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VENOMOUS
ANIMAlS
dANIMALS IN FULL COLOR
Oy
LLNLLL. OKLLIL, JK., |.L.
Illustrated by
JOHN D. DAWSON
GOLDEN PRESS NEW YORK
Western Publishing Company, I nc.
Racine, Wisconsin
FOREWORD
J ust as previ ovs Golden Gui des have served to i ntroduce
young peopl e { i ncl udi ng the author of this gui de) to sci ence,
i t i s hoped that thi s _ui de wi l l sti mul ate i nterest i n the spectac
ul ar evol uti on of venomous ani mal s and thei r use of venoms
to subdue prey and repel predators.
The arti st, John D. Dawson, wi th the abl e assi stance of hi s
wife, Kathl een Dawson, has created the finest col l ecti on of
venomous ani mal s i l l ustrati ons ever produced. Thanks are
al so due Carol i ne Greenberg, Seni or Edi tor, for her hel p i n
devel opi ng the enti re concept of thi s gui de and for her
attenti on to detai l .
| am i ndebted t o a number of col l eagues for thei r advice
and for materi al s from whi ch to i l l ustrate this book, espe
ci al l y: Jonathan A. Campbel l ; Daniel R. Formanowi cz, Jr. ;
Wi l l i am lamar; Robert F. McMahon; J i m Stout; Edmund D.
Brodie, |, Ronald A. Nussbum; Jay Vanni ni ; George Fi chter;
Remo Cosenti no; and David Barker. John P. Nel son prepared
the scanni ng el ectron mi crographs at the Universi ty of Texas
at Arl i ngton Center for Electron Microscopy. | am grateful to
Judi th Johnson Brodie for her conti nuous support.
E. D. B.
Copyright 1VV by Western Publishing Compony, Inc. All rights reserved, including
rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of
copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or
written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any
knowledge retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the
copyright proprietor. Produced in the U.S.A. by Western Publishing Company, Inc.
Published by Golden Press, New York, N.Y. Librory of Congress Cotolog Cord
Number, VDD. ISBN -1-Z414-0
CONTENTS
VENOMOUS ANIMALS 4
CNI DARI ANS 14
MOLLUSCS 18
NEMERTEAN WORMS 22
SEGMENTED OR ANNELI D
WORMS 2J
ECHI NODERMS 24
SPI DERS 28
CENTI PEDES J8
MI LLI PEDES 40
WHI P SCORPI ONS 4 1
SCORPI ONS 42
I NSECTS 48
FI SHES 66
AMPHI BI ANS 86
REPTI LES 106
MAMMALS I48
MORE I NFORMATI ON 156
I NDEX
157
VENOMOUS ANIMALS
Peopl e are strangel y attracted to dangerous, potenti al l y
deadl y ani mal s. At a zoo, watch how many peopl e congre
gate at the venomous snake exhi bi t. The confl i cti ng reacti ons
of fear and fasci nati on are cl earl y evident.
Thi s book i s an i ntroduction to the marvel ous diversi ty and
beauty of venomous ani mal s, concentrati ng on spectacul ar
and deadl y speci es. Al though onl y a few of the tens of
thousands of venomous ani mal s can be descri bed and i l l us
trated here, al l major groups i n the worl d are represented,
i ncl udi ng the most dangerous in the ani mal ki ngdom. The
vari ety of uses and ori gi ns of venoms are i ndi cated. Not
i ncl uded are those ani mal s that are toxi c when eaten, such as
the hundreds of species of fishes and shel l fi shes-unl ess, as
i n the case of some amphi bi ans and i nsects, woul d-be pred
ators are repul sed by their toxi ns.
VENOM I n general terms, venom refers to a substance used
by one ani mal to cause i nj ury or death to another. More
narrowl y, venom refers to substances del ivered ei ther by
bi ti ng or by sti ngi ng. These ani mal s are referred to as actively
venomous. Activel y venomous ani mal s have a venom appa
ratus- means for di spensi ng thei r venom i nto other ani
mal s. Some i nject the venom through hol l ow, hypodermi cl i ke
4
Stone
Fi sh
spine
Spiney Newt spine
Centipede's fangs, photographed with a scanning electron mi croscope
teeth or sti ngers. Others give of venom from spi nes that
puncture or rip i nto a vi cti m.
