An Introduction to Ultrasonic Thickness Gaging

Introduction to Olympus Technologies

by Tom Nelligan Ultrasonic thickness gaging is a widely used nondestructive test technique for measuring the thickness of a material from one side. The first commercial ultrasonic gages, using principles derived from sonar, were introduced in the late 1940s. Small, portable instruments optimized for a wide variety of test applications became common in the 1970s. Later advances in microprocessor technology led to new levels of performance in today's sophisticated, easy-to-use miniature instruments. 1. What can be measured Virtually any common engineering material can be measured ultrasonically. Ultrasonic thickness gages can be set up for metals, plastics, composites, fiberglass, ceramics, and glass. On-line or in-process measurement of extruded plastics and rolled metal is often possible, as is measurement of individual layers or coatings in multilayer fabrications. Liquid levels and biological samples can also be measured. Ultrasonic gaging is always completely nondestructive, with no cutting or sectioning required. Materials that are generally not suited for conventional ultrasonic gaging include wood, paper, concrete, and foam products. 2. How ultrasonic thickness gages work Sound energy can be generated over a broad frequency spectrum. Audible sound occurs in a relatively low frequency range with an upper limit around twenty thousand cycles per second (20 Kilohertz). The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch we perceive. Ultrasound is sound energy at higher frequencies, beyond the limit of human hearing. Most ultrasonic testing is performed in the frequency range between 500 KHz and 20 MHz, although some specialized instruments go down to 50 KHz or lower and as high as 225 MHz. Whatever the frequency, sound energy consists of a pattern of organized mechanical vibrations traveling through a medium such as air or steel according to the basic laws of wave physics. All ultrasonic thickness gages work by very precisely measuring how long it takes for a sound pulse that has been generated by a probe called an ultrasonic transducer to travel through a test piece. Because sound waves reflect from boundaries between dissimilar materials, this measurement is normally made from one side in a "pulse/echo" mode, where the gage measures the round trip transit time of a pulse that reflects off the far side or back wall of the test piece. The transducer contains a piezoelectric element which is excited by a short electrical impulse to generate a burst of ultrasonic waves. The sound waves are coupled into the test material and travels through it until they encounter a back wall or other boundary. The reflections then travel back to the transducer, which converts the sound energy back into electrical energy. In essence, the gage listens for the echo from the opposite side. Typically this time interval is only a few millionths of a second. The gage is programmed with the speed of sound in the test material, from which it can then calculate thickness using the simple mathematical relationship T = (V) x (t/2) where T = the thickness of the part V = the velocity of sound in the test material t = the measured round-trip transit time It is important to note that the velocity of sound in the test material is an essential part of this calculation. Different materials transmit sound waves at different velocities, generally faster in

hard materials and slower in soft materials, and sound velocity can change significantly with temperature. Thus it is always necessary to calibrate an ultrasonic thickness gage to the speed of sound in the material being measured, and accuracy can be only as good as this calibration. Sound waves in the megahertz range do not travel efficiently through air, so a drop of coupling liquid is used between the transducer and the test piece in order to achieve good sound transmission. Common couplants are glycerin, propylene glycol, water, oil, and gel. Only a small amount is needed, just enough to fill the extremely thin air gap that would otherwise exist between the transducer and the target. There are three common ways of measuring the time interval that represents the sound wave's travel through the test piece. Mode 1 is the most common approach, simply measuring the time interval between the excitation pulse that generates the sound wave and the first returning echo and subtracting a small zero offset value that compensates for fixed instrument, cable, and transducer delays. Mode 2 involves measuring the time interval between an echo returned from the surface of the test piece and the first backwall echo. Mode 3 involves measuring the time interval between two successive backwall echoes. The type of transducer and specific application requirements will usually dictate the choice of mode.

3. Transducer types Contact transducers: As the name implies, contact transducers are used in direct contact with the test piece. Measurements with contact transducers are often the simplest to implement and they are usually the first choice for most common thickness gaging applications other than corrosion gaging.

Delay Line transducers: Delay line transducers incorporate a cylinder of plastic, epoxy, or fused silica known as a delay line between the active element and the test piece. A major reason for using them is for thin material measurements, where it is important to separate the excitation pulse recovery from backwall echoes. A delay line can be used as a thermal insulator, protecting the heat-sensitive transducer element from direct contact with hot test pieces, and delay lines can also be shaped or contoured to improve sound coupling into sharply curved or confined spaces. Immersion transducers: Immersion transducers use a column or bath of water to couple sound energy into the test piece. They can be used for on-line or in-process measurement of moving product, for scanned measurements, or for optimizing coupling into sharp radiuses, grooves, or channels. Dual element transducers: Dual element transducers, or simply "duals", are used primarily for measurement of rough, corroded surfaces. The incorporate separate transmitting and receiving elements mounted on a delay line at a small angle to focus energy a selected distance beneath the surface of a test piece. Although measurement with duals is sometimes not as accurate as with other types of transducers, they usually provide significantly better performance in corrosion survey applications. 4. Things to consider In any ultrasonic gaging application, the choice of gage and transducer will depend on the material to be measured, thickness range, geometry, temperature, accuracy requirements, and any special conditions that may be present. Listed below are the major factors that should be considered. Material: The type of material and the range of thickness being measured are the most important factors in selecting a gage and transducer. Many common engineering materials including most metals, ceramics, and glass transmit ultrasound very efficiently and can easily be measured across a wide thickness range. Most plastics absorb ultrasonic energy more quickly and thus have a more limited maximum thickness range, but can still be measured easily in most manufacturing situations. Rubber, fiberglass, and many composites can be much more attenuating and often require high penetration gages with pulser/receivers optimized for low frequency operation. Thickness: Thickness ranges will also dictate the type of gage and transducer that should be selected. In general, thin material are measured at high frequencies and thick or attenuating materials are measured at low frequencies. Delay line transducers are often used on very thin materials, although delay line (and immersion) transducers will have a more restricted maximum measurable thickness due to potential interference from a multiple of the interface echo. In some cases involving broad thickness ranges and/or multiple materials, more than one transducer type may be required. Geometry: As the surface curvature of a part increases, the coupling efficiency between the transducer and the test piece is reduced, so as radius of curvature increases the size of the transducer should generally be decreased. Measurement on very sharp radiuses, particularly concave curves, may require specially contoured delay line transducers or non-contact immersion transducers for proper sound coupling. Delay line and immersion transducers may also be used for measurement in grooves, cavities and similar areas with restricted access. Temperature: Common contact transducers can generally be used on surfaces up to approximately 125 F or 50 C. Use of most contact transducers on hotter materials can result in permanent damage due to thermal expansion effects. In such cases, delay line transducers with heat-resistant delay lines, immersion transducers, or high temperature dual element transducers should always be used.

Phase Reversal: There are occasional applications where a material of low acoustic impedance (density multiplied by sound velocity) is bonded to a material of higher acoustic impedance. Typical examples include plastic, rubber, and glass coatings on steel or other metals, and polymer coatings on fiberglass. In these cases the echo from the boundary between the two materials will be phase reversed or inverted with respect to the echo obtained from an air boundary. This condition can normally be accommodated by a simple setup change in the instrument, but if it is not taken into account, readings may be inaccurate. Accuracy: Many factors affect measurement accuracy in a given application, including proper instrument calibration, uniformity of material sound velocity, sound attenuation and scattering, surface roughness, curvature, poor sound coupling, and backwall non-parallelism. All of these factors should be considered when selected a gage and transducer. With proper calibration, measurements can usually be made to an accuracy of +/- 0.001" or 0.01 mm, and in some cases accuracy can approach 0.0001" or 0.001 mm. Accuracy in a given application can best be determined through the use of reference standards of precisely known thickness. In general, gages using delay line or immersion transducers for Mode 3 measurements are able to determine the thickness of a part most precisely. 5. For further information A more detailed discussion of the principles of ultrasonic gaging can be found in the paper Theory and Application of Precision Ultrasonic Thickness Gaging on this web site. Also see individual application notes for discussions of particular test procedures.

An Introduction to Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

Introduction to Olympus Technologies

by Tom Nelligan Of all the applications of industrial ultrasonic testing, flaw detection is the oldest and the most common. Since the 1940s, the laws of physics that govern the propagation of sound waves through solid materials have been used to detect hidden cracks, voids, porosity, and other internal discontinuities in metals, composites, plastics, and ceramics. High frequency sound waves reflect from flaws in predictable ways, producing distinctive echo patterns that can be displayed and recorded by portable instruments. Ultrasonic testing is completely nondestructive and safe, and it is a well established test method in many basic manufacturing, process, and service industries, especially in applications involving welds and structural metals. This paper provides a brief introduction to the theory and practice of ultrasonic flaw detection. It is intended only as an overview of the topic. Additional detailed information may be found in the references listed at the end. 1. Basic Theory: Sound waves are simply organized mechanical vibrations traveling through a medium, which may be a solid, a liquid, or a gas. These waves will travel through a given medium at a specific speed or velocity, in a predictable direction, and when they encounter a boundary with a different medium they will be reflected or transmitted according to simple rules. This is the

principle of physics that underlies ultrasonic flaw detection. Frequency: All sound waves oscillate at a specific frequency, or number of vibrations or cycles per second, which we experience as pitch in the familiar range of audible sound. Human hearing extends to a maximum frequency of about 20,000 cycles per second (20 KHz), while the majority of ultrasonic flaw detection applications utilize frequencies between 500,000 and 10,000,000 cycles per second (500 KHz to 10 MHz). At frequencies in the megahertz range, sound energy does not travel efficiently through air or other gasses, but it travels freely through most liquids and common engineering materials. Velocity: The speed of a sound wave varies depending on the medium through which it is traveling, affected by the medium's density and elastic properties. Different types of sound waves (see Modes of Propagation, below) will travel at different velocities. Wavelength: Any type of wave will have an associated wavelength, which is the distance between any two corresponding points in the wave cycle as it travels through a medium. Wavelength is related to frequency and velocity by the simple equation = c/f where = wavelength c = sound velocity f = frequency Wavelength is a limiting factor that controls the amount of information that can be derived from the behavior of a wave. In ultrasonic flaw detection, the generally accepted lower limit of detection for a small flaw is one-half wavelength. Anything smaller than that will be invisible. In ultrasonic thickness gaging, the theoretical minimum measurable thickness one wavelength. Modes of Propagation: Sound waves in solids can exist in various modes of propagation that are defined by the type of motion involved. Longitudinal waves and shear waves are the most common modes employed in ultrasonic flaw detection. Surface waves and plate waves are also used on occasion. - A longitudinal or compressional wave is characterized by particle motion in the same direction as wave propagation, as from a piston source. Audible sound exists as longitudinal waves. - A shear or transverse wave is characterized by particle motion perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. - A surface or Rayleigh wave has an elliptical particle motion and it travels across the surface of a material, penetrating to a depth of approximately one wavelength. - A plate or Lamb wave is a complex mode of vibration in thin plates where material thickness is less than one wavelength and the wave fills the entire cross-section of the medium. Sound waves may be converted from one form to another. Most commonly, shear waves are generated in a test material by introducing longitudinal waves at a selected angle. This is discussion further under Angle Beam Testing in Section 4. Variables Limiting Transmission of Sound Waves: The distance that a wave of a given frequency and energy level will travel depends on the material through which it is traveling. As a general rule, materials that are hard and homogeneous will transmit sound waves more efficiently than those that are soft and heterogeneous or granular. Three factors govern the distance a sound wave will travel in a given medium: beam spreading, attenuation, and scattering. As the beam travels, the leading edge becomes wider, the energy associated with the wave is spread over a larger area, and eventually the energy dissipates. Attenuation is energy loss associated with sound transmission through a medium, essentially the degree to which energy is absorbed as the wave

front moves forward. Scattering is random reflection of sound energy from grain boundaries and similar microstructure. As frequency goes up, beam spreading increases but the effects of attenuation and scattering are reduced. For a given application, transducer frequency should be selected to optimize these variables. Reflection at a Boundary: When sound energy traveling through a material encounters a boundary with another material, a portion of the energy will be reflected back and a portion will be transmitted through. The amount of energy reflected, or reflection coefficient, is related to the relative acoustic impedance of the two materials. Acoustic impedance in turn is a material property defined as density multiplied by the speed of sound in a given material. For any two materials, the reflection coefficient as a percentage of incident energy pressure may be calculated through the formula Z2 - Z1 R= ---------Z2 + Z1 where R = reflection coefficient (percentage of energy reflected) Z1 = acoustic impedance of first material Z2 = acoustic impedance of second material For the metal/air boundaries commonly seen in ultrasonic flaw detection applications, the reflection coefficient approaches 100%. Virtually all of the sound energy is reflected from a crack or other discontinuity in the path of the wave. This is the fundamental principle that makes ultrasonic flaw detection possible. Angle of Reflection and Refraction: Sound energy at ultrasonic frequencies is highly directional and the sound beams used for flaw detection are well defined. In situations where sound reflects off a boundary, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. A sound beam that hits a surface at perpendicular incidence will reflect straight back. A sound beam that hits a surface at an angle will reflect forward at the same angle. Sound energy that is transmitted from one material to another bends in accordance with Snell's Law of refraction. Again, a beam that is traveling straight will continue in a straight direction, but a beam that strikes a boundary at an angle will be bent according to the formula: Sin 1 -------Sin 2 = V1 ----V2

where 1 = incident angle in first material 2= refracted angle in second material V1 = sound velocity in first material V2 = sound velocity in second material This relationship is an important factor in angle beam testing, which is discussed in Section 4.

2. Ultrasonic Transducers In the broadest sense, a transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Ultrasonic transducers convert electrical energy into high frequency sound energy and vice versa.

Cross section of typical contact transducer Typical transducers for ultrasonic flaw detection utilize an active element made of a piezoelectric ceramic, composite, or polymer. When this element is excited by a high voltage electrical pulse, it vibrates across a specific spectrum of frequencies and generates a burst of sound waves. When it is vibrated by an incoming sound wave, it generates an electrical pulse. The front surface of the element is usually covered by a wear plate that protects it from damage, and the back surface is bonded to backing material that mechanically dampens vibrations once the sound generation process is complete. Because sound energy at ultrasonic frequencies does not travel efficiently through gasses, a thin layer of coupling liquid or gel is normally used between the transducer and the test piece. There are five types of ultrasonic transducers commonly used in flaw detection applications: - Contact Transducers -- As the name implies, contact transducers are used in direct contact

with the test piece. They introduce sound energy perpendicular to the surface, and are typically used for locating voids, porosity, and cracks or delaminations parallel to the outside surface of a part, as well as for measuring thickness. - Angle Beam Transducers -- Angle beam transducers are used in conjunction with plastic or epoxy wedges (angle beams) to introduce shear waves or longitudinal waves into a test piece at a designated angle with respect to the surface. They are commonly used in weld inspection. - Delay Line Transducers - Delay line transducers incorporate a short plastic waveguide or delay line between the active element and the test piece. They are used to improve near surface resolution and also in high temperature testing, where the delay line protects the active element from thermal damage. - Immersion Transducers - Immersion transducers are designed to couple sound energy into the test piece through a water column or water bath. They are used in automated scanning applications and also in situations where a sharply focused beam is needed to improve flaw resolution. - Dual Element Transducers - Dual element transducers utilize separate transmitter and receiver elements in a single assembly. They are often used in applications involving rough surfaces, coarse grained materials, detection of pitting or porosity, and they offer good high temperature tolerance as well. Further details on the advantages of various transducer types, as well as the range of frequencies and diameters offered, may be found in the transducer section of our web site. 3. Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors Modern ultrasonic flaw detectors such as the Panametrics-NDT Epoch series are small, portable, microprocessor-based instruments suitable for both shop and field use. They generate and display an ultrasonic waveform that is interpreted by a trained operator, often with the aid of analysis software, to locate and categorize flaws in test pieces. They will typically include an ultrasonic pulser/receiver, hardware and software for signal capture and analysis, a waveform display, and a data logging module. While some analog-based flaw detectors are still manufactured, most contemporary instruments use digital signal processing for improved stability and precision. The pulser/receiver section is the ultrasonic front end of the flaw detector. It provides an excitation pulse to drive the transducer, and amplification and filtering for the returning echoes. Pulse amplitude, shape, and damping can be controlled to optimize transducer performance, and receiver gain and bandwidth can be adjusted to optimize signal-to-noise ratios. Modern flaw detectors typically capture a waveform digitally and then perform various measurement and analysis function on it. A clock or timer will be used to synchronize transducer pulses and provide distance calibration. Signal processing may be as simple as generation of a waveform display that shows signal amplitude versus time on a calibrated scale, or as complex as sophisticated digital processing algorithms that incorporate distance/amplitude correction and trigonometric calculations for angled sound paths. Alarm gates are often employed to monitor signal levels at selected points in the wave train to flag echoes from flaws. The display may be a CRT, a liquid crystal, or an electroluminescent display. The screen will typically be calibrated in units of depth or distance. Multicolor displays can be used to provide interpretive assistance. Internal data loggers can be used to record full waveform and setup information associated with each test, if required for documentation purposes, or selected information like echo amplitude, depth or distance readings, or presence or absence of alarm conditions. 4. Procedure Ultrasonic flaw detection is basically a comparative technique. Using appropriate reference

standards along with a knowledge of sound wave propagation and generally accepted test procedures, a trained operator identifies specific echo patterns corresponding to the echo response from good parts and from representative flaws. The echo pattern from an test piece may then be compared to the patterns from these calibration standards to determine its condition. - Straight Beam Testing -- Straight beam testing utilizing contact, delay line, dual element, or immersion transducers is generally employed to find cracks or delaminations parallel to the surface of the test piece, as well as voids and porosity. It utilizes the basic principle that sound energy traveling through a medium will continue to propagate until it either disperses or reflects off a boundary with another material, such as the air surrounding a far wall or found inside a crack. In this type of test, the operator couples the transducer to the test piece and locates the echo returning from the far wall of the test piece, and then looks for any echoes that arrive ahead of that backwall echo, discounting grain scatter noise if present. An acoustically significant echo that precedes the backwall echo implies the presence of a laminar crack or void. Through further analysis, the depth, size, and shape of the structure producing the reflection can be determined.

Sound energy will travel to the far side of a part, but reflect earlier if a laminar crack or similar discontinuity is presented. In some specialized cases, testing is performed in a through transmission mode, where sound energy travels between two transducers placed on opposite sides of the test piece. If a large flaw is present in the sound path, the beam will be obstructed and the sound pulse will not reach the receiver. - Angle Beam Testing - Cracks or other discontinuities perpendicular to the surface of a test piece, or tilted with respect to that surface, are usually invisible with straight beam test techniques because of their orientation with respect to the sound beam. Such defects can occur in welds, in structural metal parts, and many other critical components. To find them, angle beam techniques are used, employing either common angle beam (wedge) transducer assemblies or immersion transducers aligned so as to direct sound energy into the test piece at a selected angle. The use of angle beam testing is especially common in weld inspection. Typical angle beam assemblies make use of mode conversion and Snell's Law to generate a shear wave at a selected angle (most commonly 30, 45, 60, or 70 degrees) in the test piece. As the angle of an incident longitudinal wave with respect to a surface increases, an increasing portion of the sound energy is converted to a shear wave in the second material, and if the angle is high enough, all of the energy in the second material will be in the form of shear waves. There are two advantages to designing common angle beams to take advantage of this mode conversion phenomenon. First, energy transfer is more efficient at the incident angles that generate shear waves in steel and similar materials. Second, minimum flaw size resolution is improved through the use of shear waves, since at a given frequency, the wavelength of a shear wave is approximately 60% the wavelength of a comparable longitudinal wave.

Typical angle beam assembly

The angled sound beam is highly sensitive to cracks perpendicular to the far surface of the test piece (first leg test) or, after bouncing off the far side, to cracks perpendicular to the coupling surface (second leg test). A variety of specific beam angles and probe positions are used to accommodate different part geometries and flaw types, and these are described in detail in appropriate inspection codes and procedures such as ASTM E-164 and the AWS Structural Welding Code.

An Introduction to Ultrasonic Phased Array Technology

Introduction to Olympus Technologies

by Tom Nelligan and Dan Kass

Many people are familiar with the medical applications of ultrasonic imaging, in which high frequency sound waves are used to create highly detailed cross-sectional pictures of internal organs. Medical sonograms are commonly made with specialized multi-element transducers known as phased arrays and their accompanying hardware and software. But the applications of ultrasonic phased array technology are not limited to medical diagnosis. In recent years, phased array systems have seen increasing use in industrial settings to provide new levels of information and visualization in common ultrasonic tests that include weld inspection, bond testing, thickness profiling, and in-service crack detection. This paper provides a brief introduction to how phased array systems work and how they can be employed in industrial ultrasonic nondestructive testing.

What is a phased array system?

Conventional ultrasonic transducers for NDT commonly consist of either a single active element that both generates and receives high frequency sound waves, or two paired elements, one for transmitting and one for receiving. Phased array probes, on the other hand, typically consist of a transducer assembly with from 16 to as many as 256 small individual elements that can each be pulsed separately. These may be arranged in a strip (linear array), a ring (annular array), a circular matrix (circular array), or a more complex shape. As is the case with conventional transducers, phased array probes may be designed for direct contact use, as part of an angle beam assembly with a wedge, or for immersion use with sound coupling through a water path. Transducer frequencies are most commonly in the range from 2 MHz to 10 MHz. A phased array system will also include a sophisticated computer-based instrument that is capable of driving the multi-element probe, receiving and digitizing the returning echoes, and plotting that echo information in various standard formats. Unlike conventional flaw detectors, phased array systems can sweep a sound beam through a range of refracted angles or along a linear path, or dynamically focus at a number of different depths, thus increasing both flexibility and capability in inspection setups.

Typical phased array probe assemblies

Typical multi-element construction

How do they work?

In the most basic sense, a phased array system utilizes the wave physics principle of phasing, varying the time between a series of outgoing ultrasonic pulses in such a way that the individual wave fronts generated by each element in the array combine with each other to add or cancel energy in predictable ways that effectively steer and shape the sound beam. This is accomplished by pulsing the individual probe elements at slightly different times. Frequently the elements will be pulsed in groups of 4 to 32 in order to improve effective sensitivity by increasing aperture, which reduces unwanted beam spreading and enables sharper focusing. Software known as a focal law calculator establishes specific delay times for firing each group of elements in order to generate the desired beam shape, taking into account probe and wedge characteristics as well as the

geometry and acoustical properties of the test material. The programmed pulsing sequence selected by the instrument's operating software then launches a number of individual wave fronts in the test material. These wave fronts in turn combine constructively and destructively into a single primary wave front that travels through the test material and reflects off cracks, discontinuities, back walls, and other material boundaries like any conventional ultrasonic wave. The beam can be dynamically steered through various angles, focal distances, and focal spot sizes in such a way that a single probe assembly is capable of examining the test material across a range of different perspectives. This beam steering happens very quickly, so that a scan from multiple angles or with multiple focal depths can be performed in a small fraction of a second. The returning echoes are received by the various elements or groups of elements and time-shifted as necessary to compensate for varying wedge delays and then summed. Unlike a conventional single element transducer, which will effectively merge the effects of all beam components that strike its area, a phased array transducer can spatially sort the returning wavefront according to the arrival time and amplitude at each element. When processed by instrument software, each returned focal law represents the reflection from a particular angular component of the beam, a particular point along a linear path, and/or a reflection from a particular focal depth. The echo information can then be displayed in any of several formats. Example of angled beam generated by flat probe by means of variable delay

Example of focused linear scan beam

What do the images look like?

