the main components are an infrared source (lamp), a sample chamber or light tube, a wavelength filter, and the infrared detector. The gas is pumped (or diffuses) into the sample chamber, and gas concentration is measured electro-optically by its absorption of a specific wavelength in the infrared (IR). The IR light is directed through the sample chamber towards the detector. The detector has an optical filter in front of it that eliminates all light except the wavelength that the selected gas molecules can absorb. Ideally other gas molecules do not absorb light at this wavelength, and do not affect the amount of light reaching the detector.

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As many gases absorb well in the IR area, it is often necessary to compensate for interfering components. For instance, CO2 and H2O often initiate cross sensitivity in the infrared spectrum. As many measurements in the IR area are cross sensitive to H2O it is sometimes not possible to analyze for instance SO2 and NO2 in low concentrations using the infrared light principle. The IR signal from the source is usually chopped or modulated so that thermal background signals can be offset from the desired signal.

TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEM

Measurement of the hotness of a body relative to a standard scale. The fundamental scale of temperature is the thermodynamic scale, which can be derived from any equation expressing the second law of thermodynamics. Efforts to approximate the thermodynamic scale as closely as possible depend on relating measurements of temperature-dependent physical properties of systems to thermodynamic relations expressed by statistical thermodynamic equations, thus in general linking temperature to the average kinetic energy of the measured system. Temperature-measuring devices, thermometers, are systems with

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properties that change with temperature in a simple, predictable, reproducible manner. See also Temperature; Thermodynamic principles. In the establishment of a useful standard scale, assigned temperature values of thermodynamic equilibrium fixed points are agreed upon by an international body (General Conference of Weights and Measures), which updates the scale about once every 20 years. Thermometers for interpolating between fixed points and methods for realizing the fixed points are prescribed, providing a scheme for calibrating thermometers used in science and industry.

INFRA-RED RADIATION PYROMETER

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This instrument is used for measuring relatively high temperatures, as in furnaces. Most pyrometers work by measuring radiation from the body whose temperature is to be measured (radiation devices have the advantage of not having to touch the material being measured). Optical pyrometers measure the temperature of glowing bodies by comparing them visually with an incandescent filament of known temperature whose temperature can be adjusted. In resistance pyrometers, a fine wire is put in contact with the object; the instrument converts the change in electrical resistance caused by heat to a reading of the temperature of the object. Principle of operation A pyrometer has an optical system and detector. The optical system focuses the thermal radiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (Temperature T) is related to the thermal radiation or irradiance j* of the target object through the StefanBoltzmann law, the constant of proportionality , called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and the emissivity of the object.

This output is used to infer the object's temperature. Thus, there is no need for direct contact between the pyrometer and the object, as there is with thermocouple and Resistance temperature detector (RTDs). Applications Pyrometer is suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces that cannot be reached or cannot be touched.

VANE ANEMOMETER

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A vane anemometer is a type of anemometer, a meteorological instrument used to measure wind speed. The vane anemometer can also measure wind direction. A vane anemometer which uses a small fan is turned by air flowing over the vanes. The speed of the fan is measured by a rev counter and converted to a wind speed by an electronic chip. Hence, volumetric flow rate may be calculated if the cross-sectional area is known.

MICROMANOMETER

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A manometer could also be referring to a pressure measuring instrument, usually limited to measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The term manometer is often used to refer specifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments. Micro manometer Applications:

Measurement of system pressures in heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems Perfect for HVAC technicians performing Pitot tube traverses of airflow readings across a duct Monitoring differential pressure across filters and coils in HVAC systems Measuring positive and negative pressure in air conditioning ducts Measuring differential pressure for clean room monitoring

Product features

Differential pressure readings from -5 to +15 in. H20 Calculate and display a velocity reading when using a Pitot tube Variable time constant modes available for a steady display when measuring fluctuating flowsDatalogging Version Also Includes:Data logging capability allows user to log 1000 data points with a time and date stamp Calculates volumetric flow-in CFM, m3/h, or l/s Statistics function displays average, maximum and minimum values, and the number of recorded samples Automatic conversion between actual and standard velocity readings Flowrate feature allows for simple and quick calculations of volumetric flowrate by simply inputting the duct shape and size Makes HVAC pressure measurements easy... Combines a lightweight and durable design with an easy-to-read display Measures static, total, and velocity pressures - As well as pressure drops Zeroing function ensures accurate measurements across filters, coils, fans, and diffusers Specifications Pressure Range: -5 to +15 in. H20 (1% of reading 0.005 in. H20) Resolution: Standard : 0.001 in. H20 (Advanced: 0.0005 in. H20) Velocity Range: 250 fpm - 15,500 fpm (1.5% at 2,000 ft/min) Averaging : Up to 255 values each of pressure and velocity Flow Rate : Displayed range: To 9,999,000 CFM, m3/h, l/s Power Supply: Four AA-size Alkaline(Approx. battery life:24 hours) Display: 4-digit LCD, 0.6 in.digit height Dimensions: 3.9 x 6.6 x 1.5 (0.76 lbs)