I n contrast, passively venomous ani mal s are those with
secreti ons that affect other ani mal s when eaten. These ani
mal s are usual l y referred to as poisonous. Passi vel y venom
ous ani mal s cannot i nject venom i nto other ani mal s. Some of
the i nsects and amphi bi ans are passivel y venomous .
Beaded
lizard
tooth

rattlesnake
fang
5
HOW VENOMS SERVE ANIMALS
SUBDUI NG PREY Using venom to paral yze or kil l enabl es
animal s to attack and eat prey much l arger than they other
wise could without ri sking inj ury. I n many of these animal s the
venom gl and is a modified salivary gl and with a duct l eading
to a hol l ow or grooved venom apparatus, commonl y a spe
cialize or enl arged tooth or fang. Venomous snakes, shrews,
octopuses, centipedes, snail s, spi ders, and some insects are
of this type.
Cni darians have specialized stinging cel l s in their tenta
cl es, whil e scorpions possess a unique venom apparatus at
the tip of their tail . Some wasps use their stinger (an oviposi
tor found onl y in femal es) to paral yze prey that is to be eaten
by the wasp's l arvae.
REPULSING PREDATORS Ani mal s that empl oy venom to
subdue prey may al so use i t as a defensive mechani sm agai nst
thei r own woul d-be predators. Other ani mal s use venom to
defend themselves (ei ther activel y or passi vel y) but do not
use the venom to subdue prey. These anti predator adapta
ti ons are most efective agai nst predators that l earn to avoi d
the repul sive prey. Sea urchins, various fishes, a sal amander,
the Pl atypus, and some i nsects (such as bees, wasps, and
caterpil l ars) are among the activel y venomous animal s using
venom only to repul se predators. Spitting cobras, a variety
of i nsects, a sal amander, and others spray venom in order to
repul se predators at a distance. Certai n amphi bians and
some fi shes produce toxic secretions i n thei r skin gl ands.
Others, pri mari l y insects, concentrate poisons from pl ants in
thei r bodies and in this way render emsel ves inedi bl e. A
few ani mal s, such as nudi branchs and hedgehogs, uti l i ze
venom of other animal s in their own defense.
6
Tip of the stinger of a scorpion showing openings of venom ducts, photographed
with a scanni ng electron microscope
Hedgehog rubbing a venom
ous toad onto its own spines
-making them venomous

DANGER FROM VENOMOUS ANIMALS

As highl y dangerous venomous animal s are most abundant in
l ess industrial ized nations, their bi tes and stings are often not
reported. Even deaths sometimes remain unrecorded.
The most resonable estimate of venomous snakebite deaths
worl dwide is 40, 000 to 50, 000 per year, but this information
is neither compl ete nor accurate.
In I ndia, for exampl e, an estimated 200, 000 peopl e are
bitten by venomous snakes each year. Of these, 1 0, 000 to
1 5, 000 die. In Burma, al though we know that about 1 5 of
every 1 00, 000 peopl e die each year of venomous snakebites,
we don't know how many are bitten.
SNAKES THAT CAUSE THE MOST DEATHS I N THE WORLD
Malayan Pi t Viper
Southeast Asia
Common lonceheod
South America
Puff Adder
Africa
Better records are kept in the Uni ted States, but the total
number of bi tes is al most certai nl y not reported. Records
showi ng fewer than ,000 bi tes and 1 5 deaths from venom
ous snakes per year i ndi cate a mortal i ty rate of l ess than 1
per 1 0 mi l l i on. These fi gures show that snakebi tes pose l i ttl e
threat to l i fe i n the Uni ted States . Most deaths are from bi tes
of di amondback rattl esnakes.