In most typical flaw detection and thickness gaging applications, the ultrasonic test data will be based on time and amplitude information derived from processed RF waveforms. These waveforms and the information extracted from them will commonly be presented in one or more of four formats: Ascans, B-scans, C-scans, or S-scans. This section shows some examples of image presentations from both conventional flaw detectors and phased array systems.

A-Scan displays
An A-scan is a simple RF waveform presentation showing the time and amplitude of an ultrasonic signal, as commonly provided by conventional ultrasonic flaw detectors and waveform display thickness gages. An A-scan waveform represents the reflections from one sound beam position in the test piece. The flaw detector A-scan below shows echoes from two side-drilled holes in a steel reference block. The columnar sound beam from a common single-element contact transducer intercepts two out of the three of the holes and generates two distinct reflections at different times that are proportional to the depth of the holes.

Generalized beam profile

Straight beam A-scan image

A single-element angle beam transducer used with a conventional flaw detector will generate a beam along one angular path. While beam spreading effects will cause the beam diameter to increase with distance, the area of coverage or field of vision of a conventional angle beam will still basically be limited to one angular path. In the example below, a 45 degree wedge at one fixed position is able to detect two of the side-drilled holes in the test block because they fall within its beam, but it is not possible to detect the third without moving the transducer forward.

Generalized beam profile

Angle beam A-scan image

A phased array system will display similar A-scan waveforms for reference, however in most cases they will be supplemented by B-scans, C-scans, or S-scans as seen below. These standard imaging formats aid the operator in visualizing the type and position of flaws in a test piece.

B-Scan displays
A B-scan is an image showing a cross-sectional profile through one vertical slice of the test piece, showing the depth of reflectors with respect to their linear position. B-scan imaging requires that the sound beam be scanned along the selected axis of the test piece, either mechanically or electronically, while storing relevant data. In the case below, the B-scan shows two deep reflectors and one shallower reflector, corresponding to the positions of the side drilled holes in the test block. With a conventional flaw detector, the transducer must be moved laterally across the test piece.

Generalized beam profile

Typical b-scan image showing relative hole depth

A phased array system, on the other hand, can use electronic scanning along the length of a linear array probe to similarly create a cross-sectional profile without moving the transducer:

Electronic linear scan (B-scan) image showing relative hole position and depth across the length of a linear array

C-Scan displays
A C-scan is a two dimensional presentation of data displayed as a top or planar view of a test piece, similar in its graphic perspective to an x-ray image, where color represents the gated signal amplitude at each point in the test piece mapped to its x-y position. With conventional instruments,

the single-element transducer must be moved in an x-y raster scan pattern over the test piece. With phased array systems, the probe is typically moved physically along one axis while the beam electronically scans along the other. Encoders will normally be used whenever precise geometrical correspondence of the scan image to the part must be maintained, although unencoded manual scans can also provide useful information in many cases. The images that follow show C-scans of a reference block made with a conventional immersion scanning system with a focused immersion transducer, and with a portable phased array system using an encoded hand scanner and a linear array. While the graphic resolution is not fully equivalent, there are other considerations. The phased array system is field portable, which the conventional system is not, and costs about one-third the price. Additionally, the phased array image was made in a few seconds, while the conventional immersion scan took several minutes.

Generalized beam profile and direction of motion Conventional C-scan image showing hole position

Generalized beam profile and direction of motion Phased array C-scan image showing hole position

S-Scan displays
An S-scan or sectorial scan image represents a two-dimensional cross-sectional view derived from a series of A-scans that have been plotted with respect to time delay and refracted angle. The horizontal axis corresponds to test piece width, and the vertical axis to depth. This is the most common format for medical sonograms as well as for industrial phased array images. The sound beam sweeps through a series of angles to generate an approximately cone-shaped cross-sectional image. It should be noted that in this example, by sweeping the beam the phased array probe is able to map all three holes from a single transducer position.

A-Scan of a single angular component at left, composite sectorial scan at right. The cursor marking 49 degrees identifies the angular location of the displayed A-scan.

Where are phased array systems used?

Ultrasonic phased array systems can potentially be employed in almost any test where conventional ultrasonic flaw detectors have traditionally been used. Weld inspection and crack detection are the most important applications, and these tests are done across a wide range of industries including

aerospace, power generation, petrochemical, metal billet and tubular goods suppliers, pipeline construction and maintenance, structural metals, and general manufacturing. Phased arrays can also be effectively used to profile remaining wall thickness in corrosion survey applications. The benefits of phased array technology over conventional UT come from its ability to use multiple elements to steer, focus and scan beams with a single transducer assembly. Beam steering, commonly referred to sectorial scanning, can be used for mapping components at appropriate angles. This can greatly simplify the inspection of components with complex geometries. The small footprint of the transducer and the ability to sweep the beam without moving the probe also aids inspection of such components in situations where there is limited access for mechanical scanning. Sectorial scanning is also typically used for weld inspection. The ability to test welds with multiple angles from a single probe greatly increases the probability of detection of anomalies. Electronic focusing permits optimizing the beam shape and size at the expected defect location, thus further optimizing probability of detection. The ability to focus at multiple depths also improves the ability for sizing critical defects for volumetric inspections. Focusing can significantly improve signal-to-noise ratio in challenging applications, and electronic scanning across many groups of elements allows for C-Scan images to be produced very rapidly.

An Introduction to Ultrasonic Material Analysis

Introduction to Olympus Technologies

by Tom Nelligan Ultrasonic nondestructive testing is a versatile technique that can be applied to a wide variety of material analysis applications. While ultrasonic NDT is perhaps better known in its more common applications for thickness gauging, flaw detection, and acoustic imaging, high frequency sound waves can also be used to discriminate and quantify some basic mechanical, structural, or compositional properties of solids and liquids. Ultrasonic material analysis is based on a simple principle of physics: the motion of any wave will be affected by the medium through which it travels. Thus, changes in one or more of four easily measurable parameters associated with the passage of a high frequency sound wave through a materialtransit time, attenuation, scattering, and frequency contentcan often be correlated with changes in physical properties such as hardness, elastic modulus, density, homogeneity, or grain structure. Principles Ultrasonic NDT utilizes the range of frequencies from approximately 20 KHz to over 100 MHz, with most work being performed between 500 KHz and 20 MHz. Both longitudinal and shear (transverse) modes of vibration are commonly employed, as well as surface (Rayleigh) waves and plate (Lamb) waves in some specialized cases. Because shorter wavelengths are more responsive to changes in the medium through which they pass, many material analysis applications will benefit from using the highest frequency that the test piece will support. Sound pulses are normally generated and received by piezoelectric transducers that have been acoustically coupled to the test material. In most cases a single transducer coupled to one side of the test piece serves as both transmitter and receiver (pulse/echo mode), although in some situations involving highly attenuating or scattering materials separate transmitting and receiving transducers on opposite sides of the part are used (through transmission mode). A sound wave is

launched by exciting the transducer with either a voltage spike or a continuous wave impulse. The sound wave travels through the test material, either reflecting off the far side to return to its point of origin (pulse/echo), or being received by another transducer at that point (through transmission). The received signal is then amplified and analyzed. A variety of commercial instrumentation is available for this purpose, utilizing both analog and digital signal processing. A significant advantage of ultrasonic testing over other material analysis methods is that it can often be performed in-process or on-line. High frequency sound waves can often be successfully transmitted into and out of moving materials without direct contact, through the use of a water bath or water stream as a coupling medium. Measurements can also be performed within closed containers by coupling sound energy through the wall. Because sound waves penetrate through the test specimen, material properties are measured in bulk rather than just on the surface. It is sometimes even possible, through the use of selective gating, to analyze just one layer of a multilayer, multi-material fabrication. The relevant measurement parameters will typically be one or more of the following: 1. Sound velocity/pulse transit time: Sound velocity is usually the easiest ultrasonic parameter to measure. The speed of sound in a homogenous medium is directly related to both elastic modulus and density; thus changes in either elasticity or density will affect pulse transit time through a sample of a given thickness. Additionally, varying degrees of nonhomogeneity may have an effect on sound velocity. 2. Attenuation: Sound energy is absorbed or attenuated at different rates in different materials, governed in a complex fashion by interactive effects of density, hardness, viscosity, and molecular structure. Attenuation normally increases with frequency in a given material. 3. Scattering: Sound waves reflect from boundaries between dissimilar materials. Changes in grain structure, fiber orientation, porosity, particle concentration, and other microstructural variations can affect the amplitude, direction, and frequency content of scattered signals. Scatter effects can also be monitored indirectly by looking at changes in the amplitude of a backwall echo or a through-transmission signal. 4. Frequency (Spectrum) content: All materials tend to act to some degree as a low pass filter, attenuating or scattering the higher frequency components of a broadband sound wave more than the lower frequency components. Thus, analysis of changes in the remaining frequency content of a selected broadband pulse that has passed through the test material can track the combined effects of attenuation and scattering as described above. In some applications ultrasonic data such as velocity can be directly used to calculate properties such as elastic modulus. In other cases, ultrasonic testing is a comparative technique, where in order to establish a test protocol in a given application it will be necessary to experimentally evaluate reference standards representing the range of material conditions being quantified. From such standards it will be possible to record how sound transmission parameters vary with changes in specific material properties, and then from this baseline information it will be possible to identify or predict similar changes in test samples. Equipment: A wide variety of ultrasonic instrumentation can be used in material analysis applications. Sound velocity can be measured with simple hand-held ultrasonic thickness gauges, while velocity, attenuation, and scattering effects can all be observed with modern digital flaw detectors. Pulser/receivers with appropriate auxiliary equipment and ultrasonic imaging systems with appropriate software can be used to quantify all of these properties, and to perform spectrum analysis (frequency content) testing as well. For information on both instrumentation and transducer recommendations for specific tests, contact us. Applications: The following is a summary of some specific material analysis applications where ultrasonic techniques have been used and documented. Extensive discussion, as well as bibliographies on the subject, can be found in the texts by ASNT1 and Lynnworth2. Both books are

recommended as a source of further detailed information regarding both test procedures and specific instrumentation requirements. Elastic moduli: Young's modulus and shear modulus in homogenous, nondispersive materials can be calculated from longitudinal wave and shear wave velocity (along with material density). Use of waveguides often permits measurement at high temperatures. Nodularity in cast iron: Both the concentration of graphite in cast iron and its shape and form can be quantified through velocity measurements. Cure rate in epoxies and concrete: The speed of sound in these materials changes as they harden; thus sound velocity measurements can be correlated to the degree of curing. Concrete testing usually requires access to both sides for through-transmission coupling. Liquid concentrations: The mixture ratio of two liquids with dissimilar sound velocities can be correlated to the sound velocity of the solution at a given temperature. Density of slurries: The liquid/solid mix ratio of slurries such as drilling mud and paper slurry at a given temperature can be correlated to sound velocity and/or attenuation. Density in ceramics: Uniformity of density in both green and fired ceramics can be verified by means of sound velocity measurements. Food products: A wide variety of tests have been reported, including age of eggs and potatoes, ripeness of fruits, fat content in beef, and percent of solids in milk. Generally these tests are both nondestructive and non-contaminating. Polymerization in plastics: In plastics and other polymers, variations in molecular structure such as length or orientation of polymer chains will often result in corresponding changes in sound velocity and/or attenuation. Particle or porosity size and distribution: Changes in the size or distribution of particles or porosity in a solid or liquid medium will affect the amplitude and frequency of scattered ultrasound. Grain size in metals: Changes in grain size or orientation in steel, cast iron, titanium, and other metals will cause changes in the amplitude, direction, and/or frequency content of scattered ultrasound. Anisotropy in solids: Variations in sound velocity, scattering, and/or attenuation across different axes of a solid can be used to identify and quantify anisotropy. Case hardening depth in steel: High frequency shear wave backscatter techniques can be used to measure the depth of case hardening. Temperature measurement: Ultrasonic thermometry has been used to measure very high temperatures (over 3,000 degrees Celsius) by monitoring changes in sound velocity in a reference medium.

Theory and Application of Precision Ultrasonic Thickness Gaging

Testing Theory

by Kenneth A. Fowler, Gerry M. Elfbaum, Karen A. Smith, and Thomas J. Nelligan Measurement Principles Ultrasonic nondestructive testing (NDT)-characterizing material thickness, integrity, or other physical properties by means of high-frequency sound waves-has become a widely used technique for quality control. In thickness gauging, ultrasonic techniques permit quick and reliable measurement of thickness without requiring access to both sides of a part. Accuracies as high as 1 micron or 0.0001 inch are achievable in some applications. Most engineering materials can be measured ultrasonically, including metals, plastic, ceramics, composites, epoxies, and glass, as well as liquid levels and the thickness of certain biological specimens. Online or in-process measurement of extruded plastics or rolled metal is often possible, as is measurement of single layers or coatings in multilayer materials. Modern hand held gauges are simple to use and highly reliable. Precision ultrasonic thickness gauges usually operate at frequencies between 500 KHz and 100 MHZ, using piezoelectric transducers to generate bursts of sound waves when excited by electrical pulses. A wide variety of transducers with various acoustic characteristics have been developed to meet the needs of industrial applications. Typically, lower frequencies will be used to optimize penetration when measuring thick, highly attenuating, or highly scattering materials, while higher frequencies will be recommended to optimize resolution in thinner, non-attenuating, nonscattering materials. A pulse-echo ultrasonic thickness gauge determines the thickness of a part or structure by accurately measuring the time required for a short ultrasonic pulse generated by a transducer to travel through the thickness of the material, reflect from the back or inside surface, and be returned to the transducer. In most applications this time interval is only a few microseconds or less. The measured two-way transit time is divided by two to account for the down-and-back travel path, and then multiplied by the velocity of sound in the test material. The result is expressed in the well-known relationship: d=Vt/2 where d = the thickness of the test piece V = the velocity of sound waves in the material t = the measured round-trip transit time Additionally, in actual practice, a zero offset is usually subtracted from the measured time interval to account for certain fixed electronic and mechanical delays. In the common case of measurements involving direct contact transducers, the zero offset compensates for the transit time of the sound pulse through the transducer's wearplate and the couplant layer, as well as any electronic switching time or cable delays. This zero offset is set as part of instrument calibration procedures and is necessary for highest accuracy and linearity.

Figure 1 Figure 1 represents a generalized block diagram of a modern microprocessor-controlled ultrasonic gauge. The pulser, under control of the microprocessor, provides a unidirectional broadband voltage impulse to a heavily damped broadband ultrasonic transducer. The broadband ultrasonic pulse generated by the transducer is coupled into the test piece, normally with the aid of a liquid coupling medium. Returning echoes are received by the transducer and converted back into electrical pulses, which in turn are fed to the receiver Automatic Gain Control (AGC) amplifier. The microprocessor-based control and timing logic circuits both synchronize the pulser and select the appropriate echo signals to be used for time interval measurement. If echoes are not detected during a given measurement period, the gauge will shut down to save power until a new measurement cycle is required. If echoes are detected, the timing circuit will precisely measure an interval appropriate for the selected measurement mode, and then repeat this process a number of times to obtain a stable, averaged reading. The microprocessor then uses this time interval measurement, along with the sound velocity and zero offset information stored in the Random Access Memory (RAM), to calculate thickness. This thickness measurement is then displayed on the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and updated at a selected rate. Many modern gauges incorporate an internal datalogger and are capable of storing several thousand thickness measurements along with identification codes and setup information in RAM. These stored readings may be recalled to the gauge's display or uploaded to a printer or computer for further analysis. Measurement Modes and Transducer Selection The methods of making ultrasonic measurements of thickness may be classified according to the type of transducer used to make the measurement, or they may be classified by the choice of echoes used to determine the ultrasonic pulse transit time through the test piece. If we classify the measurement method by transducer type, we find three basic classifications used in precision thickness gauging: 1. Direct Contact transducers 2. Delay Line transducers 3. Immersion transducers If we classify the measurement techniques by the choice of echoes used in making the transit time measurement, we find that there are again three basic classifications or modes: Mode 1 - In Mode 1, measurement is made between an excitation pulse and the first backwall

echo from the test piece, using direct contact-type transducers. It is a general purpose test mode and is normally recommended for use unless one of the conditions described under Modes 2 or 3 is present. Mode 2 - In Mode 2, measurement is made between an interface echo representing the near surface of the test piece and the first backwall echo, using delay line or immersion transducers. Mode 2 is most often used for measurements on sharp concave or convex radiuses or in confined spaces with delay line or immersion transducers, for online measurement of moving material with immersion transducers, and for high-temperature measurements with high-temperature delay line transducers. Mode 3 - In Mode 3, measurement is made between two successive backwall echoes, using delay line or immersion transducers. It may be employed only when clean multiple backwall echoes appear, which typically limits its use to materials of relatively low attenuation and high acoustic impedance such as fine-grained metals, glass, and ceramics. Mode 3 typically offers the highest measurement accuracy and the best minimum thickness resolution in a given application, at the expense of penetration, and it is used when accuracy and/or resolution requirements cannot be met in Mode 1 or 2. These classifications are summarized in Figure 2, which gives a schematic representation of the three modes of timing and the types of transducers that can be employed for each. Note: An additional common type of transducer is the dual element, which is normally used for corrosion survey applications rather than the precision gauging work that is the focus of this paper. As their name implies, dual element transducers use a pair of separate piezoelectric elements, one for transmitting and one for receiving, bonded to separate delay lines. Thickness measurement is made in a modified Mode 1 method, reading to the first backwall echo and subtracting a zero offset equal to the transit time through the delays. Dual element transducers are typically rugged and able to withstand exposure to high temperatures, and are highly sensitive to detection of pitting or other localized thinning conditions. However, they are generally not recommended for precision gauging applications because of the possibility of zero drifting and timing errors due to V-path correction. Contact us for further information on the use of dual element transducers. Measurement Ultrasonic thickness measurements utilizing direct contact transducers in Mode 1 are generally the simplest to implement and can be used in the majority of applications. For most materials the contact method of measurement provides the highest coupling efficiency of ultrasound from the transducer into the test piece. Mode 1 contact measurements can generally be used when minimum material thickness does not fall below approximately 0.12 mm (0.005 inches) of plastic or 0.25 mm (0.010 inches) of metal, precision required is not better than 12.5 microns (0.0005 inch), test material is at or close to room temperature, and geometry permits contact coupling. Mode 2 and Mode 3 measurements with delay line and immersion transducers are, as noted above, generally recommended when application requirements preclude use of Mode 1. - fig2.jpg

*Thickness range shown assumes a sound velocity of approximately 0.5 cm/S or .23 in/S and further assumes that maximum range is not limited by sound attenuation in the material. The selection of the appropriate transducer for a given application is based on the range and resolution of the thickness measurement required, the acoustic properties of the test material(s), and part geometry. Often this is best established by experimentation with test standards representing the desired range of measurement. In general, the highest frequency and smallest diameter transducers that will give acceptable results over the required range would be recommended. Small diameter transducers are more easily coupled to the test material and permit the thinnest couplant layer at a given contact pressure. Furthermore, higher frequency transducers produce echo signals of faster rise time and thereby enhance the precision of thickness measurements. On the other hand, the acoustic properties or surface condition of the test material may require large, low frequency transducers to overcome poor coupling or signal losses due to scattering or attenuation. Selection of the optimum transducer in some cases will require compromising penetration for the sake of thin material resolution, or vice versa. In some cases two or more transducers will be required to cover a required range of measurement in its entirety. Factors Affecting Performance and Accuracy Calibration. The accuracy of any ultrasonic measurement is only as good as the accuracy and care with which the gauge has been calibrated. All quality ultrasonic gauges provide a method for calibrating for the sound velocity and zero offset appropriate for the application at hand. It is essential that this calibration be performed and periodically checked in accordance with the

manufacturer's instructions. Sound velocity must always be set with respect to the material being measured. Zero offset is usually related to the type of transducer, transducer cable length and mode of measurement being used. Surface Roughness of the Test Piece. The best measurement accuracy is obtained when both the front and back surfaces of the test piece are smooth and parallel. If the contact surface is rough, the minimum thickness that can be measured will be increased because of sound reverberating in the increased thickness of the couplant layer. There will also be potential inaccuracy caused by variations in the thickness of the couplant layer beneath the transducer. Additionally, if either surface of the test piece is rough, the returning echo may be distorted due to the multiplicity of slightly different sound paths seen by the transducer, and measurement inaccuracies will result. Coupling Technique. In Mode 1 (direct contact transducer) measurements, the couplant layer thickness is part of the measurement and is compensated by a portion of the zero offset. If maximum accuracy is to be achieved, the coupling technique must be consistent. This is accomplished by using a couplant of reasonably low viscosity, employing only enough couplant to achieve a reasonable reading, and applying the transducer with uniform pressure. A little practice will show the degree of moderate to firm pressure that produces repeatable readings. In general, smaller diameter transducers require less coupling force to squeeze out the excess couplant than larger diameter transducers. In all modes, tilting the transducer will distort echoes and cause inaccurate readings, as noted below. Curvature of the Test Piece. A related issue involves the alignment of the transducer with respect to the test piece. When measuring on curved surfaces, it is important that the transducer be placed approximately on the centerline of the part and held as nearly normal to the surface as possible. In some cases a spring-loaded V-block holder may be helpful for maintaining this alignment. In general, as the radius of curvature decreases, the size of the transducer should be reduced, and the more critical transducer alignment will become. For very small radiuses, an i mmersion approach will be necessary. In some cases it may be useful to observe the waveform display via an oscilloscope or other waveform display as an aid in maintaining optimum alignment. Often practice with the aid of a waveform display will give the operator a proper infeel in for the best way to hold the transducer. On curved surfaces it is important to use only enough couplant to obtain a reading. Excess couplant will form a fillet between the transducer and the test surface where sound will reverberate and possibly create spurious signals that may trigger false readings. Taper or Eccentricity. If the contact surface and back surface of the test piece are tapered or eccentric with respect to each other, the return echo will be distorted due to the variation in sound path across the width of the beam. Accuracy of measurement will be reduced. In severe cases no measurement will be possible. Acoustic Properties of the Test Material. There are several conditions found in certain engineering materials that can potentially limit the accuracy and range of ultrasonic thickness measurements: 1. Sound Scattering. In materials such as cast stainless steel, cast iron, fiberglass, and composites, sound energy will be scattered from individual crystallites in the casting or boundaries of dissimilar materials within the fiberglass or composite. Porosity in any material can have the same effect. Gauge sensitivity must be adjusted to prevent detection of these spurious scatter echoes. This compensation can in turn limit the ability to discriminate a valid return echo from the back side of the material, thereby restricting measurement range.