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CLAMP-ON POWER METER

Clamp meters are used in some meters to measure electrical power and energy. The clamp measures the current and other circuitry the voltage; the true power is the product of the instantaneous voltage and current integrated over a cycle. Comprehensive meters designed to measure many parameters of electrical energy (power factor, distortion, instantaneous power as a function of time, phase relationships, etc.), energy analysers, use this principle. With an appropriate instrument measurements may be made on three-phase, as well as single-phase, power systems.

Ultrasonic leak detectors

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Ultrasonic leak detector and electronic stethoscope for use in industry, maintenance and manufacturing wherever precision leak detection or diagnostics are required. Ultrasound is composed of high-frequency sound waves above the range of human hearing. UltraPro uses this technology to sense frequencies ranging from 18 to 42 kilohertz, which are electronically translated down into the audible range. Predictive Maintenance uses airborne/structure-borne ultrasound technology to locate leaks in any gaseous systems and to troubleshoot rolling-element bearings or valve operations. UltraPro features a unique Automatic Gain Control which automatically filters the signal to provide the best signal-tonoise ratio, suppressing background noise and pinpointing leaks. The AG circuit simplifies operation, removing complicated adjustment knobs and filter switches.

Energy Conservation

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ENERGY CONSERVATION ACT Considering the vast potential of energy savings and benefits of energy efficiency, the Government of India enacted the Energy Conservation Act, 2001 (52 of 2001). The Act provides for the legal framework, institutional arrangement and a regulatory mechanism at the Central and State level to embark upon energy efficiency drive in the country. Indian Industry Programme for Energy Conservation (IIPEC) Under IIPEC the Task Groups for Textile, Cement, Pulp & Paper, Fertilizer, Chlor-Alkali, and Aluminium have been formed and the first meetings of these groups have taken place at Chhindhwada (M.P.), Beawar (Rajasthan), Ballarpur (Maharashtra), Mumbai (Maharashtra) and Hirakud (Orissa) respectively. Each Task Force is being headed by stakeholders and BEE is actively involved in organising the programmes. The Members from the industry participate in this project for sharing Best Practices, declaring their voluntary targets and benchmarking, etc. The voluntary targets undertaken by the Members from Cement and Pulp & Paper sector will alone result in saving of Rs.175 crores and Rs.51 crores respectively by 2005-06. SHORT TERM MEASURES 1.Energy Conservation

Bureau of Energy Efficiency operationalized Complete pilot phase of programme for energy efficiency in government buildings and prepare action plan for wider dissemination and implementation.

2. Energy audit of government buildings

Energy Audit completed for nine govt. buildings.

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Legal Performance contract agreement, payment security mechanism, bids selection and evaluation criteria provided to all building owners for implementation. Five Building owners have floated tenders. Monitoring and verification of energy savings from March 2005.

3. Capacity building amongst departments to take up energy efficiency programmes

BEE to train core group members to implement energy efficiency in buildings.

LONG TERM MEASURES Potential of 23,700 MW assessed by end of XIth Plan The Thrust Areas : 1. Industry specific Task Forces. 2. Notifying more industries as designated consumers. 3. Conduct of energy audit amongst notified designated consumers. 4. Recording and publication of best practises (sectorwise). 5. Development of energy consumption norms. 6. Monitoring of compliance with mandated provision by designated consumers. STANDARDS AND LABELLING PROGRAMME Standards and labelling (S&L) programme has been identified as one of the key activities for energy efficiency improvements. The S&L program when in place would ensure that only energy efficient equipment and appliance would be made available to the consumers. Initially the equipment to be covered under S&L program are household refrigerators, airconditioners, water heater, electric motors, agriculture pump sets, electric lamps &fixtures, industrial fans & blowers and air-compressors. Preliminary discussions have already taken place with manufacturers of refrigerators, air conditioners, agricultural pump sets, motors, etc., regarding procedure to fix labels and setting standards for minimum energy consumption.

DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT The Demand Side Management and increased electricity end use efficiency can together mitigate power shortages to a certain extent and drastically reduce capital needs for power

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capacity expansion. The Bureau will be assisting 5 electric utilities to set up DSM Cell and will also assist in capacity building of DSM Cell staff. The preparation of investment grade feasibility reports on agricultural DSM, municipal water pumping and domestic lighting in each of the 5 states will also be undertaken by the Bureau under DSM programme. ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS AND ESTABLISHMENTS Energy audit studies conducted in several office buildings, hotels and hospitals indicate energy saving potential of 20-30%. The potential is largely untapped, partly due to lack of an effective delivery mechanism for energy efficiency. Government buildings by themselves, constitute a very large target market. The Government of India is committed to set an example by implementing the provisions of the EC Act in all its establishments as a first initiative. To begin with, the Bureau has begun conduct of energy audit in the Rashtrapathi Bhawan, Parliament House, South Block, North Block, Shram Shakti Bhawan, AIIMS, Safdarjung Hospital, Delhi Airport, Sanchar Bhawan, and RailBhawan. Energy audit in the Rashtrapati Bhawan PMO, S S Bhawan, Sanchar Bhawan & Rail Bhawan has been completed PROFESSIONAL CERTIFICATION AND ACCREDITATION Designated Consumer. Under the EC Act, 2001 is required to appoint or designate energy manager with prescribed qualifications and also to get energy audit done from accredited energy auditor. It has been decided that prescribed qualification for energy manager will be the passing of certification examination to be arranged by the Bureau. Also, regular accreditation is proposed to be given to energy audit firms having a pool of certified energy auditors. The syllabus and other preparatory activities for conducting the examination have been finalized and the first National Level Certification Examination is scheduled to be conducted in August 2003. MANUAL AND CODES In order to standardize the energy performance test procedures and adopt uniform codes while performing energy audit in the designated consumer premises, the Bureau has undertaken this activity. Initially twenty energy intensive equipments have been identified for development of performance test codes which will be developed and reviewed by experts, validated by field tests and pilot tested by training energy manager and energy auditors in these codes.

DELIVERY MECHANISMS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY SERVICES Although the benefits of energy efficiency are well known and recognised, investments in energy efficiency have not taken place due to variety of barriers faced by energy users,

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such as risk averseness and lack of motivation for making energy efficiency investments, and low credibility of energy auditors and their services, lack of confidence in the ability of energy efficiency equipment to deliver energy savings as expected, etc. An innovative way of overcoming such barriers is the approach of using performance contracting through energy service companies (ESCOs). The Bureau would be conducting investment grade audits in industries, which are proposed to be implemented on the performance contract basis by ESCOs. INDO-GERMAN ENERGY EFFICIENCY PROJECT(PHASE-II) The Phase-I of the Indo-German Energy EfficiencyProject has been successfully completed by theerstwhile Bureau of Energy Efficiency(BEE) in June 2000.Activities in the Phase-II of the Project have alreadybegun and the project would be supporting thethrust areas of the Bureau as mentioned above. ENERGY CONSERVATION AWARD 2002 To give national recognition through awards to industrial units for the efforts undertaken by them to reduce energy consumption in their respective units, the Ministry of Power launched the National Energy Conservation Awards in 1991. BEE provides technical and administrative support for the Awards Scheme. In the Awards Scheme 2002,for Large and Medium Scale Industry, applications were invited from 17 Industrial Sub-Sectors i.e., automobile, aluminium, cement, chemicals, ceramics, chlor-alkali, edible oil/vanaspati, fertilizers, glass, integrated steel, mini-steel, paper& pulp, petrochemicals, refractories, refineries, sugar and textile plants. The automobile sector has been included for the first time in the Awards. 2002. The response from the industries to the year 2002 scheme has been encouraging. In total, one hundred seventy four (174) industrial units belonging to the above sub-sectors responded, which is a record for the Award Scheme since its inception. The award scheme has motivated the participating units to undertake serious efforts in saving energy and environment. The data pertaining to 174industrial units indicated that in 2001-2002, these units have been able to save collectively 641million kwh of electrical energy which is equivalent to the energy generated from a 122MW thermal power station at a PLF of 60%.Besides the above electrical energy savings, the participating units have also saved 1.7 lakh kilolitres of furnace oil, 7.4 lakh metric tonnes of coal and 3588 lakh cubic meters of gas per year.In the monetary terms these units have been able to save Rs.594 crores per year and the investment of Rs.691 crores was recovered in 14 months time period. This year, the Awards were given by the Hon.ble Vice President of India.