Bees and wasps account for approxi matel y 25 deaths
every year i n the Uni ted States, thus posi ng a greater threat
than do snakes . Spi ders and scorpi ons are responsi bl e for
another five deaths each year. I t i s i mpossi bl e even to give a
reasonabl e esti mate of the number of deaths caused worl d
wi de by venomous creatures other than snakes.
Barba Amari l l a
Central America
Common Cobra
India
Russel l 's Viper
India
9
THE ACTION OF VENOMS
Some venoms, especi al l y those from passivel y venomous ani
mal s, burn the tender mouth l i ni ng and eyes of predators
(someti mes resul ti ng in temporary bl i ndness) . Other venoms
cause pai n or i l l ness to woul d-be predators.
Activel y venomous ani mal s, however, possess the most
dangerous venoms . These can be general l y categori zed as:
1 ) neuroloxns,whi ch affect the nervous system
and cause death by paral ysi s
2) hemoloxns,whi ch di gest ti ssues-i ncl udi ng
the bl ood cel l s
3) cordoloxns,whi ch affect the heart di rectl y
Venoms are actual l y far too complex to be divi ded stri ctl y
i nto these categori es, however. I n fact, many ani mal s have
venoms with components of two or of al l three of these
acti ons.
FIRST AI D A person bi tten or stung by a venomous ani mal
shoul d seek medi cal care as soon as possi bl e. Because i t i s
i mportant for the doctor to know the animal responsi bl e for
the bi te or sti ng, i t may be necessary to ki l l the ani mal and
take i t to the doctor wi th the vi cti m. Keep i n mi nd that ani mal s
bel i eved to be dead may sti l l be capabl e of musteri ng a
defensive bi te or sti ng, so be extremel y careful .
I f a hospi tal cannot be reached wi thi n 30 mi nutes or i f a
chil d is bi tten by a l arge venomous snake, it may be necessary
to appl y a constri cti on band above the bi te to prevent or
sl ow the spread of the venom. Care must be taken not to cut
off the fl ow of bl ood.
Onl y a person wi th medi cal trai ni ng shoul d attempt to cut
and remove venom from a bi te. The "cut and suck" method
of treati ng snakebi te, when i mproperl y done, can cause more
harm than the venom.
1 0
Sondhi l l s Hornet
Western Newt
defensive posture
WHY VENOMOUS ANIMALS
ARE BRIGHTLY COLORED
Venomous ani mal s are commonl y more conspi cuous than
nonvenomous ones. Red, orange, yel l ow, or metal l i c col ors,
or any of these colors i n banded or spotted patterns with
black and white make them hi ghl y vi si bl e. I t is advantageous
for nonvenomous ani mal s to be i nconspi cuous (crypti c) in
col oration, thereby avoi di ng detecti on by predators. But
venomous speci es adverti se thei r presence to other ani mal s.
Most benefi ci al i s a col or pattern that i s conceal i ng t o an
ani mal's prey but a waring (aposematic) to i ts predators .
Thi s is true, for exampl e, when a venomous ani mal preys
upon ani mal s without color vi si on, but i s a potenti al prey of
ani mal s with col or vi si on.
Many venomous amphi bi ans are cryptical l y col ored on the
back, but when attacked by a predator, turn thei r body to
expose a bri ght col orati on on thei r bel l y and on the sol es of
thei r feet. Predators soon l earn to avoid these warni ng col ors
fol l owi ng pai nful contact with a venomous ani mal . Predators
that have l earned to avoi d a brightl y col ored venomous
ani mal (the model ) wi l l al so avoi d a si mi l arl y col ored nonven
omous ani mal (the mi mi c) . Some mi mi cs of venomous ani mal s
are shown on pages 64-65 and 1 44- 1 47.
1 1
USES OF VENOMS
Since ancient times venoms have been used in weapons of
warfare and for hunting. Earl y warri ors in Europe as wel l as
some North Ameri can I ndi ans coated arrowheads and spears
with snake venoms. Roman and Greek warriors reportedl y
threw contai ners of venomous snakes into the boats of thei r
enemies . Today some tribes i n Africa poison their arrows with
i nsect venom, whil e South Ameri can tribes poison their
bl owgun darts with venom from poison dart frogs .