2. Sound Attenuation or Absorption. In many organic materials such as low density plastics and rubber, sound energy is attenuated very rapidly at the frequencies used for ultrasonic gauging. This attenuation typically increases with temperature. The maximum thickness that can be measured in these materials will often be limited by attenuation. 3. Velocity Variations. An ultrasonic thickness measurement will be accurate only to the degree that material sound velocity is consistent with gauge calibration. Some materials exhibit significant variations in sound velocity from point to point. This happens in certain cast metals due to the changes in grain structure that result from varied cooling rates, and the anisotropy of sound velocity with respect to grain structure. Fiberglass can show localized velocity variations due to changes in resin/fiber ratio. Many plastics and rubbers show a rapid change in sound velocity with temperature, requiring that velocity calibration be performed at the temperature where measurements are to be made. Phase Reversal or Phase Distortion. The phase or polarity of a returning echo is determined by the relative acoustic impedances (density x velocity) of the boundary materials. Most commercial gauges assume the customary situation where the test piece is backed by air or a liquid, both of which have lower acoustic impedances than metals, ceramics, or plastics. However, in some specialized cases (such as measurement of glass or plastic liners over metal, or copper cladding over steel) this impedance relationship is reversed, and the echo appears phase reversed. To maintain accuracy in these cases it is necessary to change the appropriate Echo Detection polarity, or on instruments where that is not possible, adjust the zero offset to compensate for a timing error equal to one-half cycle of the waveform. A more complex situation can occur in anisotropic or inhomogeneous materials such as coarsegrain metal castings or certain composites, where material conditions result in the existence of multiple sound paths within the beam area. In these cases phase distortion can create an echo that is neither cleanly positive nor negative. Careful experimentation with reference standards is necessary in these cases to determine effects on measurement accuracy. If the effect is consistent it will usually be possible to compensate by means of a zero offset adjustment, but if echo shape is variable, highly accurate thickness measurements may not be possible. Couplants A wide variety of couplant materials may be used in ultrasonic gauging. We have found that propylene glycol is suitable for most applications. In difficult applications where maximum transfer of sound energy is required, glycerin is recommended. However, on some metals glycerin can promote corrosion by means of water absorption and thus may be undesirable. Other suitable couplants for measurements at normal temperatures may include water, various oils and greases, gels, and silicone fluids. In some applications involving smooth surfaces, it is possible to substitute in place of liquid couplant a thin compliant membrane (such as a thin piece of polyurethane) between the face of the transducer or delay line and the test piece. This approach will often require changes to gauge setup parameters and usually requires that the transducer be pressed firmly to the surface of the test piece. As noted below, measurements at elevated temperatures will require specially formulated high temperature couplants. High Temperature Measurements Measurements at elevated temperatures (higher than approximately 50 degrees Celsius or 125 degrees Fahrenheit) represent a special category. First, it is important to note that standard direct

contact transducers will be damaged or destroyed by exposure to temperatures higher than this limit. This is due to the varying thermal expansion coefficients of the materials used to construct them, which will cause disbonding at elevated temperatures. Direct contact transducers should never be used on a surface that is too hot to comfortably touch with bare fingers. Thus, high temperature measurements should always be done in Mode 2 or Mode 3 with either a delay line transducer (with an appropriate high temperature delay line) or an immersion transducer. Sound velocity in all materials changes with temperature, normally increasing as the material gets colder and decreasing as it gets hotter, with abrupt changes near the freezing or melting points. This effect is much greater in plastics and rubber than it is in metals or ceramics. Velocity changes are related to changes in elastic modulus and density, and depending on the material and temperature range the relationship can be significantly non-linear. For maximum accuracy, the gauge sound velocity setting should be calibrated at the same temperature where measurements will be made. Measurement of hot materials with a gauge set to room temperature sound velocity will often lead to significant error. Finally, at temperatures greater than approximately 100 degrees C or 200 degrees F, special high temperature couplants are recommended. A variety of them are available from commercial sources. Online Measurements Continuous online ultrasonic thickness gauging can be performed on most engineering materials, providing a constant process monitor, and is particularly appropriate for extruded plastics and metal sheets and pipes. It is usually done by coupling the sound energy into the test piece through a water column generated by a bubbler or squirter, or in a water bath. Measurement is normally performed in Mode 2 or 3, although in a few special cases sliding direct contact transducers working in Mode 1 have been employed. For accurate online ultrasonic measurement, material temperature must be stable to avoid errors due to velocity variations. Surfaces must be smooth enough to insure consistent coupling, and some type of fixturing is always required to maintain precise alignment between the transducer(s) and test piece. Cable Length Certain specialized applications such as underwater testing require a long cable between the transducer and ultrasonic gauge. While much of this work involves corrosion gauging and is therefore outside the scope of this paper, some precision gauging applications require long cables as well. The length of cable that produces a significant effect on performance is application specific, depending on transducer frequency as well as accuracy and minimum measurement range requirements. At 20 MHz, cable reflections will begin to affect waveform shape at lengths beyond about 1 meter or 3 feet. At lower frequencies, somewhat longer cables can be used without any special considerations. However, performance with long cables should always be experimentally evaluated in light of specific application requirements, particularly when cable length exceeds approximately 3 meters/10 feet. In Mode 1 measurements, cable reflections can increase the length of the excitation pulse and limit minimum measurable thickness, and zero offset must be adjusted to compensate for the propagation time of electrical pulses through the cable. In Modes 2 and 3, cable reflections can cause distortion of interface and backwall echoes, and in extreme cases (cables on the order of 30 meters/100 feet or greater) they can even result in large spurious signals following desirable signals at an interval equal to the electrical transit time in the cable. Further Notes on Modes of Measurement Mode 1: Excitation Pulse To First Back Echo Ultrasonic thickness measurements utilizing direct contact transducers are generally the simplest

to implement and can be used in a wide variety of applications. For most engineering materials, the contact method provides the highest efficiency in coupling ultrasound from the transducer to the test piece. It is advisable to utilize Mode 1 measurement with direct contact transducers whenever the requirements of the application permit. As indicated in Figure 3 the contact mode of measurement can generally be used whenever the minimum thickness does not fall below approximately 0.5 mm/0.020 in in metals or 0.125 mm/0.005 in in plastics, and accuracy requirements are not greater than 0.025 mm or 0.001 in. Also, as noted above, direct contact transducers should not be used if the test piece is hotter than approximately 50 degrees C or 125 degrees F. This is because of the likelihood of thermal damage to the transducer at higher temperatures. In this mode of measurement, the time interval between the excitation pulse and the first returned echo includes a small time increment representing pulse transit time through the transducer wearplate and the coupling fluid, as well as cable delay and any offset due to rise time or frequency content of the detected echo. In order to compensate for these factors, gauges are provided with a zero offset function, which effectively subtracts from the total measured time interval a period equivalent to the sum of these various fixed delays. Zero offset normally must be adjusted whenever the transducer frequency is changed. This may be done with the aid of a reference standard of known thickness and sound velocity, or, if velocity is unknown, two standards of different known thicknesses which can be used to establish both velocity and zero. Selection of the appropriate direct contact transducer is based on a number of considerations including the acoustic properties of the test material and the thickness and geometry of the test piece. In general, the most reliable and repeatable results will be obtained with the highest frequency and smallest diameter transducer that will gave adequate performance over the thickness range to be measured. Small diameter transducers are more easily coupled to the test piece and permit the thinnest couplant layer at a given coupling pressure. Furthermore, higher frequency transducers produce signals with faster rise times, thereby enhancing measurement accuracy. On the other hand, the acoustic properties or surface condition of the test material may require that transducer frequency be lowered in order to overcome poor coupling and/or sound attenuation or scattering within the material. In making contact thickness measurements on curved surfaces, the active element size of the transducer should normally be reduced as the radius of curvature is reduced. Further, the amount of couplant between the transducer and the test surface should be minimized. Excessive couplant causes noise resulting from the reverberation of sound energy in the couplant fillet between the transducer and the curved surface. Mode 2: Interface Echo to First Backwall Echo Measurements between the first two echoes following the excitation pulse are categorized as Mode 2. Normally this involves measurement from an interface echo representing the boundary between a delay line or water path and the outside surface of the test piece, to a backwall echo representing the inside surface. There are several conditions that must be considered in making Mode 2 measurements, based on the fact that they require two valid echoes, interface and backwall. First, it is necessary to insure that an interface echo exists. There are certain cases involving immersion measurements of low impedance materials such as soft plastics and silicones where the acoustic impedance of the test material is very similar to that of water. A similar situation can occur when a delay line transducer is used on a material (typically a polymer) whose impedance nearly matches that of the delay line. In such cases the impedance match between the water or delay line and the test material may

reduce the interface echo to such low amplitude that it cannot reliably be detected. With delay line transducers the difficulty can usually be remedied by switching to a different delay line material. When the problem occurs in immersion measurements, there may be no easy solution, since it is rarely possible to use liquids other than water as effective immersion couplants. (In the specialized case of an impedance match affecting hot extruded plastics, it is usually possible to move the transducer farther down the cooling line to a point where the plastic has cooled somewhat and its acoustic impedance has increased.) It is also necessary to monitor the phase or polarity of both interface and backwall echoes, and adjust instrument detection polarity and/or zero offset to compensate as necessary for inversions. The most common situation where this applies is in delay line measurements involving both plastic and metal test materials. A plastic delay line coupled to a metal test piece represents a low-to-high impedance boundary, while the same delay line coupled to many polymer materials can represent a high-to-low relationship of relative acoustic impedance. The interface echo polarity reverses between these two situations, and if the gauge is not properly adjusted a measurement error will result. This can happen when a gauge with a delay line transducer is set up on metal reference blocks and then used to measure plastics. Interface and backwall echo phase distortions can also occur in immersion setups involving radiused material, where complex interactions between beam shape and front and back surface curvature can significantly affect echo shape. In such applications it is essential to set up the instrument on reference standards representing the actual material shape to be measured, so that the effects of any phase distortion can be compensated with zero offset. Mode 3: Echo to Echo Following Interface The Mode 3 measurement technique as defined here involves the measurement of a time interval between successive back echoes following an interface echo. This mode is normally reserved for situations where the test material is relatively thin, and where the highest level of accuracy is required. Mode 3 measurement is best applied to engineering materials having an acoustic impedance greater than 1 x 10gm/cm2 sec (which includes most metals, ceramics, and glass). In materials of this type, successive reverberations are all of the same polarity, and the relative amplitude of successive echoes is determined by the transmission coefficient of the sound energy out of the material into either polystyrene or water. Since both of these materials are of relatively low acoustic impedance, the ratio of successive echo signal amplitudes is usually greater than 0.5, or -6dB. Table II shows the fractional energy loss between successive echoes that can be expected for water and for polystyrene delays. If materials of widely different acoustic impedance are to be tested in this manner, compensation for the variation in successive echo signal amplitudes must be provided in order to obtain the maximum accuracy for this mode. (This is done by means of a zero offset.) However it can be seen from Table II that errors do not become too great until the acoustic impedance drops below 3 x 106. For many industrial applications, use of a delay line transducer will be more convenient than i mmersion in Mode 3 measurements. Delay line transducers can be used to make measurements over a range from approximately 0.075 mm/0.003 in up to 12.5 mm/0.5 in, depending on frequency and delay line length. As with direct contact transducer measurements, the diameter or active element size of the delay line should be reduced as the radius of curvature is reduced. For radiuses smaller than approximately 3 mm/0.125 in, i mmersion transducers will provide better coupling and are preferred. If accurate thickness measurements are required on machined surfaces having a surface finish of approximately 3 microns RMS, Mode 3 measurements utilizing a delay line transducer will give more repeatable readings than a Mode 1 direct contact transducer. This is due to the fact that successive echo reverberations tend to subtract out the variable thickness of the couplant layer that adds to the time interval measured using a direct contact transducer. The same general

principle applies to painted surfaces, where multiple echoes will represent reverberations in the metal or other high-impedance material, not the paint. However, there are limitations on what sort of surfaces will permit Mode 3 measurement, and in the case of severe roughness or corrosion this technique will not be applicable. At least two clean backwall echoes are required for a Mode 3 measurement, and as conditions get worse the signal losses due to roughness will eventually obliterate the second echo. When using immersion transducers for Mode 3 measurements, it is always necessary to monitor echoes with an oscilloscope during initial setup. Often spurious or unwanted signals will appear and, unless electronically blanked, make accurate measurements impossible. Two possible situations are illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4a: Proper Measurement Figure 4a shows a thickness measurement utilizing a focused transducer properly set up with the correct water path. The advantage of focused as opposed to unfocused i mmersion transducers of the same frequency and size is that they often tolerate more beam angularization or misalignment, as well as improve coupling into radiused test pieces.

Figure 4b: Error - Measurement of Successive Lobes of Single Echo In Figure 4b the time interval measurement is being erroneously made between the first and second cycle of the first backwall echo. This condition can exist whenever echoes are ambiguously shaped, which can be due both to misalignment and improper focusing.

Figure 4c: Error - Measurement of Mode Converted Shear Wave Echo

Figure 4c illustrates and erroneous time measurement between the first backwall echo and a mode converted shear echo which can result when a focused immersion transducer is used and the water path between the transducer and the surface of the test piece is too long. In order to obtain clean multiple echoes for thickness measurement, a focused i mmersion transducer should be operated considerably short of the focal length. If it is operated at or near the focal length, intermediate shear mode echoes will usually occur. (Note that this is a problem only in Mode 3 measurements; in Mode 2 nothing following the first backwall echo is of interest.) Similar effects can occur in some cases where sharply radiused targets cause refraction and/or mode conversion of beam components arriving at other than normal incidence. In general, it is often advisable to experiment with different combinations of focus and water path to determine what produces the cleanest multiple echoes in an given measurement application. Appendix
Energy and Corresponding Echo-Signal Amplitude Loss Per Pulse Reverberation in Class 3 Measurement Technique E2/E1 Tungsten Molybdenum Steel Copper Brass (70-30 Zirconium Titanium Aluminum Fused Silica 10 6.4 4.6 4.3 3.7 3.0 2.7 1.7 1.5 1.0 .89 .83 .78 .76 .73 .67 .64 .50 .46 .30 A2/A1 .94 .91 .88 .87 .85 .82 .80 .71 .68 .55 E2/E1 .97 .95 .94 .93 .92 .90 .86 .84 .82 .74 A2/A1 .98 .97 .97 .96 .96 .95 .93 .92 .91 .86 E2/E1 .94 .97 .88 .86 .85 .81 .74 .71 .67 .55 A2/A1 .97 .95 .94 .93 .92 .90 .86 .84 .82 .74

NDT Glossary Accuracy: The agreement between the measured value and the true value of a parameter such as thickness. The true value may be defined with the aid of appropriate reference standards. Acoustic Impedance: A material property defined as the product of sound velocity and the material's density. Amplitude: In wave motion, the maximum displacement of material particles. In electronics, the magnitude of a signal, normally expressed as a positive or negative voltage. Attenuation: The loss in acoustic energy which occurs between any two points in a sound path. Backwall Echo: The echo received from the side of the test specimen opposite the side to which the transducer is coupled. The timing to this echo corresponds to the thickness of the specimen at that point. Delay Line: A material (usually a polymer) placed in front of a transducer to create a time delay between the excitation pulse and the echo from the front surface of the test specimen. Excitation Pulse: A brief electrical pulse applied to a piezoelectric element in an ultrasonic transducer, causing it to vibrate and generate sound waves.

Frequency: Mechanically, the number of cycles of vibration experienced by an oscillating body in a designated period of time (normally one second). Electrically, the rate at which a periodic signal (such as a sine wave) repeats during a designated period of time. Interface Echo: The echo reflected from the front surface of a test specimen, seen when using delay line or i mmersion transducers Phase Reversal: An inversion (or change of algebraic sign) of the positive and negative peaks of a wave. Resolution: In thickness gauging, the degree to which slightly different thicknesses or time intervals can be distinguished. Sound Velocity: The speed at which a sound wave travels through a given material. Sound Wave: A coherent pattern of mechanical vibrations in a solid, liquid, or gaseous medium. Transducer: A device that transforms one form of energy into another. In ultrasonic testing this normally means converting electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa. Waveform: A graphic presentation of energy levels in a wave train, plotted as amplitude versus time. Zero Offset: A correction factor representing the difference between a measured time interval and the actual sound transit time in a test specimen, typically accounting for switching delays, cable delays, and wearplate and couplant thickness

Detection and Sizing Techniques of ID Connected Cracking

Testing Theory

by Russ Minkwitz This paper provides a brief summary of advanced detection and sizing techniques for the evaluation of flaws connected to the inner surface of test material. In general, these techniques have found application for the detection, characterization and sizing of intergranular or transgranular stress corrosion cracks and fatigue-type cracks whether inherent, processing or service induced. Overview Once a suspected Inner-Diameter (ID) connected crack has been detected by general code or regulatory mandates, it then must be qualified. This initial process usually involves the use of the same 1.5, 2.25, or 5MHz shear wave angle beam transducer that was used in the detection phases. Further evaluation of signal amplitude, rise and fall time, echo dynamic and pulse duration, hopefully will help determine if the suspect signal is from ID geometry, counter bore, root, or if it is an actual flaw. Another method that can be used for the qualification process involves the use of a single element creeping wave transducer. This technique continues to grow in popularity because of simplicity and because it can provide both detection and preliminary sizing information about the suspected flaw. More About the Single Element Creeping Wave Transducer The single element transducers used in the ID creeping wave technique are designed to create a 70 deg refracted longitudinal wave in the material of interest. As a result of the incident angle used in creating this 70 deg longitudinal wave, other wave modes are created. These different modes all interact to create a unique echo pattern which will vary depending upon how far into the material the defect has propagated. The behavior of each of these components can be broken

down into the following three categories: Direct Longitudinal Wave: This is the 70 deg refracted longitudinal wave, which after a quick and easy calibration procedure, should only appear when a crack is very deep. Shear Wave (30-70-70): Along with the 70 deg longitudinal wave, a 30 deg shear wave is generated. The 30 deg shear wave will hit the back surface of the test piece and some of the wave energy will be reflected as a 70 deg longitudinal signal. The "mode-converted" 70 deg wave will strike the reflector face and then propagate back to the transducer. This round trip signal is also known as a "30-70-70" signal to denote the angle of each portion of the triangular soundpath. This signal is present for mid-wall and deep cracks. ID Creeping Wave: This wave mode is essentially a subsurface longitudinal wave which propagates along the inner surface of the test piece. The ID Creeping wave signal can be considered a "marker" as its presence provides strong evidence that an ID connected flaw may exist.

Calibration Using the Creeping Wave Transducer The relative ease of implementing the creeping wave technique can be attributed to the fact that calibration and signal evaluation are heavily based upon the simple concept of pattern recognition. In general, signals created by the three wave modes will either be present or absent from the AScan display depending upon the nature and geometry of the reflector. Calibration involves positioning echoes from two of the three waves; the ID Creeping wave and the

30-70-70 signal. It is recommended that calibration be carried out on a calibration block that is the same thickness as the material to be examined. In order to approximate the cracks that will be inspected, a series of notches should be cut into the block. Typically, notch depth will range from 20% to 80% through wall. The side of the block can be used for the calibration as it will produce indications from all three wave modes. The difference in the arrival times of each of the signals will be the same in the reference block and test material when they are of equal thickness. To calibrate, the 30-70-70 signal from the side of the block will be positioned at the fourth screen division of the flaw detector screen while the ID Creeping wave signal is positioned at the fifth screen division.

Once this relationship has been established, the detection and signal discrimination process, using the creeping wave transducer, may begin. Because of the relatively high level of energy contained in the creeping wave package, and the fact that it travels relatively close to the inner surface, it is extremely sensitive to ID connected cracks. However, because it is not a true surface wave and does not follow surface geometry, it will be less sensitive to reflectors such as weld roots which provide strong indications when shear wave transducers are used. For this reason, the inspector can re-evaluate what had originally been characterized as a flaw, as well as scan the test material for additional suspected ID-connected indications. The creeping wave transducer will also allow the user to obtain preliminary sizing information because each of the wave modes will appear only under certain conditions. The relative depth of a reflector will dictate which signals are received from the transducer. The A-scan in Figure 1 shows an ID creeping wave signal only. This would indicate the presence of a shallow defect.

The A-scan in Figure 2 shows both an ID creeping wave signal and a 30-70-70 round trip signal. This indicates the presence of a mid-wall defect.

The A-scan in Figure 3 shows all three signals. The ID creeping wave, the 30-70-70 round trip signal, and the direct longitudinal wave signal are all present. This indicates the presence of a deep crack.

As with any ultrasonic technique there are limitations. The signals from the three wave modes can have different amplitude relationships depending upon transducer frequency, damping characteristics, element size, and the thickness of the material to be examined. Furthermore, the type of metal examined or actual OD surface geometries may change the incident angle thus changing the echo amplitude relationship. It is for these reasons that use of an appropriate calibration block is recommended for this technique. This potential variability is also the reason that this technique is referred to as a qualitative approach. The echo relationships do give a very good indication as to the approximate depth of a flaw, but further sizing techniques must be used to verify the depth of the reflector. Sizing Techniques Use of the Sizing Flow Chart The results that are obtained using the ID Creeping wave technique can be summarized in a sizing flow chart. This flow chart can be used to direct the inspector to the correct technique to use during the sizing phase of inspection.

Tip Diffraction Technique This method is used for sizing shallow cracks ranging from approximately 5-35% through wall. In this method the arrival time of the signal from the tip of the crack is used to determine crack depth. To simplify this process the instrument is calibrated so that each screen division corresponds to a particular flaw depth. Typically each of the first five screen divisions are chosen to represent 20% of the material thickness. So, a 20% through wall crack will produce a signal at the 4th screen division, a 40% through wall crack will produce a signal at the 3rd screen division etc. Also noted during this technique is the separation of the tip signal from the corner reflection. The information obtained from this separation allows the operator to make a final and accurate determination of crack depth. An example of an A-Scan from a 20% through wall defect is shown in Figure 4.

In order to provide good resolution of the signal from the crack tip, a highly-damped 5MHz, 45 or 60 deg shear wave transducer is typically used. Since the signal from the crack tip can be relatively weak, the flaw detector should have an RF display. Such a display makes it easier to see the crack tip signals when the signal-to-noise ratio is poor, as shown in Figure 5.

Bi-Modal Technique This method is used for sizing cracks ranging in depth from 30-70% through wall. A 3MHz dual element-tandem transducer is typically used. This probe transmits a 50 deg refracted longitudinal wave and the corresponding shear wave from the front crystal and receives the wave modes from the rear crystal. The calibration and use of this transducer is essentially a combination of the tip diffraction and creeping wave techniques. As with the tip diffraction technique, the flaw detector is calibrated so that the signal from the tip of the crack arrives at a particular screen division. As also done with this diffraction technique, the separation of the different modes are recorded and used during the evaluation/sizing process. High-Angle Longitudinal Wave Technique The final quantitative sizing technique is used for sizing cracks ranging in depth from approximately 60-95% through wall. This method again uses signal arrival time from the crack tip as an indication of crack depth. The signals from cracks located close to the surface are calibrated to the first few graticules while the deeper indications are calibrated to the higher numbered graticules. It should be noted that these indications show the amount of good material that is remaining in test samples, not the actual depth of the crack. We recommend dual element high angle longitudinal wave transducers to incorporate this technique. OD creeping wave transducers are useful for detecting cracks that propagate almost completely through wall. Conclusion The most important aspect of these techniques is their simplicity. Once the behavior of the sound beam is understood the process of detection and sizing ID connected defects becomes one of calibration and pattern recognition. In addition, the sizing techniques are inherently more accurate because they are based on the arrival time of echoes, whereas traditional techniques that utilize signal amplitude are subject to a great deal of variability due to coupling conditions. The effects of these variables are reduced or eliminated with time-of-flight based techniques.