MOTORS
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS - RUNNING, STARTING, SPEED CONTROL, BRAKING

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 MECHANICAL FEATURES - ENCLOSURE, BEARINGS, TYPE OF COUPLING/TRANSMISSION, NOISE SIZE (RATING AND SERVICE CAPACITY) - CONTINUOUS, INTERMITTENT OR VARIABLE LOAD COST - CAPITAL COST, RUNNING COST (LOSSES, P.F., MAINTENANCE, DEPRECIATION) TEMP RISE AND INSULATION STRENGTH Proper Sizing of Motors It is important to remember that it is the load that determines how much power the motor draws. The size of the motor does not necessarily relate to the power being drawn. For example, a fan requiring 15 kW could be driven by a 15 kW motor; in which case, it is well matched. It could also be driven by a 30 kW motor, and although it would work, it would not be very efficient. Motors are often oversized because of: 1. Uncertainty about load; 2. Allowance for load growth, 3. Rounding up to the next size; 4. Availability; Because motor efficiency curves vary substantially from motor to motor, it is difficult to make a blanket statement as to which motors should be downsized. In general, if the motor operates at 40% of its rated load or less, it is a strong candidate for downsizing. This is especially true in cases where the motor load does not vary much. It often makes sense to replace oversized motors even if the existing motor has not failed. Remember, energy costs for a motor over the course of a year can be up to five times the cost of a new motor. This is especially true in cases where the motor is operating at a lower efficiency level due to oversizing. Of course, there are benefits to oversizing motors in certain cases that should not be overlooked when determining what the proper motor is for a given application. In addition to providing capacity for future expansion, oversized motors can

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accommodate unanticipated high loads and are likely to start and operate more readily in under voltage conditions. These advantages can normally be achieved, however, with a modest oversizing margin. The efficiency of motors operating at loads below 40% is likely to be poor and energy savings are possible by replacing these with properly sized motors. Oversized Motors lead to the following problems : Higher investment cost due to larger size Higher running cost due to decrease in efficiency Higher maximum demand due to poor power factor Higher cable losses and demand charges Higher switchgear cost Higher installation cost Higher rewinding cost (in case of motor burnout)

There are two methods to optimise loading of a running motor :

Connecting motors in STAR Use of Soft starter with energy saving features

The following suggestions are made:

If a motor is oversized and continuously loaded below 30% of its rated shaft load, the motor can be permanently connected in Star. If the motor is normally loaded below 30% but has a high starting torque requirement, then the motor can be started with a suitable starter and, after overcoming the starting inertia, be automatically switched from Delta to Star, using timer control or current sensing. If the load is below 30% most of the time, but if the load exceeds 50% some times, automatic Star-Delta changeover Switches (based on current or load sensing) can be used. However, if the changeover is very frequent the contactors would get worn

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out and the savings achieved may get neutralised by the cost of frequent contactor replacements. If the motor is nearly always operating above 30% of the rated load and sometimes runs below 30% load, star-delta changeover will not be economical.

UNDERLOADING OF MOTORS
DECREASES OPERATING POWER FACTOR DECREASES OPERATING EFFICIENCY SELECTION OF MOTOR SHOULD BE SUCH THAT IT IS NOT OVERSIZED MOREOVER, EXISTING MOTOR SHOULD BE OPERATED NEAR ITS RATED CAPACITY PLANT CAPACITY RAW MILL FAN:- MOTOR RATING - MAX. LOAD - % LOADING ADDITIONAL ENERGY - BILL (US$ 0.02 LAKH/YR) (@ RS 4/50 PER KWH) ( 1 US $ = RS 45)

: : : : :

2500 TPD (DRY) 850 kW 450 KW 53 Rs 1.00 LAKH/YR

COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR REPLACEMENT OF MOTOR

NAME OF MOTOR : COOLER COMPARTMENT NO 1 FAN (3 SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR) EXISTING MOTOR PROPOSED MOTOR RATED HP : FULL LOAD 150 100

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CURRENT AMPERES : 188 CURRENT LOADING AMPERES : 106(56%)

130

87(67%)(ESTIMATED

EXPECTED POWER SAVING : 3.19 Kw REDUCTION IN MAXIMUM DEMAND : 13.5KVA ANNUAL SAVING : Rs 1.40 LAKH (US $ 0.03LAKH) @ RS4/50 PER KWH , RS 150/KVA M.D CHARGES 1 US $ = RS 45,330 DAYS OPERATION/YR

ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS

DESIGNED SO THAT EFFICIENCY REACHES A PEAK AT ABOUT TWO THIRD OF FULL LOAD AND REMAINS AS HIGH AS FULL LOAD EFFICIENCY EVEN AT HALF LOAD POWER FACTOR IS EQUAL TO OR SLIGHTLY HIGHER THAN STANDARD MOTORS CONTAIN HIGHER ACTIVE MATERIAL, HENCE COSTLIER BY UPTO 30% AS COMPARED TO STANDARD MOTORS RECOMMENDED IN PROJECT STAGE AND FOR REPLACEMENT OF STANDARD MOTORS WHICH HAVE BEEN REWOUND MORE THAN TWICE PAYBACK PERIOD OF 2-3 YEARS

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ENERGY EFFICIENT TRANSFORMERS

TRANSFORMERS
DESIGNED FOR HIGH EFFICIENCIES (98% OR MORE) IRON LOSSES REMAIN CONSTANT AND Cu LOSSES VARY AS SQUARE OF THE LOAD EFFICIENCY MAXIMUM AT 60-70% LOAD (UNLIKE MOTORS AND FANS) LOAD LOSSES REDUCE WITH IMPROVEMENT IN LOAD POWER FACTOR FOR SAME KVA LOAD
LOCATION OF TRANSFORMER IS IMPORTANT TO MINIMISE CU LOSSES

(I2R LOSSES) THROUGH OPTIMISED CABLE LENGTHS Most energy loss in dry-type transformers occurs through heat or vibration from the core. The new high-efficiency transformers minimise these losses. The conventional transformer is made up of a silicon alloyed iron (grain oriented) core. The iron loss of any transformer depends on the type of core used in the transformer. However the latest technology is to use amorphous material a metallic glass alloy for the core. The expected reduction in energy loss over conventional (Si Fe core) transformers is roughly around 70%, which is quite significant. By using an amorphous core with unique physical and magnetic properties- these new type of transformers have increased efficiencies even at low loads - 98.5% efficiency at 35% load. Electrical distribution transformers made with amorphous metal cores provide excellent opportunity to conserve energy right from the installation. Though these transformers are a little costlier than conventional iron core transformers, the overall benefit towards energy savings will compensate for the higher initial investment. At present amorphous metal core transformers are available up to 1600 kVA.

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AutoCAD
AutoCAD is a CAD (Computer Aided Design or Computer Aided Drafting) software application for 2D and 3D design and drafting. It was developed and sold by Autodesk, Inc. First released in December 1982, AutoCAD was one of the first CAD programs to run on personal computers, notably the IBM PC. At that time, most other CAD programs ran on mainframe computers or mini-computers which were connected to a graphics computer terminal for each user. Early releases of AutoCAD used primitive entities lines, polylines, circles, arcs, and text to construct more complex objects. Since the mid-1990s, AutoCAD has supported custom objects through its C++ Application Programming Interface (API). Modern AutoCAD includes a full set of basic solid modeling and 3D tools. With the release of AutoCAD 2007 came improved 3D modeling, which meant better navigation when working in 3D. Moreover, it became easier to edit 3D models. The mental ray engine was included in rendering, it was now possible to do quality renderings. AutoCAD 2010 introduced parametric functionality and mesh modeling. AutoCAD supports a number of APIs for customization and automation. These include AutoLISP, Visual LISP, VBA, .NET and ObjectARX. ObjectARX is a C++ class library, which was also the base for products extending AutoCAD functionality to specific fields, to create products such as AutoCAD Architecture, AutoCAD Electrical, AutoCAD Civil 3D, or third-party AutoCAD-based applications.

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Conclusion
Cement industry, in any country, plays a major role in the growth of the nation. India, being the second largest cement producer in the world after China with a total capacity of 151.2 Million Tons (MT), has got a huge cement industry. With the government of India giving boost to various infrastructure projects, housing facilities and road networks, the cement industry in India is currently growing at an enviable pace. More growth in the Indian cement industry is expected in the coming years. The industry has been actively pursuing various avenues to improve its productivity and energy efficiency. There has been all-around upgradation of technology in all sections of the plant like mining, process, equipment and machinery, packaging and transportation. Various electrical and electronic equipments are used in the cement plant which affects the performance of cement plant and thus affects the production of cement. These are used during various stages like manufacturing, detection, testing and safety. Hence with the deep understanding of electrical and electronic equipment used in the cement plant, various methods can be developed to improve the performance of the plants and aim for sustainable development.

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