RESEARCH The nature of venoms-neurotoxic, hemotoxi c,
and cardiotoxic-makes them useful in understanding the
functioning of the human body. Much of our knowledge about
the worki ngs of the nervous system is the resul t of research
wi th venoms. With the hel p of genetic engineeri ng technol
ogy, venoms are now bei ng exami ned f or possi bl e val ue in
pest control and as anti mi crobial agents .
ANTI VE NI N Venoms are util i zed in maki ng anti venin
products . Antivenins are produced by inj ecti ng a series of
smal l doses of venom i nto a l arge animal , such as a horse.
As soon as anti bodies have formed in the horse's bl ood,
rendering it resistant or immune to the venom, bl ood is drawn
and the serum removed. This serum is the basis for the
anti veni n's effectiveness agai nst the effects of a venomous
bite.
Antiveni ns are avai l abl e for Stone Fi sh, several spi ders
(incl uding Bl ack Widows and funnel web spi ders), some scor
pions, and a wi de vari ety of snakes . I n the United States, a
singl e antiveni n is effective agai nst the bites of rattl esnakes,
Cottonmouths, and Copperheads. Other dangerous snakes
general l y requi re speci fi c anti veni ns because their venoms
are so different that the anti bodi es formed agai nst one are
not effecti ve agai nst another venom.
1 2
'1
_ Some South Americon I ndi ans coat their darts with frog venoms
MEDI CAL venoms, because they have speci fi c effects on the
human body, have been used in medi cal treatment through

out hi story. Both the anci ent Egypti ans and the earl y Chi nese
uti l i zed venoms i n treati ng numerous medi cal di sorders . Earl y
Chi nese medi cal books l i sted hundreds of uses for snake
venoms and snakes .
Today hemotoxi ns, usual l y from vi pers, are empl oyed as
anti coagul ants, whi l e neurotoxi ns, general l y from cobras,
are used for the treatment of pai n. Snake venoms are al so
bei ng used on an experi mental basi s i n treati ng di seases of
the nervous, cardi ovascul ar, and muscul oskel etal systems.
I n addi t i on, they are empl oyed i n worki ng wi t h some ki nds
of cancer, for a wi de range of di agnosti c tests, and as
anti vi ral and anti bacteri al agents .
In Chi na, toad venom is col l ected, dri ed, and sol d as
Ch' an Su, whi ch i s used for treati ng heart di sease and a
number of other ai l ments . Some sci enti sts bel i eve that a
component of bee venom is a therapeutic agent in the treat

ment of arthri ti s, but i ts effecti veness has not yet been

demonstrated .
1 3
CNIDARIANS
About 9, 000 species of cni dari ans-coral s, jel l yfi shes, and
sea anemones-i nhabi t the seas of the worl d. A few species
l ive i n fresh waters. Al l have tentacl es armed with thousands
to mi l l i ons of darts, cal l ed nematocysts, that are fi red i nto
prey ani mal s, the venom paral yzi ng or ki l l i ng them.
Most cni dari ans are not dangerous to humans, the venom
from thei r nematocysts causi ng only local pai n and burni ng,
but a few-none of the freshwater speci es-have extremel y
potent venom that can cause death wi thi n a few mi nutes.
Peopl e shoul d never pi ck up jel l yfish al ong beaches. The
tentacl es sti ng even after the jel l yfi sh i s dead; nematocysts
can penetrate rubber gl oves and thi n cl othi ng. A person who
i s stung shoul d get out of the water, scrape the tentacl es off
the skin with a sti ck, and get medi cal attention i mmedi atel y.
nematocysts
undi scharged
di scharged
..