Elastic Modulus Measurement

Testing Theory

Application:
Measurement on Young's Modulus and Shear Modulus of Elasticity, and Poisson's ratio, in nondispersive isotropic engineering materials.

Problem:
Young's Modulus of Elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress (force per unit area) to corresponding strain (deformation) in a material under tension or compression. Shear Modulus of Elasticity is similar to the ratio of stress to strain in a material subjected to shear stress. Poisson's Ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to corresponding axial strain on a material stressed along one axis. These basic material properties, which are of interest in many manufacturing and research applications, can be determined quickly and easily through computations based on sound velocities. Sound velocity can be easily measured using ultrasonic pulse-echo techniques. The procedure outlined below is valid for any nondispersive material and geometry (i.e., velocity does not change with frequency). This includes most metals, ceramics, and glasses as long as cross sectional dimensions are not close to the test frequency wavelength. Plastics and composites are generally dispersive, however, useful information may be obtained by ultrasonic measurements as long as the dispersive nature of the material is recognized when interpreting the results.

Equipment:
The technique requires an ultrasonic pulser-receiver such as a 5072PR, 5077PR, or 5800PR, an ultrasonic thickness gage such as a Model 35DL, or a flaw detector with velocity measurement capability such as the EPOCH series instruments. It also requires two transducers appropriate to the material being tested for pulse-echo sound velocity measurement in longitudinal and shear modes. Generally, a V109 or M109 5MHz broadband longitudinal wave transducer and a V154 2.25MHz normal incidence shear wave transducer will work for typical metal and fired ceramic samples. Different transducers will be required for very thick, thin, or highly attenuating samples. The test samples may be of any geometry that permits clean pulse-echo measurement of sound transit time through a section of known thickness. Ideally this would be a slug or bar at least 0.5" (12.5 mm) thick with smooth parallel surfaces. The diameter or cross-section must exceed about five longitudinal wavelengths. In steel this means D>.25" (6mm) at 5MHz.

Procedure:
Measure the longitudinal and shear wave sound velocity of the test piece. If using a thickness gage or flaw detector, follow the instrument's recommended procedure for velocity measurement. If using a pulser/receiver, simply record the round-trip transit time through an area of known thickness with both longitudinal and shear wave transducers, and compute:

Velocity = Thickness 1/2 Round-Trip Transit Time Convert units as necessary to obtain velocities expressed as inches per second or centimeters per second. (Time will usually have been measured in microseconds, so multiply in/uS or cm/uS by 106 to obtain in/S or cm/s.) The velocities thus obtained may be inserted into the following equations. Poisson's Ratio = 1 - 2(V T V L)

2 - 2(V

V L)

Where

VT = Shear (transverse) Velocity VL = Longitudinal Velocity Example for typical 304 stainless steel: VT = 1.2 x 10 5 in/S or 3.1 x 10 5 cm/S VL = 2.3 x 10
5

in/S or 5.4 x 10

cm/S

VT / VL = 0.522 Poisson's Ratio = 1 - 2(.522)

2

2 - 2(.522)

= .456 1.456 = .313 Young's Modulus =V

L 2

r (1 + d) (1 - 2 d) 1 - d

Where

VL = Longitudinal Velocity

r = Density d = Poisson's Ratio If velocity is expressed in cm/S and density in g/cm3, then Young's modulus will be expressed in units of dynes/cm2. If English units of in/S and lbs/in3 are used to compute a modulus expressed in pounds per square inch (PSI), remember the distinction between "pound" as a unit of force versus a unit of mass. Since modulus is expressed as a force per unit area, it is necessary to multiply the solution of the above equation by a mass/force conversion constant. 1 Acceleration of Gravity = 1 32.174 ft/S
2 2

= 1 386 in/S or if the initial calculation is done in metric units, use the conversion factor. 1 psi = 6.89 x 104 dynes/cm 2 or as another alternative, enter velocity in in/S, density in g/cm 3, and divide by a conversion constant of 1.07 x 10
4

to obtain modulus in PSI.

Examples for typical 304 stainless steel: Young's Modulus = (5.9 x l0 5cm/S)
2

(7.9 g/cm 3)

[(1 + .313) (1 - .616) (1 - .313)] = (3.48 x 1011 x cm = 2.0 x 10

12 2

S2) (7.9 g/cm 3) (.733)

dynes/cm2
12

Then converting to PSI (2.0 x 10 = 29 x l0 6 psi

dynes/cm2) x (1 psi 6.89 x 10

dynes/cm2)

or, alternately doing the computation in English units: Young's Modulus = (2.3 x l05in/S)
2

(.29 lb/in 3) [(1 + .313) (1 - .616) (1 - .313)] [1 386 in/S]

= (5.29 x 1010 in2/S 2) (.29 lb/in 3) (.733) [1 386 in/S] = 29 x l06 psi Shear Modulus = V
T 2

For shear modulus simply multiply the square of the shear wave velocity by the density. Again, use units of cm/S and g/cm 3 to obtain modulus in dynes/cm 2 or English units of in/S and lbs/in 3 and multiply the result by the mass/force conversion constant. Example for 304 stainless steel:

Shear Modulus = (3.1 x 10 = 7.6 x 10 or

5

cm/S)2 (7.9 g/cm3) dynes/cm

2

11

(1.2 x 10

in/S)

(.29 lb/in 3)

[1 386 in/S 2] = 10.8 x 10

6

psi

Multi-mode Adhesive Bond Testing

Testing Theory

Introduction
Adhesive-bonded components and structures have become an important part of manufacturing, not only in the aerospace industry but also in the automotive, wood-based panel, and marine industries. The integrity and reliability of bonds are critical to the quality of end products. The wide range of materials and configurations used in multilayered structures and the need for

nondestructive evaluation of bonds has resulted in a great variety of testing equipment and methods. Ultrasonic and acoustic test methods have been quite successful. However, no single inspection method has been found adequate for the wide variety of applications seen today. The Cessna Citation III aircraft, for example, is constructed almost entirely from composites. This single airplane contains many types of bonded material, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Citation III airplane composition The advent of advanced microprocessors, memory chips, and software has allowed a number of different acoustic and ultrasonic test methods to be combined in a single, portable instrument. A much greater variety of bonded joints can now be evaluated using only one instrument, which can be switched between several test modes. The following sections discuss the five major inspection methods used to inspect adhesive-bonded structures. The basic principal behind each method is discussed, as well as its practical application. The use of a single instrument offering multiple inspection methods allows the inspection of many

different composite materials and configurations. Descriptions of the three test modes and five inspection methods are provided using BondMaster 1000e+ instrument screen illustrations from reallife applications. Applications for the resonance, pitch-catch, and MIA mode are presented, along with notes on their use. Although primarily used for the detection of delaminations and disbonds, these modes can sometimes be used for thickness or defect-depth determination Inspection Methods Five inspection methods are available to inspect for defects in the wide range of materials used for adhesive-bonded joints. The optimum method is selected and the instrument is then automatically configured according to the type and frequency of the probe attached to it. The selected method and any related adjustments can be set up in the laboratory and stored in memory for later use in the field. Pitch-Catch Test Mode - In pitch-catch mode the user can choose from three different inspection methods: the RF method, the impulse method, and the swept method. The setup for this mode is very easy and requires no couplant; one advantage is that the effect of lift-off is distinct from a disbond signal. Pitch-Catch RF Method - This method employs a dual-element, point-contact, dry-coupled ultrasonic probe. One element transmits (pitches) a burst of acoustic energy into the test part and a separate element receives (catches) the sound propagated across the test piece between the two probe tips. The bond condition beneath the two tips can be determined, but unlike the impulse mode, where the probe signal goes through a detector, the RF mode displays raw RF signals from the probe receiving tip. The difference in the energy amplitude and/or phase between good and bad bonds is detected. The user positions a gate at the optimum point to monitor the response of the received signal that is most affected by the defect. This time-gate position will determine the portion of the signal that is displayed on the flying dot display in RUN modes. The inspection is done at a fixed frequency, which is defined as part of the setup process.

Pitch-Catch lmpulse Method - This method employs a dualelement, point-contact, dry-coupled ultrasonic probe. One element transmits (pitches) a burst of acoustic energy into the test part and a separate element receives (catches) the sound propagated across the test piece, between the two probe tips. The bond condition beneath the two probe tips can be determined. With the impulse method, data from the receiving tip is filtered through a detector before being displayed (unlike with the RF method, where the probe signal is displayed as raw RF data). The difference in the amplitude and/or phase between good and bad bond conditions is detected. As with the RF method, the user positions a gate at the optimum time along the signal in order to monitor the response of the received signal that is most affected by the defect. This gate position will determine the portion of the signal that is displayed on the flying dot display in RUN modes. The inspection is done at a fixed frequency, which is defined as part of the setup process. Pitch-Catch Swept Method - This method employs a dualelement, point-contact, dry-coupled ultrasonic probe. One element transmits (pitches) a burst of acoustic energy into the test part and a separate element receives (catches) the sound propagated across the test piece between the probe tips. The frequency is swept through a range to obtain a circular display that is larger for disbonded material. The circular display represents the phase and amplitude components of the signal across the sweep of frequencies. One significant advantage is that the effect of lift-off is distinct from a disbond signal. Unlike the RF or impulse method, the frequency is not fixed in swept mode; the inspection is done using the defined frequency sweep and a defined repetition rate. MIA Mode - The MIA (mechanical impedance analysis) test method uses a single-tipped, dual-element probe. A drive element generates audible sound waves and a receive element detects the effect of test-piece bond variations on probe loading. During setup, the drive frequency is swept through the range of 2 kHz to 10 kHz to establish the optimum test frequency. Testing is then performed at a fixed frequency. This method does not require couplant and has a small contact area; it can therefore be used on irregular or curved surfaces. It works well on disbonds, crushed core, and defects on the inside of composite structures. It is also applicable for mechanical scanning systems.

Resonance Mode - The ultrasonic contact probe is driven at its resonance frequency and placed on the sample along with couplant. To detect disbonds, electrical impedance changes in the sensor are analyzed. This method works well for many disbonded and delaminated materials. In many cases, the disbond depth can be related to the rotation of the signal phase. This test requires liquid couplant and a variety of probes, which can limit or complicate its application.

The best mode to use for inspecting a particular material and defect type can be set up in the shop or laboratory for later recall in the field. When the operator connects the required probe, the instrument is automatically configured for the appropriate mode. The operator can then choose a setup to recall and calibrates the probe for sensitivity.If a setup has not already been programmed for a specific application, the operator must determine the mode and probe to use; the mode is then automatically set upon connection of the probe. Next, the user selects the parameters required to evaluate the joint, based on specific bond-calibration standards. The simple pitch-catch mode, which uses no couplant, is generally preferred when applicable. Many delaminations can be readily detected by resonance testing. This method also detects many types of disbonds. However, with resonance testing, the setup and operation can be more complicated and requires a liquid couplant, making it more difficult to scan the joint. With some composite materials and structures, the use of liquid couplants is not allowed due to possible contamination. The resonance inspection method is particularly good at detecting disbonds or delaminations in thin-skinned composites. More specific information on test modes and frequencies is covered in the following pages of this guide.

Pitch-Catch Mode

The pitch-catch test mode employs a dual-element, point-contact, dry-coupled ultrasonic probe. In this mode, one element transmits (pitches) a burst of acoustic energy into the test part and a separate element receives (catches) the sound propagated across the test piece between the probe

tips. The bond condition beneath the two probe tips (elements) will affect the characteristics of the accoustic energy that is transmitted between the two tips (see Figure 2); these characteristics can be displayed in terms of phase and amplitude change. In a bonded condition, a portion of the acoustic energy is attenuated by the structure below the inspection surface, resulting in a lower signal amplitude being displayed on the instrument. In a disbond condition, the waves travel between the transmit (pitch) element and the receive (catch) element with very little attenuation or damping from the bonded structure. The result is that a higher signal amplitude is displayed. A bandpass from 0 kHz to 35 kHz can be selected, for each pitch-catch method, to help the user filter undesirable noise generated by probe movement.

Pitch-Catch RF Method
With the pitch-catch RF method, the received signal bypasses an amplitude or phase-amplitude detector. The frequency is chosen that provides maximum flexural motion for the layer thickness and the material being tested. A variable time gate is used to select the received pulse cycle having the greatest change in amplitude when the probe is moved from a bonded area to a disbonded area. The amplitude will be larger over the disbonding, as the motion of the plate or layer is restricted over a bonded joint, and energy is lost into the base material of the joint. A separate receive element, a set distance from the transmit element, picks up the waves propagated across the part, as shown in Figure 2 (on previous page). The energy is carried in a plate-wave mode across the test piece between the two probe tips. The return signals are detected and a phaseamplitude display is used to show the effect of good and bad bonds on the sound path. For the pitch-catch RF method, the alarm can be set either for an amplitude-only display or for a phase-and-amplitude display as shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. In addition, these two displays can be combined on one screen using the RUN2 mode shown in Figure 5.

Figure 3. RF method time-base display

Figure 4. RF method phase-amplitude display

Figure 5. RUN2 mode

Pitch-Catch Impulse Method

This method is similar to the previously noted RF method except that it uses a short, singlefrequency burst. The frequency is chosen that provides a maximum flexural motion for the layer thickness and material being tested. A variable time gate is used to select the received pulse having the greatest change in amplitude when the probe is scanned from a bonded area to a disbonded area. The amplitude will be larger over any disbonding, as the motion of the plate or layer is restricted over a bonded joint and energy is lost into the joint's base material. Normally, the frequency and gain are adjusted over a disbond to obtain a maximum signal. Then, the signal from the disbond is compared with a signal from a bonded joint. Where the signal over the well-bonded area is significantly lesser, the gate is set to the signal delay time. This time vs. amplitude can be displayed, and the alarm can be set at the selected amplitude. For the pitch-catch impulse method, the alarm can be set either for an amplitude-only display or for a phase-and-amplitude display as shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7. In addition, these two displays can be combined on one screen using the RUN2 mode shown in Figure 8.

Figure 6. Impulse method time-base display

Figure 7. Impulse method phase-amplitude display

Figure 8. RUN 2 mode

Pitch-Catch Swept Method

The pitch-catch swept method uses frequencies from 5 kHz to 100 kHz to activate the transmit element. The energy is carried in a plate-wave mode across the test piece between the two probe tips. The return signals are detected and a phase-amplitude display is used to show the effect of good and bad bonds on the sound path. The swept frequency provides a circular pattern with some minor resonance loops, as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Pitch-catch signal display Because the plate (Lamb) waves are attenuated by coupling into the second layer in well-bonded joints, these signals are small. In a disbond region, the waves travel in the plate with very little attenuation or leakage into the backing material, and a much larger signal pattern is displayed. Investigation has shown that the primary mode of wave propagation in the layer is by the 1st asymmetrical Lamb wave mode, which vibrates as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. 1st asymmetrical Lamb wave (flexural plate wave) mode Other, lesser-energy modes may account for some of the minor loops sometimes observed, or they could be due to boundary effects. No definite correlation between these minor loops and bonding or disbonding size have been observed. The propagation speed or phase velocity of Lamb waves are a function of the frequency and layer thickness for a particular plate material. These dispersion curves are shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Lamb-wave modes in an aluminum plate For the low frequencies and layer thicknesses normally encountered in bond testing, the region of interest is at the leftmost end of the 1st asymmetrical mode, where there is the maximum slope. If this region is expanded for an aluminum skin, it appears as shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Normal test region (1st asymmetrical mode) For example: f = 50 kHz, t = 0.020 in.; then ft = 1.0, v = 0.019 in./s, and l = 0.38 in., where f = frequency, t = layer thickness, v = phase velocity, and l = wavelength. The setup for this method is very easy, and requires no couplant. The probe has only to be placed on a good or bad bond, and the gain adjusted to provide a signal from a disbond outside the alarm box, as shown in Figure 13a. The signal from the good bond will appear much smaller, as shown in Figure

13b. Poor contact between the probe and test piece results in a decrease in the amplitude or in the size of the circular pattern, as shown in Figure 13c. A disbond signal has the opposite effect, which allows false readings to be greatly reduced. Because of the low frequencies used, this test method is best at detecting near-surface disbonds, as well as deeper defects.

Figure 13a. Pitch-catch swept signal patterns for disbond. Figure 13b. Pitch-catch swept signal patterns for a good bond. Figure 13c. Pitch-catch swept signal patterns for poor contact. With the special menu; the user can choose to drive the swept mode using a low-, medium-, or highrepetition rate, making this method a very fast way to inspect.

MIA Mode

The mechanical impedance analysis (MIA) inspection method uses a single-tipped, dual-element probe. A drive element, coupled to the test piece through a plastic cone and wear shoe, generates audible sound waves into the test part. A drawing of an MIA probe inspection method is shown in Figure 14. The probe assembly is shown in Figure 15.

Figure 14. MIA inspection method

Figure 15. MIA probe assembly

Figure 16. Spring model The loading of the receive element at the bottom of the cone is affected by the stiffness of the sample, which changes from very high to low, from bonded to disbonded regions. The spring model developed by P. Cawley (see Figure 16) describes the impedance as measured at the top of the spring., The spring stiffness over a disbond is the contact stiffness of the probe in relation to the defect stiffness. Over a well-bonded composite, the spring stiffness is only the contact stiffness. Since the measurements comprise a comparison of stiffness, results are better over stiff structures, because more flexible composite structures have less change from bond to disbond. The defect stiffness is dependent on the size and thickness of the disbond. As the impedance varies with the frequency, the proper test frequency is critical to obtaining good results. The loading of the receive element affects the signal amplitude and phase. The change in amplitude and/or phase can be an increase or a decrease when the frequency is near or above the resonance

frequency of the layer. During setup, the drive frequency is swept through the range of 2 kHz to 10 kHz to determine the frequency for the test. The operator selects the frequency having the greatest difference in phase or amplitude between the good and bad bonding. Testing is then performed at this fixed frequency. Figure 17 shows the frequency sweep display and Figure 18 shows a typical fixed-frequency amplitude display.

Figure 17. Frequency-sweep display.

Figure 18. Typical fixed-frequency amplitude display The MIA mode does not require a couplant. Because a small contact area is involved, it can be used on irregular or curved surfaces. It works well on disbonds, crushed core, and bond defects on the inside wall of a composite structure. This method is applicable for continuous or mechanical scanning using either spring loading or constant pressure on the probe tip. Defect samples made from Teflon inserts may not be readily detected by the MIA method as the inserts stiffen the simulated disbond and thus greatly reduce sensitivity to this type of defect. Actual disbond defects are readily detectable.

Resonance Mode
The resonance method uses special narrow-bandwidth ultrasonic contact probes. The method is based on the change in impedance of the sharply resonant high-Q ultrasonic transducer when acoustically coupled to a material. The measured electrical impedance of the transducer is affected by the acoustic impedance of the test sample. The acoustic impedance in a specific composite is altered

by any lack of bonding. A disbond acts as a thin plate that vibrates, generating a standing wave when the thickness is equal to odd number multiples (1, 3, 5, etc.) of the length of the acoustic wave in the plate. For one wavelength: l = v/f, where v = sound velocity in the material and f is the resonance frequency. The thinner the layer, the higher the resonance frequency. Figure 19 shows a resonance transducer coupled to a test piece at a disbonded joint, and the resultant standing wave.

Figure 19. Resonant standing wave in a thin plate or disbonded joint For the acoustic impedance: Z = rVtanh[a +i( +kt)], where a is the reflectivity constant, is the phase change, t is the plate thickness, and k is the wave number. In an adhesive-bonded joint, changes in the effective thickness caused by disbonding significantly affects the phase and amplitude of the signal at the resonance frequency of the transducer. In a multilayered joint, the phase is related to the depth of the disbonded layer, as shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20. Multilayer disbond test The instrument automatically selects the resonance frequency of the transducer in air by sweeping over a frequency range and locating the phase null.

The instrument then operates at that frequency in the RUN modes. Figure 21 illustrates correct operation of the probe.

Figure 21. The instrument sweeps through the frequency range of a probe and displays the probe's resonance characteristics. Confirmation of the resonance frequency confirms the correct operation of the probe. Coupling the probe to a composite part causes the part to act as a damping member, reducing the amplitude and increasing the bandwidth of the transducer as well as changing the resonance frequency. By nulling out the good bond signal, the phase- and amplitude-vector end points of a disbond are compared to a good bond on a polar-coordinate display. The phase is indicated by the rotation of the spot and the amplitude by the distance from the center null point. The signals on the display will appear as shown in Figure 22.

Figure 22. The frequency of the probe is chosen based on skin-layer thickness and material type. For optimal sensitivity to disbonds, the thinner the layer is, the higher the probe frequency should be. The frequency of the probe should be proportional to the acoustic impedance of the layer. Materials such as graphite or fiberglass, with low impedance (Z = rV, where Z is the impedance, r is the density and V is the velocity of sound waves in the material), require lower-frequency probes than metal-skin layers. Frequencies in the range of 35 kHz to 500 kHz have been useful for most bond

testing, with the higher frequencies used for thinner or metallic layers.

Application Considerations in Specifying High Frequency Ultrasonic Transducers

Testing Theory

by Grant Reig, Dan Kass, and Tom Nelligan

Advances in transducer manufacturing technology and associated instrument electronics have led to the introduction of commercial products that provide the capability for ultrasonic imaging, thickness gaging, flaw detection, and material analysis at test frequencies greater than 50 MHz. In many materials like fine grain metals, ceramics, and thin polymers, these higher test frequencies permit measurement of significantly lower thickness limits and detection of significantly smaller flaws and other internal structures as compared to conventional test frequencies of 20 MHz and below. However, when working in this very high frequency range, it is especially important to consider a number of fundamental performance factors when selecting transducers. These include echo recovery time as determined by center frequency and bandwidth, relative sensitivity, beam diameter, focal zone, and attenuation effects in water paths and test materials. Pulser/receiver design and setup also has a major effect on performance, as does cable length. Knowledge of how these factors interact and how they will affect echo response from typical test targets is important for optimizing resolution and sensitivity in very high frequency work. This paper also includes examples of specific test applications utilizing the frequency range from 50 MHz to 225 MHz.