Areas where dangerous cnidarian stings are most l i kel y
1 4
HYDROIDS, l i ke the Portuguese Mon
-
o
-
War and the sti ngi ng
coral s, di scharge a venom that causes i ntense pai n, a rash,
and nausea-rarel y death . The Portuguese Man-o-War i s
t he most dangerous cni dari an al ong t he coasts of North
Ameri ca. I t i s often eaten by the loggerhead Turt l e, whi ch
i s apparent l y not suscept i bl e to the venom.
PORTUGUESE MAN-0-WAR
Physalia physalis
to about 1 0 in. (25 Cm)long
tentacles to about 20 ft. (6 m)long
tropical Atlantic
JELLYFI SHES are mari ne pel agi c cni dari ans that occur in al l
seas of t he worl d. The 200 species range i n si ze from a few
i nches to more than 6 feet in di ameter. The l argest have
tentacl es as much as 1 20 feet l ong. All j el l yfi shes sti ng wi th
nematocysts, but i n most, the venom i s weak and not danger
ous to humans. A few species-most of them graceful swi m
mers that feed on fi sh-re hi ghl y venomous and dangerous.
Mi l d sti ngs cause swel l i ng and bl isters, but potent sti ngs cause
muscul ar spasms, respiratory fai l ure, and even death. Most
venomous is the Sea Wasp that can ki l l a human in less than
a mi nute. I n Austral i a, about 9 percent of the sti ngs from the
j el l yfish are fatal . Some fish are resistant to the venom of
j el l yfi shes and seek shel ter among thei r tentacl es.
believed occasi onal l y responsi bl e for human deoths
1 6
SEA WASP
Chirx Recl
to 3 i n. (75 mm) i n di ameter
I ndi an and South Pacific
ANGLED HYDROMEDUSA
ss
too i n. ( 1 5 mm) in diameter
North Pacific
f
UON'S MANE 0t
SEA BWBIER
Cyanea capi/lata
to 8 ft. (2.4 m) in di ameter
occurs worldwide,
as do si mi l ar species
SEA ANEMONES l ive in oceans throughout the worl d and
are often abundant i n i nterti dal areas . They spend most of
thei r ti me attached to the bottom but can rel ease themsel ves
to creep al ong the bottom or to fl oat. Many speci es are
bri ghtl y col ored. Wi th the nematocysts on thei r tentacl es,
sea anemones are abl e to paral yze smal l ani mal s, but thei r
sti ngs are sel dom dangerous to humans. Sti ngs usual l y cause
onl y i tchi ng or burni ng but occasi onal l y resul t i n swel l i ng or
an open, sl ow-heal i ng sore.
not dangerous
RED STOMPHI A
SEA ANEMONE
Actinio e
q
uina
to 23/, i n. (7 Cm)in di ameter
eastern Atlantic and
Mediterranean
GIANT GREEN ANEMONE
Anthopleura xanthogrammica
to 1 0 in. (25 Cm)i n di ameter
Pacific Coast of Central and North America
1 7
MOLLUSCS
Snai l s, sl ugs, squi d, and octopuses are al l mol l uscs . About
95, 000 speci es of mol l uscs l ive i n mari ne, freshwater, and
terrestri al envi ronments, but al l known venomous species are
mari ne. Several aggressive predatory snai l s, such as the
whel ks, have venomous sal iva but no speci al i zed venom
apparatus. The venom fl ows from the sal ivary gl ands i nto the
wound caused by the raspi ng mouthpart, or radul a.
A number of mari ne snai l s are tetrodotoxi c (see p. 82) ,
probabl y from eati ng toxi c mi croorgani sms. Other snai l s and
sl ugs produce a sl i me on the ski n that repul ses potenti al
predators .
CONE SHELLS are the most venomous snai l s. Most of the
roughl y 500 species l ive al ong coral reefs i n the South Paci fi c.
They burrow by day and feed by ni ght, often on smal l fi sh
that are qui ckl y paral yzed by thei r venom. These snai l s have
a hi ghl y speci al i zed radul a-a series of hol l ow radul ar teeth
(darts) that are fi l l ed wi th venom from the venom gl and.
These darts are fired one at a ti me. A fi ne thread tethers
each dart to the snai l , whi ch then pul l s i n i ts catch l i ke a
fisherman. Each tooth is used onl y once and is i mmedi atel y
repl aced by one of several anci l l ary teeth.
The efect of the venom on peopl e may vary from the
strength of a wasp sti ng to paral ysi s and death. The toxi n
affects the muscl es di rectl y, and death i s caused by heart
fai l ure. Reports suggest that as many as 25 percent of sti ngs
from some speci es are fatal , some wi thi n mi nutes. Among the
most venomous and havi ng accounted for human deaths are
the Geographer Cone and the Texti l e Cone. The bites of
some of the cone shel l s, such as the Cali forni a Cone, that
feed on worms or on other mol l uscs are pai nful but probabl y
not dangerous to humans .
1 8
l i fe threatening
l i fe threateni ng
CALI FORNI A CONE
Conus californicus
to 1 % i n. (41 mm)
central Cal ifornia to
Baja Cal ifornia
not dangerous
TEXTI LE CONE
Conus textile
to about 4 in. ( 1 0 Cm)
South Pacific
GEOGRAPHER CONE
Conus geographus
to 5 in. ( 1 3 Cm)
South Pacific
COURT CONE
Conus aulicus
to 6 in. ( 1 5 Cm)
Indian Ocean
1 9
NUDIBRANCHS, often cal led sea sl ugs, are mari ne snai l s
without shel l s. Most species eat venomous cni dari ans. Some
speci es, l i ke the Sea Li zard, even feed on the Portuguese
Mon-o-War. They swal l ow the nematocysts whol e, and these
unfi red nematocysts accumul ate in areas of the nudi branch's
body surface, usual l y al ong the edges or in the often bri ghtl y
col ored projecti ons or fri nges. These pi l fered nematocysts
then serve as defense weapons for the nudi branchs .
20

,
.
ELEGANT EOLID
Flabellinopsis iodinea
to 3% in. ( 92 mm) long
Pacific Coast of
North America

SEA CLOWN NUDI BRANCH

Triopha catalinae
to 6 i n. (l5 cm)
Pacific Coast of North America
OCTOPUSES and squi ds have mouthparts formi ng a horny
beak. Of the some 650 speci es, onl y the Bl ue Ri nged Octopus
from Austral i a has dangerousl y venomous sal iva. The venom
i s the neurotoxi n tetrodotoxi n (p. 82) that paral yzes prey and
can cause numbness, paral ysi s, and death i n humans. Other
octopuses may i nfl i ct a bite but are not known to Ovenomous.
BLUE RI NGED OCTOPUS
Hapalochlaena maculosa
span of tentacles to about 6 in.
( 1 5 cm)
Australia
beak of octopus
2 1
NEMERTEAN WORMS
These mari ne worms, about 750 species, l i ve in i nterti dal
areas around the worl d. Al so known as ri bbon worms, they
range in si ze from a few i nches to nearl y 1 00 feet l ong. Many
speci es are red, yel l ow, green, whi te, or combi nati ons of
these bright col ors. They have a l ong probosci s that can be
everted and extended. I n some species the probosci s i s armed
with a venomous bri stl el i ke styl et used to paralyze prey,
often other worms. The venom is apparentl y produced by
mucous gl ands in the probosci s sheath. Some species produce
a neurotoxi n; others produce heart toxi ns. Nemerteans are
not known to be dangerous to humans.
22
Amphiporus angulatus
to 6 in. ( 1 5 em) long
Atlantic and Pacific coasts
of North America
proboscis extended
SEGMENTED OR ANNELID WORMS
An unknown number of speci es of segmented mari ne worms
are venomous to humans. Most of the about 8, 000 mari ne
species are harml ess, but at l east one-the Bl ood Worm
has a venomous bi te, causi ng i ntense pai n. A Bl ood Worm's
probosci s is 20 percent the l ength of its body and has four
fangs at i t s ti p. Each fang i s connected t o a venom gl and.