1. Test Material Properties

In any ultrasonic test, it is necessary to consider how the physical properties of the test material will affect sound transmission, and this becomes increasingly important as frequency increases. Attenuation and scattering in the test material are frequently limiting factors in very high frequency testing, typically restricting its use to applications involving relatively thin materials with good sound transmission properties, and making use of very high frequencies impractical in situations involving thick test pieces or materials that exhibit high levels of ultrasonic attenuation or scattering, such as soft polymers and coarse grain cast metals. The theory of attenuation and scattering is complex and has been described elsewhere in detail.[1] The loss of amplitude due across a given sound path will be the sum of absorption effects, which increase linearly with frequency, and scattering effects, which vary through three zones depending on the ratio of the size of grain boundaries or other scatterers to wavelength. In all cases, scattering effects increase with frequency.[2] For a given material at a given temperature, tested at a given frequency, there will be a specific attenuation coefficient, commonly expressed in Nepers per

centimeter (Np/cm). Once this attenuation coefficient is known, losses across a given sound path may be calculated according to the equation p = p0-d [3] where p = sound pressure at end of path p0 = sound pressure at beginning of path = base of natural logarithm = attenuation coefficient d = sound path length As a practical matter, attenuation coefficients are normally measured rather than calculated. The fact that commercial ultrasonic transducers of frequencies 50 MHz and higher are usually very broad banded makes predicting behavior on the basis of calculations even more challenging, since the different frequency components of the signal are attenuated at different rates. Usually the best way to establish the limits imposed by attenuation and scattering in a specific test situation is by experimentation. While attenuation effects can be a factor in any ultrasonic test, they can be especially dramatic at high frequencies, and the selection of an optimum test frequency must take this into account. As a practical matter, the maximum test frequency in a given application will always be limited by low pass filtering effects in the test material. In the example below (Figure 1), the waveform and spectrum at left show the echo off the delay line of a high frequency transducer (a Panametrics-NDT V2064) with a center of energy at 136 MHz. The waveform and spectrum at right show the backwall echo from 0.25 mm of acrylic (with gain increased by 24 dB). The center frequency is now 76 MHz, with higher frequencies having been filtered out by the plastic, and some phase distortion is evident as well.

Figure 1. Waveforms showing typical downshifting of 136 MHz signal (top) to 76 MHz (bottom) after traveling through 0.25 mm of acrylic.

2. Water Path Effects

The attenuation effect of water is an additional factor that must be considered in immersion measurements where sound is coupled into a test piece through a water bath or water column. Because the higher frequency components of a broadband pulse will be attenuated more quickly than lower frequency components, long water paths will effectively shift the center frequency of the transducer downward, and this effect will increase as the length of the water path increases. Additionally, this frequency downshift in the received signal will affect the shape of the focal zone, since focused beam diameter and focal zone length from a transducer of a given element diameter and lens design both vary with frequency. This effect can be major if long water paths are used. As a

practical matter, at high frequencies water paths must be kept very short in order to avoid significant downshift in the effective test frequency. Note that in water, unlike in typical solids, acoustic attenuation significantly decreases with increasing temperature. Thus the use of warm water (within the specified thermal tolerance limits of transducers) in very high frequency immersion testing will reduce attenuation effects. Attenuation in water drops by approximately 25% between cool water at 15 C and warm water at 25 C. [4] The downshift in the peak frequency of a broadband pulse traveling through water may be calculated from the following equation: [5]

where f0 = unattenuated peak frequency fpeak = attenuated peak frequency = attenuation coefficient in water, 25.3 x 10-17 Neper/cm/Hz2 (typical at 20 C) Z = total water path length in centimeters = f0(% bandwidth)/236 Table 1 shows the approximate one-way water path lengths (in millimeters) that will produce center frequency downshifts of 5%, 20%, and 50% in the received signal for some common very high frequency immersion transducers. Note that the formula above calculates total (round trip) water path length. For a clearer reference to actual test conditions, these numbers are adjusted to represent the one-way distance between the transducer lens and the surface of the test piece. Table 1. Frequency Loss Versus Water Path Frequency/Bandwidth Water path length producing indicated frequency shift -5% 50 MHz, 80% BW 50 MHz, 100% BW 100 MHz, 80% BW 1.8 mm 1.1 0.45 -20% 4.3 mm 2.4 1.1 -50% 13.2 mm 4.3 1.7

100 MHz, 100% BW 150 MHz, 80% BW 150 MHz, 100% BW

0.28 0.20 0.13

0.40 0.47 0.18

1.1 0.78 0.48

3. Transducer Design Considerations

For any ultrasonic transducer used in typical NDT applications, echo recovery time as determined by center frequency and bandwidth determines the minimum measurable thickness or the near surface dead zone (Figure 2). For optimized axial resolution, high frequency applications typically use heavily damped broadband transducers with -6 dB bandwidths in the range from 70% to 110%.

Figure 2. Measurement of 0.025 mm steel with 225 MHz delay line transducer (Panametrics-NDT V2113), scale 10 ns/div, echo recovery time less than 5 nanoseconds

Because piezoceramic elements in this frequency range are extremely thin and delicate, conventional transducers of this type usually employ a construction technique in which the element is bonded to a delay line of fused silica or a similar material, which provides mechanical strength without significant attenuation. This approach may be used for either immersion transducers of delay line contact types.

Unfortunately, fused silica is a poor acoustic impedance match to water and other low impedance materials, so significant energy may be reflected from the end of the buffer. Alternately, immersion transducers may utilize very thin films of plated piezopolymer in direct contact with water. Such transducers have the advantage of excellent sound coupling into water, which increases effective sensitivity, but they are very delicate and need to be handled with care to avoid scratching or tearing the polymer film. As is the case with work at conventional ultrasonic test frequencies, beam focusing is often employed in very high frequency work. Very short focuses are common, both to create a tightly focused beam and to permit use of a short water path. Sharp focuses will optimize lateral resolution in imaging applications, and detection of very small flaws in pulse/echo flaw detection. Focused spot sizes as small as 0.05 mm are readily achievable with commercially available transducers. At the same time, the short depth of field associated with a sharp focus can result in rapid changes in effective sensitivity with depth, especially when working in materials with high sound velocities like ceramics. The approximate characteristics of a focused beam can be calculated from the equations below, which assume a single frequency rather than a broadband output and thus become somewhat imprecise at broad bandwidths. Note that focal zone characteristics must always be calculated with respect to the sound velocity, focal length, and near field length in the test material, and should be adjusted to reflect any frequency downshifting caused by low pass filtering effects of the sound path. - 6 dB beam diameter at the focus: Beam diameter = .2568DSF where D= element diameter SF = focal length/near field length Height of -6 dB focal zone (distance between the near and far points where the amplitude of an on-axis pulse/echo signal drops to 50% of the peak at the focal point): Focal zone = (N)( SF 2) [2 / 1 + .5 SF)] where N = near field length Focusing gain (relative increase in sensitivity at the focal point compared with an unfocused transducer) is based on SF and may be estimated from the following graph (Figure 3):

Figure 3. Focusing Gain

The significant effect of focal spot size can be seen in the C-Scan images below, which depict a cluster of nominal 0.25 mm diameter laser-drilled reference holes in aluminum oxide imaged at 0.025 mm scan index (Figure 4). The image at left was made with a 20 MHz, 3 mm element diameter, 19 mm focus (in water) transducer with a theoretical -6 dB focal diameter of approximately 0.5 mm. Because the beam spot size at the focus is larger than the target holes, the image is diffuse. The image at right was made with a 50 MHz, 6 mm element diameter, 12.5 mm focus (in water) transducer with a theoretical focal diameter of approximately 0.05 mm. With a focal spot size much smaller than the target holes, the image is much sharper.

Figure 4. Images of 0.25 mm holes in Aluminum oxide. Left: C-Scan image at 20 MHz with focal spot size approximately 0.5 mm Right: C-Scan image at 50 MHz with focal spot size approximately 0.05 mm.

4. Transducer Test Considerations

The observed performance of any ultrasonic transducer is affected by factors such as the type and magnitude of the excitation pulse, cable length, and receiver signal processing, in addition to effects introduced by the medium through which the ultrasonic pulse travels and the reflector that creates an echo. All of these factors become especially critical at very high frequencies. Transducer manufacturers will normally specify performance based on the use of specific pulser/receiver instrumentation at specific settings. The use of different instrumentation may have a significant effect on parameters such as bandwidth and recovery time. Additionally, the type of reference target, and in the case of immersion transducers the water path length, will have a significant effect on the received signal. Very high frequency focused immersion transducers will often be tested with an equal phase reflector, a spherical target that conforms to the hemispherical lens to permit use of an extremely short water path (under 1 mm) to minimize water path attenuation effects. Users who require specific transducer performance should discuss these considerations with manufacturers to avoid confusion.

5. Instrumentation Design Considerations

The performance of any ultrasonic transducer will be significantly affected by the type of excitation pulse that is used to drive it, and this is especially true at very high frequencies. Thickness gaging, imaging, and flaw detection at 50 MHz and higher normally employ highly damped broadband transducers that are driven by spike excitation, meaning a single high voltage negative excitation pulse with a very fast rise time and an exponential decay. For optimum frequency response, the rise time of the excitation pulse must be much shorter than the period of the transducer. Pulsers that are designed for use at high frequencies should be capable of generating an excitation pulse with a minimum rise time on the order of 1 nanosecond. While ultrasonic transducers at frequencies in the conventional range below 20 MHz can normally handle excitation potentials of several hundred volts with associated energies of hundreds of microjoules, high frequency transducers must be pulsed more gently. At the extreme, the 400 volt excitation pulse delivered by many common lower frequency flaw detectors may cause dielectric breakdown and internal arcing that will destroy very high frequency transducers. At lesser voltages, the transducer may not be damaged but its waveform will be severely distorted and its bandwidth compromised. While specific limits will vary with transducer type and pulser configuration, a general rule is that spike excitation pulses for 100 MHz transducers should be limited to approximately 4 uJ at 120 volts, and at 200 MHz they should be limited to 2 uJ at 60 volts. In the example below (Figure 5), a 100 MHz broadband delay line transducer (Panametrics-NDT V2012) has been excited with ~100 volt spike pulses of 1 uJ (left) and 16 uJ (right) energy from a Model 5900PR pulser/receiver. With higher energy, the echo amplitude actually decreases because of saturation effects, and the waveform becomes more narrow banded and phase distorted.

Figure 5. Left: 1 uJ excitation -- optimum response Right: 16 uJ excitation -- distorted response

On the receiver side, RF bandwidth must be sufficient to process received echoes without causing frequency downshift and associated phase distortion. An RF bandwidth of at least twice the center frequency of the received signal is recommended. High frequency transducers must be used with very short cables between the pulser and the transducer. Because of the inevitable mismatches of electric impedance, a portion of the excitation pulse is reflected back from the transducer, and a portion of that reflection is in turn reflected from the pulser to the transducer as a second excitation pulse. Unless the electrical transit time in the cable is much shorter than the period of the transducer, this cable reflection will re-excite the transducer, causing ringing and distortion that will limit near surface resolution. For optimum response, cables should normally be kept shorter than approximately 600 mm at 50 MHz and 300 mm at 100 MHz. If a test setup requires a longer distance between the transducer and the instrumentation, as in some scanning systems, then a remote pulser/preamplifier should be used to drive the transducer via a short cable and then feed signals to a parent instrument that may be several meters away. The waveforms in Figure 7 below demonstrate the effects of cable reflection. At left is the waveform from a 100 MHz broadband transducer (Panametrics-NDT V2012) excited through a 300 mm cable. At right, the cable length has been increased to 900 mm. Cable reflections significantly increase the transducer's ringdown time and narrow its bandwidth.

Figure 7. Left: 100 MHz transducer with 300 mm cable (optimum waveform) Right: 100 MHz transducer with 900 mm cable (increased ringing)

Pulser damping settings will have a major effect on the response of very high frequency transducers. Typically low damping resistance (50 ohms or less) should be used for optimum frequency response. It should also be noted that the electrical impedance of the transducer cable can also have an effect on response. Most standard commercial cables for ultrasonic transducers have nominal 50 ohm electrical impedance. Use of lower impedance cables (typically 25 ohm or 15 ohm) with a given transducer and pulser can result in slightly high center frequency and slightly reduced bandwidth. The advantages or disadvantages of low impedance cables in a given application should be determined experimentally.

6. Practical Uses of Very High Frequency Ultrasonic Testing

The ability of ultrasonic transducers of 50 MHz and higher to focus very sharply and resolve very thin layers of material has led to the development of tests that could not be accomplished at conventional frequencies below 20 MHz. At the same time, the increase in attenuation and scattering effects associated with higher frequencies generally limits the use of such transducers to applications involving thin sections of low attenuation, non-scattering test materials. The most common applications using test frequencies of 50 MHz and higher include the following:

High resolution ultrasonic imaging of materials like microelectronics components, ceramic parts, and biological tissue (Figure 8). Axial resolution better than 0.025 mm can be achieved in some cases. Resolution will typically decrease with depth. Thickness gaging of very thin nonmetallic coatings on nonmetallic substrates, such as paint on plastic, including measurement of individual layers of multilayer coatings (Figure 9). In some cases thicknesses of less than 0.020 mm can be measured.

Thickness gaging of very small polymer tubing (diameter under 1 mm, wall thickness as low as 0.050 mm), such as medical catheter tubing. Very high frequency material analysis.

Ultrasonic Phased Array

Testing Theory

By Michael Moles, Ph. D. Ultrasonic phased arrays are a relatively new method of generating and receiving ultrasound. Phased array testing is a specialized type of ultrasonic testing that uses sophisticated multielement array probes and powerful software to steer high frequency sound beams through the test piece and map returning echoes, producing detailed images of internal structures similar to medical ultrasound images.

Advantages As such, phased arrays offer significant technical advantages over conventional single-probe ultrasonics; such as:

Electronic scanning (E-scans) which permits very rapid coverage of the components, typically an order of magnitude faster than a single-probe mechanical system. Beam forming which permits the selected beam angles to be optimized ultrasonically by orienting them perpendicularly to the predicted defects; for example, lack of fusion in welds. Beam steering (usually referred to as S-scans for sectorial scanning) which permits the mapping of components at appropriate angles to optimize probability of detection. S-scans are also useful for inspections where only a minimal footprint is possible. Electronic focusing which permits optimizing the beam shape and size at the expected defect location, as well as optimizing probability of detection. Focusing significantly improves signal-to-noise ratio, which, in turn, permits operating at lower pulser voltages.

How does it work? Ultrasonic phased arrays are similar in principle to phased array radar, sonar, and other wave physics applications. However, ultrasonic development is behind the other applications due to a smaller market, shorter wavelengths, mode conversions, and more complex components. Phased arrays use a collection of elements, all individually wired, pulsed and time-shifted. These elements can be a linear array, a 2-D matrix array, a circular array, or some more complex forms (see Figure 1). Most applications use linear arrays, since they are the easiest to program, and are significantly less expensive than the more complex arrays. However, as costs decline and experience increases, greater use of the more complex arrays is predicted.

FIGURE 1 As with all ultrasonic testing, elements are used to collect data. Within the phased array application the elements are ultrasonically isolated from each other, and packaged in normal probe housings. The cabling usually consists of a bundle of well-shielded micro co-axial cables. Commercial multichannel connectors are used with the instrument cabling. Elements are normally pulsed in groups from 4 to 32. The acquisition and analysis software calculates the time delays for a setup from operator input on inspection angle, focal distance, scan pattern, etc. The operator could also use pre-prepared files (see Figure 2). The time delays are back-calculated using time-of-flight from the focal spot, and the scan assembled from individual "Focal Laws." Time-delay circuits should be near 2-nanosecond accuracy to provide the phasing accuracy required.

Figure 2 Each element generates a beam when pulsed. These beams constructively and destructively interfere to form a wavefront. The phased array instrumentation pulses the individual channels with time delays as specified to form a pre-calculated wavefront. For receiving, the instrumentation effectively performs the reverse. For example, the instrumentation receives signals with pre-calculated time delays, sums the time-shifted signal, and then displays it (See Figure 3).

Figure 3 The summed waveform is effectively identical to a single-channel flaw detector using a probe with the same angle, frequency, focusing aperture, etc. Figure 3 shows typical time delays for a focused normal beam and shear wave. Figure 4 shows sample scan patterns, which are discussed later.

Figure 4 Software While phased arrays require well-developed instrumentation, one of the key requirements is good, user-friendly software. As phased arrays offer considerable application flexibility, software versatility is highly desirable. The application software needs to be powerful to manage the acquisition of UT (ultrasonic testing) signals. Besides calculating the Focal Laws, the software

saves and displays the results; therefore, good data manipulation capabilities are essential. Phased array inspections can be manual, semi-automated (for example, encoded), or fully automated. These options depend on the application, speed, budget, etc. It is safe to say that encoder capability and full data storage are usually required. As an added benefit, the software saves the user both time and energy. For example, though it can be somewhat time-consuming to prepare the first setup, the information is recorded in a file and takes seconds to reload. Also, modifying a prepared setup is quick in comparison with physically adjusting conventional probes. Operating with phased arrays From a practical viewpoint, ultrasonic phased arrays are merely a method of generating and receiving ultrasound. Once the ultrasound is in the material, it is independent of generation method, whether generated by piezoelectric, electromagnetic, laser, or phased arrays. Consequently, many of the details of ultrasonic inspection remain unchanged. For example, if 5MHz is the optimum inspection frequency with conventional ultrasonics, then phased arrays also typically start by using the same frequency, aperture size, focal length, and incident angle.

Typical Scans
As with conventional ultrasound, phased arrays use scans to collect the data. Electronic pulsing and receiving provide significant opportunities for a variety of scan patterns.

Electronic Linear Scans

Electronic linear scans (E-scans) are performed by multiplexing the same Focal Law (time delays) along an array (see Figure 5). Typical arrays have up to 128 elements. E-scans permit rapid coverage with a tight focal spot. If the array is flat and linear, then the scan pattern is a simple Bscan. If the array is curved, then the scan pattern will be curved. E-scans are straightforward to program. For example, a phased array can be readily programmed to perform corrosion mapping, or to inspect a weld using 45 o and 60 o shear waves, which mimics conventional ASME manual inspections

Figure 5 Manual ultrasonic weld inspections are performed using a single probe, which the operator "rasters" back and forth to cover the weld area. Many automated weld inspection systems use a similar approach (see Figure 6a), with a single probe scanned back and forth over the weld area. This is time consuming because the system has dead zones at the start and finish of the raster.

Figure 6a and Figure 6b In contrast, phased arrays use a linear scanning approach (see Figure 6b). Here the probe is scanned linearly around or along the weld, while each probe sweeps out a specific area of the weld. Often it is possible to use many more beams (equivalent to individual conventional probes) with phased arrays. The simplest approach to linear scanning is found in pipe mills, where a limited number of probes inspect ERW pipe welds.

Sectorial Scans (S-Scans) Beam Steering

Sectorial scans (S-scans) are unique to phased arrays. Sectorial scans use the same set of elements, but alter the time delays to sweep the beam through a series of angles. Again, this is a straightforward scan to program. Applications for S-scans typically involve a stationary array, sweeping across a relatively inaccessible component like a turbine blade rotor, to map out the features and defects (see Figure 7). S-scans can also be used for inspection welds, but there are some limitations. Depending primarily on the array frequency and element spacing, the sweep angles can vary from + 20 o up to + 80 o.

Figure 7 Combined Scans Combining linear scanning, sectorial scanning and precision focusing leads to a practical combination of displays (see Figure 8). Optimum angles can be selected for welds and other components, while electronic scanning permits fast and functional inspections. For example,

combining linear and L-wave sectorial scanning permits full ultrasonic inspection of components over a given angle range; for example, + 20 o. This type of inspection is useful when simple normal beam inspections are inadequate. A related approach applies to weld inspections, where specific angles are often required for given weld geometries. For these applications, precise beam angles are programmed for certain weld bevel angles at designated locations.

Figure 8 Applications Phased arrays are usually used for the inspection of critical structural metals, pipeline welds, aerospace components, and similar applications where the additional information supplied by phased array inspection is valuable. However, realistically, there is no "typical application" for phased arrays. Phased arrays are very flexible and can address many types of problems. Consequently, ultrasonic phased arrays are being used in a wide variety of industries, where the technology has inherent advantages. These industries include: aerospace, automotive, nuclear power, steel mills, pipe mills, petrochemical, pipeline construction, general manufacturing, construction, and a selection of special applications. All these applications take advantage of one or more of the dominant features of phased arrays:

Speed: scanning with phased arrays is much faster than single-probe conventional mechanical systems, at the same time offering better coverage. Flexibility: setups can be changed in a few minutes, and typically a lot more componentdimension flexibility is available. Inspection angles: a wide variety of inspection angles can be used, depending on the requirements and the array. Small footprint: small matrix arrays can give significantly more flexibility than conventional probes for inspecting restricted areas. Imaging: showing a "true depth" image of defects is much easier to interpret than a

waveform. The data can be saved and redisplayed as required. Each of these features generates its own applications. For example, speed is important for pipe mills and pipelines, and some high-volume applications. Flexibility is important in pressure vessels and pipeline welds due to geometry changes. Inspection angles are key for pipelines, some pressure vessels, and nuclear applications. Small footprint is invaluable to some turbine and turbine blade applications. Imaging is useful for weld inspections, particularly for defect sizing. Phased array technology is relatively novel to NDT and continues to progress within its setup configuration, especially for complex 3-D applications. Nevertheless, 2-D setups are generally straightforward. At this stage of development, phased array systems are often more costly than single-channel systems. However, higher speed, data storage and display, smaller footprint, and greater flexibility offset the higher costs, especially with the newer portable instruments. Conclusion Phased arrays is a vital tool for the nondestructive testing industry. Its flexibility and capabilities are being welcomed by all industries. More information regarding the relevant hardware and software can be found on this Web site under Products.

Phased Array Tutorial - Table of Contents

Phased Array Tutorial

Ultrasonic phased array testing is a powerful NDT technology and one whose use is growing rapidly, however it can seem complex to a person who has not worked with it. This self-guided tutorial is a basic introduction to ultrasonic phased array testing, both for newcomers and for more experienced users who want a review of basic principles. It begins with what phased array testing is and how it works, then outlines some considerations for selecting probes and instruments, and ends with links to phased array application notes and a phased array glossary. In addition to text and illustrations it includes a series of interactive Flash files as learning tools.

General Introduction To Ultrasonic Testing

Phased Array Tutorial

Ultrasonic test instruments have been used in industrial applications for more than sixty years. Since the 1940s, the laws of physics that govern the propagation of high frequency sound waves through solid materials have been used to detect hidden cracks, voids, porosity, and other internal discontinuities in metals, composites, plastics, and ceramics, as well as to measure thickness and analyze material properties. Ultrasonic testing is completely nondestructive and safe, and it is a well established test method in many basic manufacturing, process, and service industries, especially in applications involving welds and structural metals. The growth of ultrasonic testing largely parallels developments in electronics, and later in computers. Early work in Europe and the United States in the 1930s demonstrated that high frequency sound waves would reflect from hidden flaws or material boundaries in predictable ways, producing distinctive echo patterns that could be displayed on oscilloscope screens. Sonar development during the Second World War provided further impetus for research in ultrasonics. In 1945, US researcher Floyd Firestone patented an instrument he called the Supersonic Reflectoscope, which is generally regarding as the first practical commercial ultrasonic flaw detector that used the pulse/echo technique commonly employed today. It would lead to the many commercial instruments that were introduced in the years that followed. Among the companies that were leaders in the development of ultrasonic flaw detectors, gages, and transducers in the 1960s and 1970s were Panametrics, Staveley, and Harisonic, all of which are now part of Olympus NDT. In the late 1940s, researchers in Japan pioneered the use of ultrasonic testing in medical diagnostics using early B-scan equipment that provided a two-dimensional profile image of tissue layers. By the 1960s, early versions of medical scanners were being used to detect and outline tumors, gallstones, and similar conditions. In the 1970s, the introduction of precision thickness gages brought ultrasonic testing to a wide variety of manufacturing operations that required thickness measurement of parts

in situations where there was access to only one side, and corrosion gages came into wide use for measurement of remaining wall thickness in metal pipes and tanks. The latest advances in ultrasonic instruments have been based on the digital signal processing techniques and the inexpensive microprocessors that became available from the 1980s onward. This has led to the latest generation of miniaturized, highly reliable portable instruments and on-line inspection systems for flaw detection, thickness gaging, and acoustic imaging.