Other worms found worl dwi de and genera
H
y referred to
as Bri stl e Worms or Fi re Worms have hol l ow, venomous spi nes
(setae) on thei r l egs (parapodi a). Bei ng j abbed by setae
causes burni ng, swel l i ng, and numbness, but secondary i nfec
ti on i s the greatest danger.
BLOOD WORM
Glycera sp.
Ia 15 in. (38 em)
bath coasts of U. S.
and Canada
Hermodice carunculata
to 1 0 in. (25 em)
Florida, West I ndi es
ORANGE FI RE WORM
Eurythoe complanata
to 6 i n. (l5 cm)
Florida, Gulf of Mexico,
West Indies
23
ECHINODERMS
Echi noderms, or spi ny-ski nned ani mal s, are a group of about
6, 000 species, al l mari ne and i ncl udi ng the star fi shes, sea
urchi ns, sand dol l ars, and sea cucumbers. They move about
on l arge numbers of tubefeet al ong grooves on thei r body's
arms or di vi si ons, and they repel predators by toxi ns pro
duced i n the gl andul ar skin coveri ng their exoskel eton.
Some of the roughl y 2, 000 species of starfi shes produce
toxi ns pai nful to humans. Among the worst i s the Crown-of
Thorns Starfi sh, whi ch is covered with l ong, sharp, venomous
spi nes . I ts wounds are pai nful and the venom someti mes
causes fever, vomi ti ng, and temporary paral ysi s. Venoms of
others cause a rash.
Acanthaster planci
to 20 in. (50 em)
Indo-Pacifi c Ocean
Solaster stimpsoni
to 1 0 in. (25 em)
North Pacific
SPI NY SUN STAR
So/aster papposus
!oli n. ( 1 8 cm)
northern Pacific and Atl anti c
SUN STAR
So laster dawsoni
to 1 4 i n. (35 em)
North Pacific
LEATHER STAR
Dermasterias imbricata
to 4 in. ( 1 2 em)
North Pacific
25
SEA URCHI NS, about 750 species, ore general l y gl obul ar
and covered wi th spi nes. Scattered among the spi nes, too,
ore pedi cel l ori oe, which ore l i ke ti ny sets of jaws on stal ks.
The ti ps of the jaws i n some types ore l i ke fangs, and they
ore connected to venom gl ands. The pri mary functi on of the
pedi cel l ori oe i s to repel attackers.
In most speci es the spi nes ore bl unt and nonvenomous, but
some hove sl ender, bri ttle, hol l ow, sharp spines connected
with venom gl ands. The venom con cause i ntense pai n, and,
i n a few species, paral ysi s or even death.
26
SEA URCHI N
Toxopneustes pileolus
dangerously
body di ameter to 5 in. ( 1 3 em)
Indo-Pacific
GlANT RED URCHI N
Strongylocentrotus franciscanus
body di ameter to 5 i n. ( 1 2. 7 em)
spines to 3 in. (7. 6 em)
Pacific Coast of U. S.
_LONG-SPI NED URCHI N
Diadema antillarum
body di ameter to 4Y, in. (11 em)
spines to 16 i n. (41 em)
West I ndi es
spines pai nful but not
known to bvenomous
SEA CUCUMBERS, about 500 species, have a sausagel i ke
body and a ri ng of tentacl es around thei r mouth. Some are
bri ghtl y col ored and produce toxi ns that repel predators .
Toxi ns are l ocated in the ski n and in the tubul es of Cuvi er
attached to the respi ratory tree. When a sea cucumber i s
attacked, i t may spew out its tubul es of Cuvi er i n a sti cky
net. Some sea cucumbers are dangerousl y toxi c i f eaten .
If the toxi ns get i nto the mouth or eyes, bl i ndness or even
death can resul t.