A Brief History of Phased Array Testing

Phased Array Tutorial

During their first couple decades, commercial ultrasonic instruments relied entirely on single-element transducers that used one piezoelectric crystal to generate and receive sound waves, dual element transducers that had separate transmitting and receiving crystals, and pitch/catch or through transmission systems that used a pair of single-element transducers in tandem. These approaches are still used by the majority of current commercial ultrasonic instruments designed for industrial flaw detection and thickness gaging, however instruments using phased arrays are steadily becoming more important in the ultrasonic NDT field. The principle of constructive and destructive interaction of waves was demonstrated by English scientist Thomas Young in 1801 in a notable experiment that utilized two point sources of light to create interference patterns. Waves that combine in phase reinforce each other, while waves that combine out-of-phase will cancel each other.

Phase shifting, or phasing, is in turn a way of controlling these interactions by time-shifting wave fronts that originate from two or more sources. It can be used to bend, steer, or focus the energy of a wave front. In the 1960s, researchers began developing ultrasonic phased array systems that utilized multiple point source transducers that were pulsed so as to direct sound beams by means of these controlled interference patterns. In the early 1970s, commercial phased array systems for medical diagnostic use first appeared, using steered beams to create cross-sectional images of the human body.

Initially, the use of ultrasonic phased array systems was largely confined to the medical field, aided by the fact that the predictable composition and structure of the human body make instrument design and image interpretation relatively straightforward. Industrial applications, on the other hand, represent a much greater challenge because of the widely varying acoustic properties of metals, composites, ceramics, plastics, and fiberglass, as well as the enormous variety of thicknesses and geometries encountered across the scope of industrial testing. The first industrial phased array system, introduced in the 1980s, were extremely large, and required data transfer to a computer in order to do the processing and image presentation. These systems were most typically used for inservice power generation inspections. In large part, this technology was pushed heavily in the nuclear market, where critical assessment more greatly allows use of cutting edge technology for improving probability of detection. Other early applications involved large forged shafts and low pressure turbine components.

Portable, battery-powered phased array instruments for industrial use appeared in the 1990s. Analog designs had required power and space to create the multi-channel configurations necessary for beam steering, but the transition into the digital world and the rapid development of inexpensive embedded microprocessors enabled more rapid development of the next generation phased array equipment. In addition, the availability of low power electronic components, better power-saving architectures, and industry-wide use surface mount board design led to miniaturization of this advanced technology. This resulted in phased array tools which allowed electronic setup, data processing, display and analysis all within a portable device, and so the doors were opened to more widespread use across the industrial sector. This in turn drove the ability to specify standard phased array probes for common applications.

What is a Phased Array?

Phased Array Tutorial

An array transducer is simply one that contains a number of separate elements in a single housing, and phasing refers to how those elements are sequentially pulsed. A phased array system is normally based around a specialized ultrasonic transducer that contains many individual elements (typically from 16 to 256) that can be pulsed separately in a programmed pattern. These transducers may be used with various types of wedges, in a contact mode, or in immersion testing. Their shape may be square, rectangular, or round, and test frequencies are most commonly in the range from 1 to 10 MHz. You will find much more information about phased array probes in the following sections of this tutorial.

What do they do?

Phased Array Tutorial

Phased array systems pulse and receive from multiple elements of an array. These elements are pulsed in such a way as to cause multiple beam components to combine with each other and form a single wave front traveling in the desired direction. Similarly, the receiver function combines the input from multiple elements into a single presentation. Because phasing technology permits electronic beam shaping and steering, it is possible to generate a vast number of different ultrasonic beam profiles from a single probe assembly, and this beam steering can be dynamically programmed to create electronic scans:

This enables the following capabilities:

1. Software control of beam angle, focal distance, and beam spot size. These parameters can be dynamically scanned at each inspection point to optimize incident angle and signal-to-noise for each part geometry. Multiple-angle inspection can be performed with a single, small, multi-element probe and wedge, offering either single fixed angles or a scan through a range of angles. These capabilities provide greater flexibility for inspection of complex geometries and tests in which part geometry limits access. Multiplexing across many elements allows motionless high-speed scans from a single transducer position. More than one scan may be performed from a single location with various inspection angles.

2. 3. 4.

What are the advantages of phased array testing as compared with conventional UT?
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Ultrasonic phased array systems can potentially be employed in almost any test where conventional ultrasonic flaw detectors have traditionally been used. Weld inspection and crack detection are the most important applications, and these tests are done across a wide range of industries including aerospace, power generation, petrochemical, metal billet and tubular goods suppliers, pipeline construction and maintenance, structural metals, and general manufacturing. Phased arrays can also be effectively used to profile remaining wall thickness in corrosion survey applications. The benefits of phased array technology over conventional UT come from its ability to use multiple elements to steer, focus and scan beams with a single transducer assembly. Beam steering, commonly referred to sectorial scanning, can be used for mapping components at appropriate angles. This can greatly simplify the inspection of components with complex geometry. The small footprint of the transducer and the ability to sweep the beam without moving the probe also aids inspection of such components in situations where there is limited access for mechanical scanning. Sectorial scanning is also typically used for weld inspection. The ability to test welds with multiple angles from a single probe greatly increases the probability of detection of anomalies. Electronic focusing permits optimizing the beam shape and size at the expected defect location, as well as further optimizing probability of detection. The ability to focus at multiple depths also improves the ability for sizing critical defects for volumetric inspections. Focusing can significantly improve signal-to-noise ratio in challenging applications, and electronic scanning across many groups of elements allows for C-Scan images to be produced very rapidly. The potential disadvantages of phased array systems are a somewhat higher cost and a requirement for operator training, however these costs are frequently offset by their greater flexibility and a reduction in the time required to perform a given inspection.

Conventional Transducer Construction

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To understand how phased array transducers work, it is helpful to first consider the conventional monolithic ultrasonic transducers designed for NDT applications. These transducers come in a wide variety of sizes, frequencies, and case styles, but most have a common internal structure. Typically, the active element of the transducer is a thin disk, square, or rectangle of piezoelectric ceramic that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (ultrasonic vibrations), and vice versa. It is protected from damage by a wearplate or acoustic lens, and backed by a block of damping material that quiets the transducer after the sound pulse has been generated. This ultrasonic subassembly is mounted in a case with appropriate electrical connections. Common contact, delay line, immersion, and angle beam transducers utilize this basic design. Dual element transducers, commonly used in corrosion survey applications, differ in that they have separate transmitting and receiving elements separated by a sound barrier, no backing, and an integral delay line rather than a wearplate or lens.

A Review of Conventional Beam Characteristics

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Conventional single element longitudinal wave ultrasonic transducers work as a piston source of high frequency mechanical vibrations, or sound waves. As voltage is applied, the piezoelectric transducer element (often called a crystal) deforms by compressing in the direction perpendicular to its face. When the voltage is removed, typically less than a microsecond later, the element springs back, generating the pulse of mechanical energy that comprises an ultrasonic wave. The graphic below shows a conceptualized example of how a piezoelectric element responds to a brief electrical pulse .

Transducers of the kind most commonly used for ultrasonic NDT will have these fundamental functional properties: Type -- The transducer will be identified according to function as a contact, delay line, angle beam, or immersion type. Inspected material characteristics such as surface roughness, temperature, and accessibility as well as the position of a defect within the material and the inspection speed will all influence the selection of transducer type. Diameter -- The diameter of the active transducer element, which is normally housed in a somewhat larger case. Frequency -- The number of wave cycles completed in one second, normally expressed in Kilohertz (KHz) or Megahertz (MHz). Most industrial ultrasonic testing is done in the frequency range from 500 KHz to 20 MHz, so most transducers fall within that range, although commercial transducers are available from below 50 KHz to greater than 200 MHz. Penetration increases with lower frequency, while resolution and focal sharpness increase with higher frequency. Bandwidth -- The portion of the frequency response that falls within specified amplitude limits. In this context, it should be noted that typical NDT transducers do not generate sound waves at a single pure frequency, but rather over a range of frequencies centered at the nominal frequency designation. The industry standard is to specify this bandwidth at the -6dB (or half amplitude) point. Waveform duration -- The number of wave cycles generated by the transducer each time it is pulsed. A narrow bandwidth transducer has more cycles than a broader bandwidth transducer. Element diameter, backing material, electrical tuning and transducer excitation method all impact waveform duration

Sensitivity -- The relationship between the amplitude of the excitation pulse and that of the echo received from a designated target. As a working approximation, the beam from a typical unfocused disk transducer is often thought of as a column of energy originating from the active element area that expands in diameter and eventually dissipates.

In fact, the actual beam profile is complex, with pressure gradients in both the transverse and axial directions. In the beam profile illustration below, red represents areas of highest energy, while green and blue represent lower energy.

The sound field of a transducer is divided into two zones, the near field and the far field. The near field is the region close to the transducer where the sound pressure goes through a series of maximums and minimums, and it ends at the last on-axis maximum at distance N from the face. Near field distance N represents the natural focus of the transducer.

The far field is the region beyond N where the sound pressure gradually drops to zero as the beam diameter expands and its energy dissipates. The near field distance is a function of the transducer's frequency and diameter, and the sound velocity in the test medium, and it may be calculated as follows for the square or rectangular elements commonly found in phased array testing:

Because of the sound pressure variations within the near field, it can be difficult to accurately evaluate flaws using amplitude based techniques (although thickness gaging within the near field is not a problem). Additionally, N represents the greatest distance at which a transducer's beam can be focused by means of either an acoustic lens or phasing techniques. Focusing is discussed further in section 2.14. The aspect radio constant is as follows, based on the ratio between the short and long dimensions of the element or aperture: Ratio short/long k

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 and below

1.37 (square element) 1.25 1.15 1.09 1.04 1.01 1.00 0.99

In the case of circular elements, k is not used and the diameter of the element (D) is used instead of the length term:

Because of the sound pressure variations within the near field, it can be difficult to accurately evaluate flaws using amplitude based techniques (although thickness gaging within the near field is not a problem). Additionally, N represents the greatest distance at which a transducer's beam can be focused by means of either an acoustic lens or phasing techniques. Focusing is discussed further in Section 2.14, Focusing with Phased Array Probes.

Wave Front Dynamic Properties with Conventional Transducers

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Wave front formation

While a single element transducer may be thought of as a piston source, a single disk or plate pushing forward on the test medium, the wave it generates may be mathematically modeled as the sum of the waves from a very large number of point sources. This derives from Huygens' Principle, first proposed by seventeenth-century Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens, which states that each point on an advancing wavefront may be thought of as a point source that launches a new spherical wave, and that the resulting unified wave front is the sum of all of these individual spherical waves.

Beam spreading
In principle, the sound wave generated by a transducer will travel in a straight line until it encounters a material boundary. What happens then is discussed below. But if the sound path length is longer than the near field distance, the beam will also increase in diameter, diverging like the beam of a spotlight. The beam spread angle of an unfocused transducer can be calculated as follows:

From this equation it can be seen that beam spreading increases with lower frequencies and smaller diameters. Since a large beam spread angle can cause sound energy per unit area to quickly drop with distance, effectively decreasing sensitivity to small reflectors, echo response in some applications involving long sound paths can be improved by using higher frequency and/or larger diameter transducers.

Attenuation
As it travels through a medium, the organized wave front generated by an ultrasonic transducer will begin to break down due to imperfect transmission of energy through the microstructure of any material. Organized mechanical vibrations (sound waves) turn into random mechanical vibrations (heat) until the wave front is no longer detectable. This process is known as sound attenuation. The mathematical theory of attenuation and scattering is complex. The loss of amplitude due to attenuation across a given sound path will be the sum of absorption effects, which increase linearly with frequency, and scattering effects, which vary through three zones depending on the ratio of the size of grain boundaries or other scatterers to wavelength. In all cases, scattering effects increase with frequency. For a given material at a given temperature, tested at a given frequency, there will be a specific attenuation coefficient, commonly expressed in Nepers per centimeter (Np/cm). Once this attenuation coefficient is known, losses across a given sound path may be calculated according to the equation

As a practical matter, in ultrasonic NDT applications attenuation coefficients are normally measured rather than calculated. Higher frequencies will be attenuated more rapidly than lower frequencies in any medium, so low test frequencies are usually employed in materials with high attenuation coefficients like low density plastics and rubber.

Reflection and transmission at a perpendicular plane boundary

When a sound wave traveling through a medium encounters a boundary with a dissimilar medium that lies perpendicular to the direction of the wave, a portion of the wave energy will be reflected straight back and a portion will continue straight ahead. The percentage of reflection versus transmission is related to the relative acoustic impedances of the two materials, with acoustic impedance in turn being defined as material density multiplied by speed of sound. The reflection coefficient at a planar boundary, the percentage of sound energy that is reflected back to the source, may be calculated as follows:

From this equation it can be seen that as the acoustic impedances of the two materials become more similar, the reflection coefficient decreases, and as the acoustic impedances become less similar, the reflection coefficient increases. In theory the reflection from the boundary between two materials of the same acoustic impedance is zero, while in the case of materials with very dissimilar acoustic impedances, as in a boundary between steel and air, the reflection coefficient approaches 100%.

Refraction and mode conversion at non-perpendicular boundaries

When a sound wave traveling through a material encounters a boundary with a different material at an angle other than zero degrees, a portion of the wave energy will be reflected forward at an angle equal to the angle of incidence. At the same time, the portion of the wave energy that is transmitted into the second material will be refracted in accordance with Snell's Law, which was independently derived by at least two seventeenth-century mathematicians. Snell's law related the sines of the incident and refracted angle to the wave velocity in each material as diagramed below.

If sound velocity in the second medium is higher than that in the first, then above certain angles this bending will be accompanied by mode conversion, most commonly from a longitudinal wave mode to a shear wave mode. This is the basis of widely used angle beam inspection techniques. As the incident angle in the first (slower) medium such as a wedge or water increases, the angle of the refracted longitudinal wave in the second (faster) material such as metal will increase. As the refracted longitudinal wave angle approaches 90 degrees, a progressively greater portion of the wave energy will be converted to a lower velocity shear wave that will be refracted at the angle predicted by Snell's Law. At incident angles higher than that which would create a 90 degree refracted longitudinal wave, the refracted wave exists entirely in shear mode. A still higher incident angle will result in a situation where the shear wave is theoretically refracted at 90 degrees, at which point a surface wave is generated in the second material. The diagram below shows this effect for a typical angle beam assembly coupled into steel.

Composite Monolithic Transducers

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During the first few decades of ultrasonic NDT, transducers were based on solid disks of quartz or piezoelectric ceramics. More recently, composite transducers have been introduced as an alternative. While increased manufacturing costs make them more expensive, they have the advantage of significantly increasing sensitivity by as much as 12 dB over comparable conventional elements while maintaining broad bandwidth and a relatively fast pulse recovery time. Composite transducers are made by dicing standard piezoelectric material into a grid. The spaces in the diced element are filled with epoxy, and the bottom is ground away to leave a series of tiny piezoelectric blocks in an epoxy matrix. Both sides are then plated for electrical contact. The raw material is cut to size in a square, rectangular, or circular shape depending on the model of transducer it will become.

In the resulting transducer element, the many piezoelectric blocks each act as point sources for spherical wave fronts that combine into a single wave in accordance with Huygens' Principle. Transducer sensitivity is increased because the individual piezoelectric blocks can more freely expand and contract as compared to a given point in the middle of a solid disk or plate. Additionally, the presence of the epoxy lowers the acoustic impedance of the transducer, creating more efficient sound coupling into wedges, delay lines, and water, as well as into nonmetallic test materials like composites and polymers. One potential disadvantage is in near surface resolution from the more freely resonating transducer in direct contact testing. This particular transducer manufacturing technique is of special relevance as it establishes the base line for phased array transducer construction and wavefront equivalencies.

Single Element Transducer Characterization

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Ultrasonic transducers for NDT will normally be characterized by their manufacturers in accordance with industry standard procedures such as ASTM E1065. Typically the transducer's sensitivity, waveform shape, and frequency spectrum will be tested and recorded under documented conditions. A typical transducer characterization form is seen below.

Inside a Phased Array Transducer

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While phased array transducers come in a wide range of sizes, shapes, frequencies, and number of elements, what they all have in common is a piezoelectric element that has been divided into a number of segments. Contemporary phased array transducers for industrial NDT applications are typically constructed around piezocomposite materials, which are made up of many tiny, thin rods of piezoelectric ceramic embedded in a polymer matrix. While they can be more challenging to manufacture, composite transducers typically offer a 10 to 30 dB sensitivity advantage over piezoceramic transducers of otherwise similar design. Segmented metal plating is used to divide the composite strip into a number of electrically separate elements that can be pulsed individually. This segmented element is then incorporated into a transducer assembly that includes a protective matching layer, a backing,

cable connections, and an overall housing.

The animation above depicts a linear array, with a rectangular footprint, which is a very common configuration for a phased array. Arrays can be arranged as a matrix to provide more beam control over a surface cross section, or as circular arrays which provides a more spherical focusing pattern.

Phased Array Transducer Characteristics

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Phased array transducers are functionally categorized according to the following basic parameters: Type: Most phased array transducers are angle beam type, designed for use with either a plastic wedge or a straight plastic shoe (zero degree wedge) or delay line. Direct contact and immersion transducers are also available.

Frequency: Most ultrasonic flaw detection is done between 2 MHz and 10 MHz, so most phased array transducers fall within that range. Lower and higher frequency probes are also available. As with conventional transducers, penetration increases with lower frequency, while resolution and focal sharpness increase with higher frequency. Number of elements: Phased array transducers most commonly have from 16 to 128 elements, with some having as many as 256. A larger number of elements increases focusing and steering capability, and can increase area coverage as well, but also increases both probe and instrumentation costs. Each of these elements is individually pulsed to create the wavefront of interest. Hence the dimension across these elements is often referred to as the active or steering direction.

Size of elements: As element width gets smaller, beam steering capability increases, but large area coverage will require more elements at higher cost. The dimensional parameters of a phased array are customarily defined as follows:

This information is use by instrument software to generate the desired beam shape. If it is not entered automatically by probe recognition software, then it must be entered by the user during setup.

Phased Array Wedges

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In addition to the array transducer itself, phased array probe assemblies usually also include a plastic wedge. Wedges are used in both shear wave and longitudinal wave applications, including straight beam linear scans. These wedges perform basically the same function in phased array systems as in conventional single element flaw detection, coupling sound energy from the transducer to the test piece in such a way that it mode converts and/or refracts at a desired angle in accordance with Snell's Law. While phased array systems do utilize beam steering to create beams at multiple angles from a single wedge, this refraction effect is also part of the beam generation process. Shear wave wedges look very similar to those used with conventional transducers, and like conventional wedges they come in many sizes and styles. Some of them incorporate couplant feed holes for scanning applications. A typical phased array wedge is seen below.

Zero-degree wedges are basically flat plastic blocks that are used for coupling sound energy (and for protecting the transducer face from scratches or abrasion) in straight linear scans and also for lowangle longitudinal wave angled scans.

Wedges can also be custom contoured to accommodate complex part geometries. There are several wedge dimensions in addition to incident angle that are used in programming phased array scans, to insure proper distance and depth calibration as well as proper refracted angle. These parameters will be listed in the manufacturer's wedge documentation and should be recorded for reference.

Phased Pulsing and Its Effects

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Whenever waves originating from two or more sources interact with each other, there will be phasing effects leading to an increase or decrease in wave energy at the point of combination. When elastic waves of the same frequency meet in such a way that their displacements are precisely synchronized (in phase, or 0 degree phase angle), the wave energies will add together to create a larger amplitude wave. If they meet in such a way that their displacements are exactly opposite (180 degrees out of phase), then the wave energies will cancel each other. At phase angles between 0 degrees and 180 degrees, there will be a range of intermediate stages between full addition and full cancellation. By varying the timing of the waves from a large number of sources, it is possible to use these effects to both steer and focus the resulting combined wave front. This is an essential principle behind phased array testing.

In conventional transducers, constructive and destructive interference effects create the near field and far field zones and the various pressure gradients therein. Additionally, a conventional angle beam transducer uses a single element to launch a wave in a wedge. Points on this wave front experience different delay intervals due to the shape of the wedge. These are mechanical delays, as opposed to the electronic delays employed in phased array testing. When the wave front hits the bottom surface it can be visualized through Huygen's Principle as a series of point sources. The theoretically spherical waves from each of these points interact to form a single wave from at an angle determined by Snell's Law.

In phased array testing, the predictable reinforcement and cancellation effects caused by phasing are used to shape and steer the ultrasonic beam. Pulsing individual elements or groups of elements with different delays creates a series of point source waves that will combine into a single wave front that will travel at a selected angle. This electronic effect is similar to the mechanical delay generated by a conventional wedge, but it can be further steered by changing the pattern of delays. Through constructive interference, the amplitude of this combined wave can be considerably greater than the amplitude of any one of the individual waves that produce it. Similarly, variable delays are applied to the echoes received by each element of the array to sum the responses in such a way as to represent a single angular and/or focal component of the total beam. In addition to altering the direction of the primary wave front, this combination of individual beam components allows beam focusing at any point in the near field.

Elements are usually pulsed in groups of 4 to 32 in order to improve effective sensitivity by increasing aperture, which reduces unwanted beam spreading and enables sharper focusing. The returning echoes are received by the various elements or groups of elements and time-shifted as necessary to compensate for varying wedge delays and then summed. Unlike a conventional single element transducer, which will effectively merge the effects of all beam components that strike its area, a phased array transducer can spatially sort the returning wavefront according to the arrival time and amplitude at each element. When processed by instrument software, each returned focal law represents the reflection from a particular angular component of the beam, a particular point along a linear path, and/or a reflection from a particular focal depth. The echo information can then be displayed in any of several standard formats.

Focal Law Sequencing

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As noted previously, phased array beams are generated by pulsing the individual probe elements or groups of elements in a particular pattern. Phased array instruments will generate these patterns based on information that has been entered by the user. Software known as a focal law calculator establishes specific delay times for firing each group of elements in order to generate the desired beam shape through wave interaction, taking into account probe and wedge characteristics as well as the geometry and acoustical properties of the test material. The programmed pulsing sequence selected by the instrument's operating software then

launches a number of individual wave fronts in the test material. These wave fronts in turn combine constructively and destructively into a single primary wave front that travels through the test material and reflects off cracks, discontinuities, back walls, and other material boundaries like any conventional ultrasonic wave. The beam can be dynamically steered through various angles, focal distances, and focal spot sizes in such a way that a single probe assembly is capable of examining the test material across a range of different perspectives. This beam steering happens very quickly, so that a scan from multiple angles or with multiple focal depths can be performed in a small fraction of a second.

Beam Shaping
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The response of any ultrasonic test system is a combination of factors: the transducer used, the type of instrument used and its settings, and the acoustic properties of the test material. The responses produced by phased array transducers, like those from any other ultrasonic transducers for NDT, will

be related both to transducer design parameters like frequency, size, and mechanical damping, and to the parameters of the excitation pulse that is used to drive it. Four important transducer parameters will have a number of interrelated effects on performance. Frequency-- As noted in the previous section, the test frequency has a significant effect on near field length and beam spreading. In practice, higher frequencies can provide better signal to noise ratio than lower frequencies since they offer potentially sharper focusing and thus a tighter, more optimized focal spot. At the same time, penetration in any test material will decrease with frequency because of increasing material attenuation as frequency goes up. Applications involving very long sound paths or test materials that are highly attenuating or scattering will require use of lower frequencies. Commonly, industrial phased array probes are offered with frequencies betwen1 MHz and 15 MHz. Element size-- As the size of individual elements in an array decreases, its beam steering capability increases. The minimum practical element size in commercial probes is typically around 0.2 mm. However if the element size is less than one wavelength, strong unwanted side lobes will occur. Number of elements-- As the number of elements in an array increases, so can the physical coverage area of the probe and its sensitivity, focusing capability, and steering capability. At the same time, use of large arrays must often be balanced against issues of system complexity and cost. Pitch and aperture-- Pitch is the distance between individual elements, aperture is the effective size of a pulsing element that is usually comprised of a group of individual elements that are pulsed simultaneously (virtual aperture). To optimize steering range, pitch must be small. For optimum sensitivity, minimum unwanted beam spreading, and strong focusing, the aperture must be large. Today's phased array instruments most commonly support focal laws for up to 16 element apertures. More advanced systems allow up to 32 or even 64 element apertures. The key concepts for a general understanding phased array beam can be summarized as follows: A group of elements is fired with a programmed focal law. This builds the desired transducer aperture and beam characteristics.

Beam Steering
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As noted in previous pages, the essence of phased array testing is an ultrasonic beam whose direction (refracted angle) and focus can be steered electronically by varying the excitation delay of individual elements or groups of elements. This beam steering permits multiple angle and/or multiple point inspection from a single probe and a single probe position.

As previously explained, ultrasonic beam characteristics are defined by many factors. In addition to element dimension, frequency and damping that govern conventional single element performance, phased array transducers behavior is affected by how smaller individual elements are positioned, sized and grouped to create an effective aperture equivalent to its conventional counterpart. For phased array transducers N elements are grouped together to form the effective aperture for which beam spread can be approximated by conventional transducer models.

For phased array transducers, the maximum steering angle (at -6 dB) in a given case is derived from the beam spread equation. It can be easily seen that small elements have more beam spreading and hence higher angular energy content, which can be combined to maximize steering. As element size decreases, more elements must be pulsed together to maintain sensitivity.

Recalling that the practical limit for phased array transducer manufacturing restricts the smallest individual element width to 0.2 mm, the active aperture for a 16 element probe with 0.2 mm elements would be 3.2 mm. Creating an aperture of 6.4 mm would require 32 elements. While these transducers would no doubt maximize steering, the small apertures would limit static coverage area, sensitivity, and focussing ability. The steering range can be further modified by using an angled wedge to change the incident angle of the sound beam independently of electronic steering.

Grating Lobes and Side Lobes

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Another phenomenon associated with phased array probes is the generation of unwanted grating lobes or side lobes, two closely related phenomena caused by sound energy that spreads out from the transducer at angles other than the primary path. This phenomenon is not limited to phased array systems -- unwanted lobes also occur with conventional transducers as element size increases. These unwanted ray paths can reflect off surfaces in the test piece and cause spurious indications on an image. The amplitude of grating lobes is significantly affected by pitch size, the number of elements, frequency, and bandwidth. The beam profiles below compare two situations where the probe aperture is approximately the same, but the beam at left is generated by six elements at 0.4

mm pitch and the beam at right by three elements at 1 mm pitch. The beam at left is approximately shaped as a cone, while the beam at right has two spurious lobes at approximately a 30 degree angle to the center axis of the beam.

Grating lobes will occur whenever the size of individual elements in an array is equal to or greater than the wavelength, and there will be no grating lobes when element size is smaller than half a wavelength. (For element sizes between one-half and one wavelength, the generation of grating lobes will depend on the steering angle.) Thus the simplest way to minimize grating lobes in a given application is to use a transducer with a small pitch. Specialized transducer design incorporating subdicing (cutting elements into smaller elements) and varying element spacing will also reduce unwanted lobes.

Focusing With Phased Array Probes

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From the beam spread angle, the beam diameter at any distance from the transducer can be calculated. In the case of a square or rectangular phased array transducer, beam spreading in the passive plane will be similar to that of an unfocused transducer. In the steered or active plane, the

beam can be electronically focused to converge acoustic energy at a desired depth. With a focused transducer, the beam profile can typically be represented by a tapering cone (or wedge in the case of single-axis focusing) that converges to a focal point and then diverges at an equal angle beyond the focal point, like this:

The near field length and hence the natural divergence of an ultrasonic beam are determined by aperture (equal to element diameter in the case of conventional monolithic transducers) and wavelength (wave velocity divided by frequency). For an unfocused transducer, the near field length, beam spread angle, and beam diameter can be calculated as follows:

The near field length in a given material also defines the maximum depth at which a sound beam can be focused. A beam cannot be focused beyond the end of the near field. A focused transducer's effective sensitivity is affected by the beam diameter at the point of interest. The smaller the beam diameter, the greater will be the amount of energy that will be reflected by a small flaw. The -6 dB beam diameter of a focused transducer at the focal point can be calculated as follows:

From these formulas it can be seen that as the element diameter and/or frequency increase, the beam spread angle decreases. A smaller beam spread angle in turn can result in higher effective sensitivity in the far field zone since the beam energy dissipates more slowly. Within its near field, a transducer can be focused to create a beam the converges rather than diverges. Narrowing the beam diameter to a focal point increases sound energy per unit area within the focal zone and thus increasing sensitivity to small reflectors. Conventional transducers usually do this with a refractive acoustic lens, while phased arrays do it electronically by means of phased pulsing and the resulting beam shaping effects. In the case of the most commonly used linear and square phased arrays with rectangular elements, the beam will be focused in the steering direction and unfocused in the passive direction. Increasing the aperture size increases the sharpness of the focused beam, as can be seen in these beam profiles. Red areas correspond to the highest sound pressure, and blue areas to lower sound pressure.

Phased Array Probe Selection Summary

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Designing phased array probes is always a compromise between selecting the proper pitch, element width and aperture. Using a high number of small elements to increase steering, reduce side lobes and provide focusing but can be limited by cost of manufacturing and instrument complexity. Most standard instruments will support apertures of up to 16 elements. Separating elements greater distances may seem the easy way to gaining aperture size, but this creates unwanted grating lobes. It is important to note that vendors of phased array transducers often offer standard probes that have been designed with these compromises in mind, resulting in optimized performance for the intended use. Actual transducer selection will ultimately be driven by the end application needs. In some cases multi-angle steering will be required over small metal paths so large aperture sizes are not needed or desired. In other cases the application may be to cover large areas for laminar defects will require large apertures and linear scan format with multiple grouped elements where steering is not required at all. In general, the user can apply best practice from their conventional UT knowledge for frequency and aperture selection. The graphic below is a link to the Olympus NDT phased array probe catalog. Click on it to view the full selection of probes and wedges that is available.

Imaging Basics - Introduction

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Both conventional and phased array ultrasonic instruments utilize high frequency sound waves to check the internal structure of a test piece or measure its thickness, and both rely on the same basic laws of physics that govern sound wave propagation. Similar concepts are employed in both ultrasonic technologies to present ultrasonic data. Conventional ultrasonic instruments for NDT commonly consist of either a single active element that both generates and receives high frequency sound waves, or two paired elements, one for transmitting and one for receiving. A typical instrument consists of a single channel pulser and receiver generates and receives an ultrasonic signal, with an integrated digital acquisition system which is coordinated with an onboard display and measurement module. In more advanced units multiple pulser receiver channels can be used with a group of transducers to increase zone of coverage for evaluating different depths or flaw orientations and can further provide alarm outputs. In more advanced systems, conventional ultrasonics can be integrated with positional encoders, controllers and software as part of an imaging system. Phased array instruments, on the other hand, are naturally multi-channel as they need to provide excitation patterns (focal laws) to transducer assemblies with from 16 to as many as 256 elements. Unlike conventional flaw detectors, phased array systems can sweep a sound beam from one probe through a range of refracted angles, along a linear path, or dynamically focus at a number of different depths, thus increasing both flexibility and capability in inspection setups. This added ability to generate multiple transducer paths within one probe adds a powerful advantage in detection and naturally adds the ability to "visualize" an inspection by creating an image of the inspection zone. Phased array imaging provides the user with the ability to see relative point to point changes and multi-angular defect responses, which can assist in flaw discrimination and sizing. While this may seem inherently complex, it can actually simplify expanding inspection coverage with increased detection by eliminating the complex fixtures and multiple transducers that are often required by conventional UT inspection methods. The following sections will further explain the basic formats for conventional and phased array data presentation.

A-Scan Data

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Any ultrasonic instrument typically records two fundamental parameters of an echo: how large it is (amplitude), and where it occurs in time with respect to a zero point (pulse transit time). Transit time in turn is usually correlated to reflector depth or distance, based on the sound velocity of the test material and the simple relationship Distance = velocity x time The most basic presentation of ultrasonic waveform data is in the form of an A-scan, or waveform display, in which echo amplitude and transit time are plotted on a simple grid with the vertical axis representing amplitude and the horizontal axis representing time. The example below shows a version with a rectified waveform; unrectified RF displays are also used. The red bar on the screen is a gate that selects a portion of the wave train for analysis, typically measurement of echo amplitude and/or depth.

Single Value B-Scan

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Another way of presenting this information is as a Single Value B-scan. A Single Value B-scan is commonly used with conventional flaw detectors and corrosion thickness gages to plot the depth of reflectors with respect to their linear position. The thickness is plotted as a function of time or position while the transducer is scanned along the part to provide its depth profile. Correlating

ultrasonic data with actual transducer position allows a proportional view to be plotted and allows the ability to correlate and track data to specific areas of the part being inspected. This position tracking is typically done through the use of electromechanical devices known as encoders. These encoders are used in fixtures which are either manually scanned or in automated systems that move the transducer by a programmable motor-controlled scanner. In either case the encoder records the location of each data acquisition with respect to a desired user-defined scan pattern and index resolution. In the case below, the B-scan shows two deep reflectors and one shallower reflector, corresponding to the positions of the side drilled holes in the test block.

C-Scan Mapping
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Another presentation option is a C-scan, a two dimensional presentation of data displayed as a top or planar view of a test piece, similar in its graphic perspective to an x-ray image, where color represents the gated signal amplitude or depth at each point in the test piece mapped to its position. Planar images can be generated on flat parts by tracking data to X-Y position, or on cylindrical parts by tracking axial and angular position. For conventional ultrasound, a mechanical scanner with encoders is used to track the transducer's coordinates to the desired index resolution. The images that follow conceptually show C-scans of a reference block made with a conventional immersion scanning system using a focused immersion transducer.

Phased Array C-Scan

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A C-scan from a phased array system is very similar to the one from the conventional probe seen

above. With phased array systems however, the probe is typically moved physically along one axis while the beam electronically scans along the other according to the focal law sequence. Signal amplitude or depth data is collected within gated region of interest just as in conventional C-scans. In the case of phased arrays, data is plotted with each focal law progression, using the programmed beam aperture. Below is an actual scan of the same test block showed in the previous section using an encoded 5 MHz, 64 elements linear array probe with a straight wedge or show. Each focal law uses 16 elements to form the aperture, and at each pulsing the starting element increments by one. This results in forty-nine data points that are plotted (horizontally in the image below) across the transducer's 37 mm (1.5") length. As the transducer is moved in a straight line forward, a planar C-scan view emerges. Encoders will normally be used whenever precise geometrical correspondence of the scan image to the part must be maintained, although non-encoded manual scans can also provide useful information in many cases.

While the graphic resolution is not fully equivalent to the conventional C-scan because of the larger effective beam size, there are other considerations. The phased array system is field portable, which the conventional system is not, and costs about one-third the price. Additionally, the phased array image was made in a few seconds, while the conventional immersion scan took several minutes. Real time generation of the C-scan is shown below.

Cross Sectional B-Scan

Phased Array Tutorial

A cross sectional B-scan provides a detailed end view of a test piece along a single axis. This provides more information than the single value B-scan presented earlier. Instead of plotting just a single measured value from within a gated region, the whole A-scan waveform is digitized at each

transducer location. Successive A-scans are plotted over elapsed time or actual encoded transducer position so as to draw pure cross-sections of the scanned line. This allows visualization of both near and far surface reflectors within the sample. With this technique, the full waveform data is often stored at each location and may be recalled from the image for further evaluation or verification. To accomplish this, each digitized point of the wave form is plotted so that color representing signal amplitude appears at the proper depth.

Succesive Ascans are digitized, related to color and "stacked" at user defined intervals (elapsed time or position) to form a true few cross-sectional image.

Phased Array Linear Sectorial Scan (S-scan)

Phased Array Tutorial

A phased array system uses electronic scanning along the length of a linear array probe to create a cross-sectional profile without moving the transducer. As each focal law is sequenced, the associated A-scan is digitized and plotted. Successive apertures are "stacked" creating a live cross sectional

view. An animated representation of this sequence a 16 element linear probe with is shown below. In practice this electronic sweeping is done in real time so a live cross section can be continually viewed as the transducer is physically moved. Below is a real time image with a 64 element Linear phased array probe. In the example below the user programmed the focal law to use 16 elements to form an aperture and sequenced the starting element increments by one. This results in 49 individual waveforms that are stacked to create the real time cross-sectional view across the transducer's 1.5"length.

It is also possible to scan at a fixed angle across elements. As discussed later this is very useful for automated weld inspection. Using a 64 element linear phased array probe with wedge, shear waves

can be generated at a user defined angle (often 45, 60 or 70 degrees). With aperture sequencing through the length of the probe full volumetric weld data can be collected without the need for physically increasing distance to weld center line while scanning. This provides for single pass inspection along the weld length.

Phased Array Angular Sectorial Scan

Phased Array Tutorial

Of all imaging modes discussed so far, the Angular Sectorial scan is unique to phased array equipment. In a linear sectorial scan, all focal laws employed a fixed angle with sequencing apertures. Angular sectorial scans, on the other hand, use fixed apertures and steer through a sequence of angles. Two main forms are typically used. The most familiar, very common in medical imaging, uses a zero degree interface wedge to steer longitudinal waves creating a pie-shaped image showing laminar and slightly angled defects.

The second format employs a plastic wedge to increase the incident beam angle for generation of shear waves, most commonly in the refracted angle range of 30 to 70 degrees. This technique is similar to conventional angle beam inspection, except that the beam sweeps through a range of angles rather than a just single fixed angle determined by a wedge. As with the linear sectorial scan, the image presentation is a cross-sectional picture of the inspected area of the test piece.

The actual image generation works on the same stacked A-scan principle that was discussed in the context of linear sectorial scans introduced in the previous section. The end user defines the angle start, end, and step resolution to generate the sectorial image. You will notice that the aperture remains constant, with each defined angle generating a corresponding beam with characteristics defined by aperture, frequency, damping and the like. The waveform response from each angle (focal law) is digitized and plotted related to color at the appropriate corresponding angle, building a cross sectional image. In actuality the sectorial scan is produced in real time so as to continually offer dynamic imaging with transducer movement. This is very useful for defect visualization and increases probability of detection, especially with respect to randomly oriented defects, as many inspection angles can be

used at once.

Combined Image Formats

Phased Array Tutorial

Phased array images are powerful in their ability to provide real time visualization of volumetric data. Through the electronic scanning process, imaging truly becomes real time and is used in both manual and automated systems to increase probability of detection. Especially in automated and more capable phased array instruments, the ability to display multiple image types and store complete raw waveform information for the entire inspection allows post-scanning analysis of the inspection. Because all the ultrasonic waveform data is collected, this post-analysis enables allows reconstruction of sectorial scans , C-scan and or B-scans with corresponding A-scan information at any inspection location. For example, the screen below simultaneously displays the rectified A-scan waveform, a cross-sectional B-scan profile, and a C-scan image of a set of reference holes in a steel test block.

Overview of Beam Effects on Linear Array Sectorial Scans

Phased Array Tutorial

Phased array instruments allow the operator to program a number of parameters that will affect the

shape of the sound beam and in turn the graphic resolution of the resulting images. The scan images below show the effect of increasing the virtual aperture of a phased array probe by pulsing the elements in groups. Using a 64 element probe with a 0.6 mm (0.024 inch) pitch, elements are pulsed in groups of 4, 8, and 16 while imaging side-drilled holes in a reference block. The largest aperture (16 elements) produces an image that is much sharper that that produced by the smaller apertures, and it also gives the highest amplitude response from the target holes. Of course large apertures can be achieved only with probes that have a large number of elements, which in turn are more expensive and typically require more expensive instrumentation to drive them.

Another variable in setting up a phased array test is the number of programmed focal laws or angular increments in a scan, which effectively controls the number of individual views used to generate an

image. A larger number of focal laws will generally produce a more detailed picture, but potentially at the expense of scanning speed and power consumption. Fewer focal laws means that images can update faster and power consumption is reduced, but the resulting images are less sharp.

Like aperture and the number of focal laws, electronic beam focusing (as discussed in Section 2.14) can have a significant effect on both the sharpness of an image and the amplitude of the reflection from a target. The scans below show unfocused (left) and focused (right) 5 MHz images of three side drilled holes in a steel reference block.

Perhaps the most fundamental variable affecting graphic resolution is probe selection. Higher frequency will typically offer greater resolution than lower frequencies, while lower frequencies have a penetration advantage in applications involving very long sound paths, or test materials that are highly attenuating or scattering. The scans below show a series of side drilled holes in a steel reference block imaged with a 5 MHz, 64 element probe (left) and a 2 MHz, 16 element probe (right), in both cases using a 16 element aperture. The 5 MHz image is significantly sharper.

The 5 MHz test does require a higher gain level, since attenuation in any material increases proportionally to frequency. However in most phased array applications system gain is not a limiting factor.

Phased Array Instrumentation Overview

Phased Array Tutorial

There a wide variety phased array probes commercially available. While the linear array probe is certainly the most commonly used configuration, customized transducers with high element counts and varying element placements are also available, often designed to meet demanding application needs requiring high-speed full volumetric coverage and/or complex beam steering. To meet these needs, there are varying levels of phased array instrumentation now commercially available in three general classifications: field portable manual, field portable automated, and rack instruments for inline inspection.

Instrumentation Block Diagram

Phased Array Tutorial

The fundamental requirement of all phased array instruments is the ability to configure a defined

group of elements with the programmed pulser and reception delays commonly referred to as a focal law. The instrument forms images by sequencing focal laws with different pulser and receiver delays across the same aperture, or multiplexing the same law across stepped apertures. During pulsing, a trigger is sent to a bank of pulsers with the delay sequence required to achieve the desired beam. At reception, the signals are digitized and delayed according to a focal law and summed to form a single RF response. This waveform is then amplified, filtered as required, digitized, processed and stored. As one sequence of focal laws is being completed, the image is simultaneously displayed along with an associated A-Scan and measurements. In linear scanning, groups of elements are stepped through a multiplexer to reduce cost and electronic complexity. A conceptual overview is shown below in a reduced configuration consisting of four pulser/receivers exciting a 16 element probe. Note that for sectorial scans the maximum number of elements that can be used is four.

Specifications Conventional Instruments

Phased Array Tutorial

When evaluating conventional flaw detectors, a number of functional characteristics are often specified. These characteristics are generally shared with phased array instruments. Not all of the items listed below are available in all instruments. Pulser and Receiver: Largely defines the operating range of transducers that can be used with the instrument

Measurement and Display:

Sizing Options: A vareity of flaw detection standards and codes have been developed and are in practice for sizing a variety of defects. These apply to inspection of weldments as well as to a variety of metallic and composite structures. Certain inspections require that a specific code be followed. As a result a variety of tools are now available in conventional digital flaw detectors to automate and record tools required by these codes.

Inputs and Outputs:

Specifications Phased Array

Phased Array Tutorial

Because of the multi-element nature of phased array instruments, there are additional key specifications that need further consideration and review. Number of Pulsers: Will define the maximum number of elements that can be grouped to form an active aperture or virtual probe aperture. Number of Receivers: Will define the total number of elements that can be used for sequencing apertures that leads to the potential increase in coverage from a single probe footprint. XX:YY: Naming convention used where XX = Number of pulsers and YY= Number of receiver paths. The number of receivers is always greater or equal to number of pulsers. Instruments from 16:16 to 32:128 are available in field portable packaging. Higher pulser and receiver combinations are available for in-line inspection and/or systems that use larger element count probes. Focal Laws: The number of focal laws that can be combined to form an image is often specified. In general, higher XX:YY configurations can support more focal laws as they support greater element apertures and/or more aperture stepping in linear scanning. Note that more focal laws does not always mean more functionality. Take the example below using a 64 element probe performing a sectorial scan of three side-drilled holes from 40 to 70 degrees, comparing steering with 1 degree (30 laws), 2 degree (15 laws), and 4 degree (7 laws) steps over a 2 inch, 50 mm metal path. While the image will be slightly better defined with finer angle increments, detection at coarser resolution is adequate. Unless beam diameter is drastically reduced with focusing, sizing from images will not dramatically change either. Examples for the number of focal laws required performing linear scans with varying combinations of virtual probe apertures and total element counts are shown below.

From the above, it is readily apparent that a 16:16 configuration used with a 16 element transducers may only require 30 laws while a 16:128 or 32:128 instrument configuration used in linear scan mode with a 128 element transducer may very well require 128 focal laws. PRF/Display Update Rate: Instruments can vary greatly in display update in various image modes. For phased array imaging modes:

An example of a reduced four focal law linear scan sequence with a 60 Hz image display update is shown below for conceptualization.

The actual image display rate may be affected by other parameters. The A-scan refresh rate of a single focal law will vary between instruments. In some instruments, the A-scan PRF rate is limited by the maximum image display update, whether it is shown with the phased array image or even when maximized to a full A-scan. For this reason, in some applications it may be important to verify A-scan PRF when derived from focal law sequence in various image display modes.

Probe recognition: The ability to recognize phased array probes reduces operator setup time by automatically configuring an instrument setup with proper number of elements and probe geometry. Image types: Sectorial and linear scans are typically available in phased array instruments. The ability to stack these image modes to create amplitude and depth C-scans allows planar images to be formed and provides expanded means for sizing defects. Waveform storage: The ability to store raw RF waveforms allows data to be reviewed off line. This is particularly useful when collecting data over a large area. Multi-Group support: More capable phased array instruments allow multiple focal law groups to be sequenced on one or more connected transducers. This is especially useful in cases where it is important to collect volumetric data which will be analyzed off line. For example, a 5 MHz, 64 element probe can be programmed to use elements 1-16 for a 40 to 70 degree sector scan, while a second group can be used to perform a 60 degree linear scan with an aperture of 16 elements, stepping by one element over the entire 64 element length. Encoding: There are two classes of instruments generally available: manual and encoded. A manual phased array instrument works much like a conventional flaw detector as it provides real time data. Along with an A-scan, the instrument also shows real time S-scan or linear scan images which can aid in detection and discontinuity analysis. The ability to use and visualize more than one angle at a time in a test would be the main reason for using this type of instrument. In some cases like crack sizing, the image can be used as a tool to help size crack depth. A phased instrument with encoder interface merges probe positional data, probe geometry, and programmed focal law sequences to allow top, end and side view images of test specimen. In instruments that also store full waveform data, images can be reconstructed to provide cross sectional views along the length of the scan or regenerate planar C-scans at various levels. These encoded images allow for planar sizing of defects. Reference Cursors: Instruments will provide various cursors that can be used on an image for direct sizing. In a sectorial scan, it is possible to use cursors for measurement of crack height. Approximate defect size can be measured in encoded linear C-scans as well.

Calibration and Normalization

Phased Array Tutorial

Calibration Method: The method of calibration for phased array transducers can be varied. As beam formation relies on variant element delays and groups, it is important to normalize the response from

each focal law, to compensate both for element-to-element sensitivity variations in the array transducer and for varying wedge attenuation and energy transfer efficiency at different refracted angles. Calibration of wedge delay and sensitivity over the entire inspection sequence not only provides clearer image visualization, but also allows measurement and sizing from any focal law. While Olympus NDT instruments allow full calibration, many instruments will only allow calibration of one focal law at any one time.

TVG/DAC for phased array: For sizing defects, A-scan amplitude techniques using DAC curves or time corrected gain are common. These methods account for material attenuation effects and beam spreading by compensating gain levels (TCG) or drawing a reference curve based on same size reflector response as a function of distance. As in sensitivity calibrations, some instruments allows a TCG to be built at multiple points over all defined focal laws. In these instruments, the view can be switched from TCG to DAC curve at any time. This allows use of sizing curves at multiple angles for sectorial scans or at any virtual aperture in linear scans.

Combined Phased Array and UT Instruments

Phased Array Tutorial

Some phased array instruments also provide a conventional ultrasonic channel to support inspections with single element transducers. It is important to know how this conventional channel functions.

Pulser: Because of the small size of phased array elements, and leveraging the fact that constructive interference effects between elements results in higher sensitivity, phased array pulsers are typically limited to 100 volts. Often vendors use this limited phased array pulser as the conventional transducer pulser. This can become very limiting in applications involving long sound paths or highly attenuating materials, especially when using frequencies at or below 2.25MHz. Image Support: While the phased array portion of the instrument supports A-scan, B-scan, C-scan, and sectorial scans, this does not mean the conventional UT portion of the instrument will necessarily incorporate any imaging. More capable instruments do allow cross sectional B-scans on a timed basis with waveform storage on the conventional side. Some also include the ability to interface with conventional transducers attached to one or two axis encoded scanners to generate actual position related B-scans and C-scans respectively. Of course sectorial scanning is unique to phased array. In the image below, a combined phased array/conventional instrument is working in conventional mode. performing a B-scan of a corroded pipe with a dual element transducer in an encoded hand scanner.

Focal Law Setup for Linear Scan

Phased Array Tutorial

To gain the full advantages of linear array scanning, typically a minimum of 32 elements are used. It is even more common to use 64 elements. More elements allow larger apertures to be stepped across the probe, providing greater sensitivity, increased capacity of focusing and wider area of inspection. The instrument must have the basic probe and wedge characteristics entered, either manually or via automatic probe recognition. Along with typical UT settings for the pulser, receiver and measurement gate setup, the user must also set transducer beam and electronic steering (focal

law) characteristics. Required User inputs:

Material Velocity Element Quantity (the number of elements used to form the aperture of the probe) First element to be used for scan The last element in the electronic raster Element step (defines how defined aperture moves across the probe) Desired focus depth, which must be set less than near field length (N) to effectively cerate a focus Angle of inspection

Linear Straight Beam Scans

Phased Array Tutorial

Straight beam linear scans are usually easy to conceptualize on a display because the scan image typically represents a simple cross-sectional view of the test piece. As described in Section 3.7, a phased array system uses electronic scanning along the length of a linear array probe to create a cross-sectional profile without moving the transducer. As each focal law is sequenced, the associated A-scan is digitized and plotted. Successive apertures are "stacked", creating a live cross sectional view. The effect is similar to a B-scan presentation created by moving a conventional single element

transducer across a test piece and storing data at selected intervals. In practice, this electronic sweeping is done in real time so a live part cross section can be continually viewed as the transducer is physically moved. The actual cross section represents the true depth of reflectors in the material as well as the actual position typically relative to the front of the probe assembly. Below is an image of holes in a test block made with a 5L64-A2, 64-element 5 MHz linear phased array probe. The probe has a 0.6mm pitch. In this example, the user programmed the focal law to use 16 elements to form an aperture and sequenced the starting element increments by one. So aperture 1 consists of elements 1 through16, aperture 2 from elements 2 through 17, aperture 3 from elements 3 through18, and so on. This results in 49 individual waveforms that are stacked to create the real time cross-sectional view across the transducer's length.

The result is an image that clearly shows the relative position of the holes within the scan area, along with the A-scan waveform from a single selected aperture, in this case the 29th aperture out of 49, formed from elements 29-45, is represented by the user-controlled blue cursor. This is the point at which the beam intersects the second hole.

The vertical scale at the left edge of the screen indicates the depth or distance to the reflector represented by a given peak in the A-scan. The horizontal scale of the A-scan indicates relative echo amplitude. The horizontal scale under the scan image shows reflector position with respect to the leading edge of the probe, while the color scale on the right edge of the screen relates image color to signal amplitude.

Alternately, the instrument can be set to display an "all laws" A-scan, which is a composite image of the waveforms from all apertures. In this case, the A-scan includes the indications from all four holes within the gated region. This is particularly useful mode in zero degree inspections, although it can also be confusing when working with complex geometries that produce numerous echoes. In the example below, the first three screens show views in which the A-scan display depicts the waveform from a single virtual probe aperture in the scan, each of which is centered over one of the reference holes.

This fourth screen shows an all laws A-scan in which the signals from all apertures is summed, thus showing all three hole indications simultaneously.

Yet another A-scan source mode on some more advanced instruments allows the A-scan to be sourced from the first or maximum signal within the gated region.

Focal Law Sequence Setup for Sectorial Scan

Phased Array Tutorial

This is very similar to the linear scan setup described in Section 5.4 in that the parameters listed

there must be entered, except that a range of angles must also be selected. All of the other considerations listed in section 5.4 apply. Along with typical UT settings for pulser, receiver and measurement gate setup, the user must also set transducer beam and electronic steering (focal law) characteristics. Required User inputs:

Material Velocity Element Quantity (the number of elements used to form the aperture of the probe) First element to be used for scan The last element in the electronic raster Element step (defines how defined aperture moves across the probe) The first angle of the scan. The last angle of the scan. The increment at which angles are to be stepped. Desired focus depth, which must be set less than near field length (N) to effectively cerate a focus

Defect Positioning
Phased Array Tutorial

Phased array instruments, like quality conventional ultrasonic flaw detectors, offer software tools for identifying the position of defects and other reflectors. Typically these locate a reflector in terms of its horizontal position with respect to the probe, its depth with respect to the material surface, and the sound path distance between the beam index point and the reflector. Additionally, when skip paths are employed the instrument should identify the skip leg in which the reflector occurs. First, it is important to remember that the beam index point (the point at which the center of the sound beam exists the wedge) is a fixed location for a conventional wedge, and a moving point for phased array wedges. In the case of linear scans, the beam index point will move along the length of the probe as the scan sequences. In the case of angular sector scans, different angular components will exit the wedge at different points.

The screen images below show the presentation of location information from two corner reflectors in a steel plate, one from the first leg signal off the bottom corner and one from the second leg signal from the top corner, seen by a probe at the appropriate position.

Conventional flaw detectors normally use the single beam index point of the wedge as the reference from which depths and distances are calculated. In this example, the top line of the first display indicates that the bottom reflector is 25 mm in front of the beam index point at a depth of 25 mm, and that the measured sound path from the beam index point to the reflector is 35.35 mm. The second display indicates that the top reflector is 50 mm in front of the beam index point at the surface (depth zero), and that the measured sound path from the beam index point to the reflector is 70.71 mm. The first leg versus second leg differentiation is indicated by the readouts 1L1 and 1L2 (short for Gate 1 Leg 1 and Gate 1 Leg 2 respectively) on the lower right edge of the screen.

First leg indication from bottom corner.

Second leg indication from top corner. Because the beam index point of a phased array probe is variable, a common way of referencing flaw position is with respect to the front edge of the wedge rather than the BIP. The following dimensions can then be calculated from the beam information:

DA = depth of the reflector in Gate A PA = forward position of the reflector with respect to the tip of the wedge RA = distance between the wedge reference point and the reflector SA = sound path length to the reflector In this display format, the transition between the first and second leg and second and third leg regions of the display is marked by dotted horizontal lines. In the example below, the bottom corner reflector occurs at the transition between the first and second leg zones, and the top corner reflector is at the transition between the second and third legs. Additionally, the position readouts at the top of the screen show the reflector's location.

Swept Angle Sector Scan Comparison

Phased Array Tutorial

In the case of swept angle sector scans, interpretation can be more complex because of the possibility of multiple leg signals that have reflected off the bottom and top of the test piece. In the first leg (the portion of the sound path up through the first bounce off the bottom of the part), the display is a simple cross-sectional view of a wedge-shaped segment of the test piece. However beyond the first leg, the display requires more careful interpretation, as it also does when using a conventional flaw detector. A conventional flaw detector used with common angle beam assemblies displays a single-angle Ascan. Modern digital instruments will use trigonometric calculation based on measured sound path length and programmed part thickness to calculate the reflector depth and surface distance. Part geometry may create simultaneous first leg and second leg indications on the screen, as seen here in

the case below with a 5 MHz transducer and a 45 degree wedge, where a portion of the beam reflects off the notch on the bottom of the part and a portion reflects upward and off the upper right corner of the block. Leg indicators and distance calculators can then be used to confirm the position of a reflector.

The first leg indication is a large reflection from the notch on the bottom of the test block, The depth indicator (upper left of screen image) shows a value corresponding to the bottom of a 25 mm thick block, and the leg indicator (lower right of screen image) shows that this is a first leg signal.

The second leg indication is a small reflection from the upper corner of the block. The depth indicator shows a value corresponding to the top of a 25 mm thick block, and the leg indicator shows that this is a second leg signal. (The slight variation in depth and surface distance measurements from the expected nominal values of 0 and 50 mm respectively is due to beam spreading effects). When the same test is performed with a 5 MHz phased array probe assembly, scanning from 40 to 70 degrees, the display shows a sector scan that is plotted from the range of angles, while the accompanying A-scan typically represents one selected angular component of the scan. Trigonometric calculation uses the measured sound path length and programmed part thickness to calculate the reflector depth and surface distance at each angle. In this type of test, part geometry may create simultaneous first leg and second leg indications on the screen as well as multiple reflectors from a single angle. Leg indicators in the form of horizontal lines overlayed on the waveform and image segment the screen into first, second, and third leg regions, while distance calculators help confirm the position of a reflector. Those distances are typically presented as follows:

In this example we see three indications from a single probe position as the beam sweeps through a 40 degree to 70 degree scan.

Phased Array Glossary

Phased Array Tutorial

A-Scan: An ultrasonic waveform plotted as amplitude with respect to time. It may be either rectified or unrectified (RF). Apodization: A computer-controlled function that applies lower excitation voltage to the outside elements of an array in order to reduce the amplitude of unwanted side lobes. Aperture: In phased array testing, the width of the transducer element or group of elements pulsed simultaneously. Azimuthal Scan: An alternate term for Sector scan. It is a two-dimensional view of all amplitude and time or depth data from all focal laws of a phased array probe corrected for delay and refracted angle. B-Scan: A two-dimensional image of ultrasonic data plotted as reflector depth or distance with respect to beam position. B-scans may be either single value or cross-sectional. B-scan, single value: A two-dimensional image based on plotting the first or largest reflector within a gate. This format is commonly used in ultrasonic flaw detectors and advanced thickness gages and it shows one reflector at each data point. B-scan, cross-sectional: A two-dimensional image of ultrasonic data based on full waveform storage at each data, which can be plotted to show all reflectors in a cross-section rather than just the first or largest. This allows visualization of both near and far surface reflectors within the sample. Bandwidth: The portion of the frequency response that falls within specified amplitude limits. In this context, it should be noted that typical NDT transducers do not generate sound waves at a single pure frequency, but rather over a range of frequencies centered at the nominal frequency designation. The industry standard is to specify this bandwidth at the -6dB (or half amplitude) point. As a general rule, broader bandwidth results in better near surface and axial resolution, while narrow bandwidth results in higher energy output and thus higher sensitivity. Beam Forming: In phased array testing, generating a sound beam at a particular position, angle, and/or focus through sequential pulsing of the elements of an array transducer. Beam spread: The angle of divergence from the centerline of a sound beam in its far field. Beam Steering: The capability to modify the refracted angle of the sound beam generated by a phased array probe. Calibration, wedge delay -- A procedure that electronically compensates for the different sound paths taken by different beam components in a wedge, used to normalize the measure sound path length to a reflector. Calibration, sensitivity: A procedure that electronically equalizes amplitude response across all

beam components in a phased array scan. This typically compensates for both element-to-element sensitivity variations, and the varying energy transfer at different refracted angles. C-Scan: A two-dimensional view of ultrasonic amplitude or time/depth data displayed as a top view of the test piece. Far Field: The portion of a sound beam beyond the last on-axis pressure maximum. Beam spreading occurs in the far field. Focal Laws: The programmed pattern of time delays applied to pulsing and receiving from the individual elements of an array transducer in order to steer and/or focus the resulting sound beam and echo response. Focus: In ultrasonics, the point at which a sound beam converges to minimum diameter and maximum sound pressure, and beyond which the beam diverges.

Grating Lobes: Spurious components of a sound beam diverging to the sides of the center of energy, caused by even sampling across the probe elements. Grating lobes occur only with phased array transducers and are caused by ray components associated with the regular, periodic spacing of the small individual elements. See also Side Lobes. Huygens' Principle: A mathematical model of wave behavior that states that each point on an advancing wave front may be thought of as a point source that launches a new spherical wave, and the resulting unified wave front is the sum of those individual spherical waves. Linear Scan: The ability to move the acoustic beam along the major axis of the array without any mechanical movement. Near Field: The portion of a sound beam between the transducer and the last on-axis sound pressure peak. Transducers can be focused only in the near field. Phased Array: A multi-element ultrasonic transducer (typically with 16, 32, or 64 elements) used to generate steered beams by means of phased pulsing and receiving. Phasing: The interaction of two or more waves of the same frequency but with different time delays, which may result in either constructive or destructive interference. Pitch: The separation between individual elements in a phased array transducer. Plane, active: The orientation parallel to the phased array probe axis consisting of multiple elements.

Plane, passive: The orientation parallel to the individual transducer element length or probe width. Plane, steering: The orientation in which the beam direction is varied for a phased array probe. Pulse duration: The time interval between the point at which the leading edge of a waveform reaches a specified amplitude (typically -20 dB with respect to peak) to the point at which the trailing edge of the waveform reaches the same amplitude. Broader bandwidth typically reduces pulse duration while narrower bandwidth increases it. Pulse duration is highly dependent on pulser settings. Resolution, angular: In phased array systems, the angular resolution is the minimum angular value between two A-scans where adjacent defects located at the same depth are individually resolvable. Resolution, axial: The minimum depth separation between two specified reflectors that permits discrete identification of each. Higher frequency and/or higher bandwidth will generally increase axial separation. Resolution, far surface: The minimum distance from the backwall surface at which a specified reflector has an echo amplitude at least 6 dB greater than the leading edge of the backwall echo. More generally, the closest distance from the backwall surface at which a reflector can be identified. Resolution, lateral: In phased array systems, the minimum lateral separation between two specified reflectors that permits discrete identification of each. This is related to both the design of the array transducer and the selected focal law programming. Resolution, near surface: The minimum distance from the sound entry surface at which a specified reflector has an echo amplitude at least 6 dB greater than the trailing edges of the excitation pulse, delay line, or wedge echo. More generally, the closest distance from the sound entry surface at which a reflector can be identified. The area above this point is known as the dead zone, and it generally increases as gain increases. Sector Scan (S-Scan): A two-dimensional view of all amplitude and time or depth data from all focal laws of a phased array probe corrected for delay and refracted angle. Side Lobes: Spurious components of a sound beam diverging to the sides of the center of energy, produced by acoustic pressure leaking from transducer elements at different and angles from the main lobe. Side lobes are generated by all types of ultrasonic transducers. See also Grating Lobes. Virtual Aperture: The combined width of a group of phased array elements that are pulsed simultaneously.

Application Detail Page

Application Detail

Ultrasonic Couplants
Ultrasonic couplants are used in virtually all contact testing applications to facilitate the transmission of sound energy between the transducer and the test piece. Couplants will typically be viscous, nontoxic liquids, gels, or pastes. Their use is necessary because sound energy at the ultrasonic frequencies typically used for nondestructive testing is not effectively transmitted through air. Aside from attenuation effects, air represents a severe acoustic impedance mismatch with respect to both transducer wearplates and typical test materials. Even an extremely thin air gap between the transducer and the test piece will prevent efficient sound energy transmission and make conventional testing impossible. A number of common substances such as water, motor oil, grease, and even some commercial products like hair gel can be used as ultrasonic couplants in many applications. However, for best results in high temperature and normal incidence shear wave testing it is necessary to use specially formulated couplants, and testing in the nuclear industry requires couplants whose halogen and sulfer content is limited and documented. The Panametrics-NDT line of ultrasonic couplants includes seven different products optimized for different applications. A description of each follows, listed according to their Panametrics-NDT part code. COUPLANT A - PROPYLENE GLYCOL Propylene glycol is a good general purpose couplant that is often used in ambient temperature thickness gaging applications on smooth surfaces. It has good surface wetting properties, it will not corrode or otherwise attack common engineering materials, and it is easily washed off with water. Because it is chemically non-reactive and does not evaporate quickly, propylene glycol is also recommended for use in delay line transducers to couple the delay line to the wearplate. The maximum recommended temperature for use of propylene glycol is approximately 200 F (90 C). COUPLANT B - GLYCERIN Glycerin is also a general purpose couplant with both advantages and disadvantages as compared with propylene glycol. Glycerin's advantage is that it is more viscous and has a higher acoustic impedance, making it the preferred couplant for rough surfaces and highly attenuating materials. Glycerin has an acoustic impedance of 2.42 x 105 gm-cm2/sec (versus 1.61 for propylene glycol, approximately 1.5 for motor oil, and 1.48 for water). Glycerin's acoustic impedance closely matches that of plastics, and it is closer to that of metal than other common coupling liquids, providing more efficient sound transmission between the transducer and the test piece. In metal testing, glycerin typically provides a 3 to 6 dB increase in signal strength as compared to propylene glycol. The disadvantage of using glycerin is that if it is not removed from the test surface, it can promote rusting or corrosion in some metals by absorbing and holding water from the atmosphere. It can also support growth of mold or fungus if not removed. While glycerin is often recommended for testing of castings due to its good acoustic properties,

care should be taken to wash it of after use. Note that this corrosion effect does not occur in plastics, fiberglass, or composites, so glycerin may be freely used on those materials. The maximum recommended temperature for glycerin is approximately 200 F (90 C). COUPLANT C - SILICONE OIL Silicone oil is preferred by some inspectors who are doing angle beam testing as a couplant between the transducer and the wedge. Because it does not evaporate and is insoluble in water, silicone oil will not dry out or wash away. This gives silicone oil an advantage as a long-lasting couplant in angle beam assemblies, but the difficulty in removing it from test surfaces limits its use as a general purpose couplant. COUPLANT D - GEL Gel type couplants are often recommended for rough surfaces such as sandcast metals and fiberglass layups, where their high viscosity and relatively high acoustic impedance will maximize sound coupling in a situation where the transducer cannot make smooth contact with the test surface. Gel couplants are also usually employed in weld inspections where it is necessary to slide the transducer across a wide surface area. Here the advantage is simply that gel can be quicky spread across a large area, and that it will maintain good coupling as the transducer is scanned along the weld. Gels are also useful in inspecting overhead surfaces or vertical walls, since they won't drip or run. Most gel couplants can be used on moderately hot surfaces up to approximately 200 F (90 C). COUPLANT E - ULTRATHERM Ultrasonic testing at high temperatures requires specially formulated couplants that will remain in a stable liquid or paste form without boiling off, burning, or releasing toxic fumes. A number of commercial couplants are available for various temperature ranges. With all high temperature couplants it is important to be aware of the specified temperature range for their use, and use them only within that range. Poor acoustic performance and/or safety hazards can result from using high temperature couplants beyond their intended range. Note that at very high temperatures even high temperature couplants must be used quickly since they will tend to dry out or solidify and no longer transmit ultrasonic energy. Dried couplant residue should be removed from the test surface and from the transducer before the next measurement. Panametrics-NDT Couplant E is a semi-solid paste that liquefies at high temperature. It is recommended for use between 500 and 1000 F (260 to 540 C). COUPLANT F - MEDIUM TEMPERATURE COUPLANT This product has been replaced by Couplant G, which offers superior performance. COUPLANT G - MEDIUM TEMPERATURE COUPLANT Couplant G is a non-toxic, biodegradable gel that is particularly recommended for testing parts that are too hot for ambient temperature couplants, but not hot enough to require the use of Couplant E. It may be used at temperatures from ambient up to approximately 600 F (315 C). SHEAR WAVE COUPLANT - SWC Normal incidence shear wave transducers require couplants of very high viscosity, since liquids such as oil or glycerin will not support shear waves. Typically, sticky resins have been used for normal incidence shear wave coupling. Panametrics-NDT SWC is a non-toxic, water-soluble organic substance of very high viscosity that is easy to apply and remove. Normally a very small amount should be places on the face of the transducer or the test piece and then pressed into a very thin layer. Note that for optimum coupling, it is important that the

couplant layer be thin, representing a small fraction of the test wavelength. Following testing, residue may be washed off with warm water. SWC may be used at temperatures up to approximately 100 F (38 C). PROPYLENE GLYCOL, Glycerin, Silicone oil, Gel type couplants, ULTRATHERM,