CALI FORNI A STICHOPUS
Parastichopus califomicus
to 1 6 i n. (41 em) long
Pacific Coast of
North America
Psolus fabricii
to 4 i n. (1 0 em) l ong
North Atl antic
HAI RY SEA CUCUMBER
Sclerodactyla briareus
to 4:. i n. ( 1 2 em) l ong
Atlantic Coast of North America
27
SPIDERS
About 37, 000 species of spi ders have been named so far. Al l
spi ders have a pai r of fangs on thei r jaws (chel i cerae), and
ducts from a pai r of venom gl ands l ocated i n the head l ead
to the hol l ow fangs. Spi ders use the venom ei ther to ki l l or to
paral yze thei r prey. The venom of onl y a few speci es i s
dangerous to humans, but the venom of some 50 speci es i n
the United States and many more worl dwi de have caused
pai n and di scomfort i n humans.
Based on the arrangement of their jaws, spiders are divided
i nto two groups: mygal omorphs, which have jaws attached
at the front of the head and stri ke downward wi th thei r fangs;
and true spiders, whi ch have j aws attached bel ow the head
and strike si deways wi th thei r fangs that meet and cross in
the mi ddl e.
Spi ders can be kept out of homes and other bui l di ngs by
getti ng rid of the i nsects on whi ch they feed. An abnormal
fear of spi ders i s cal l ed arachnophobi a. Arachni d refers to
spi ders, scorpi ons, mi tes, ticks, and harvestmebout
75, 000 known species in al l .
Fangs of a true spider (Black Widow), photographed with a scanni ng el ectron
microscope
FUNNELWEB SPIDERS are mygal omorph spi ders that
entangl e thei r prey i n sheets of si l k. A few speci es occur i n
Europe, and about ten speci es are found i n the Uni ted
States . None of these i s known to be dangerous. Most
speci es l i ve i n the tropi cs of the Southern Hemi sphere, and
some have potent venoms. The neurotoxi c venom of some
Austral i an speci es causes several human deaths per year,
but nonfatal bi tes do not cause permanent nerve damage.
Mal es are about five t i mes more venomous t han femal es
and are especi al l y aggressi ve. Some South Ameri can spe

ci es al so are aggressi ve and have caused human deaths.

Atrax robustus
to 1 % i n. (40 mm)
southeastern Austral i a
TREE-DWELLING
FUNNELWEB SPI DER
Atrax formidabilis
to 23/s i n. (60 mm)
southeastern Austral i a
29
TARANTULAS, whi ch bel ong to a group known as bi rd
spi ders or hai ry mygal omorphs, are the l argest of al l spi ders.
One South Ameri can speci es has a l eg span of 1 0 i nches.
These spi ders are found on al l conti nents. About 30 species
l ive i n the Uni ted States, and whil e none of these i s dangerous
to humans, their bites are pai nful . Some from New Gui nea,
Austral i a, South Ameri ca, and Afri ca are dangerousl y ven
omous, and occasi onal l y a dangerous speci es enters the
Uni ted States i n fruit shi pments. They are someti mes sold in
pet shops, too. Thei r venom i s essenti al l y neurotoxi c but al so
afects heart muscle and digests tissue. Tarantul as have sharp,
barbed hai rs on thei r abdomen. These urti cati ng, or sti ngi ng
hai rs cause ski n i rri tati on and may give of toxi c secreti ons.
Many of these l arge spi ders feed on smal l vertebrates, i ncl ud
i ng mi ce, bi rds, frogs, l i zards, and snakes-ven poi sonous
speci es.
A tarantula's fangs, photographed with a scanni ng electron microscope
30
GUATEMALAN TARANTULA
Stichoplastus spinulosus
to I/s in. (41 mm)
Guatemal a
eati ng a shrew ki l led by venom
A tarantula's stinging hairs, photographed with a scanning el ectron mi croscope
31
Euthalus smithii
to 27/a i n. (71 mm)
Mexico
TEXAS BROWN
TARANTULA
Rhechostica hentzi
to 2 in. (50 mm)
southwestern U. S.
CHILIAN PI NK TARANTULA
Grammostola spatulata
to 2Ya in. (54 mm)
Chi l e
PINK-TOED
BI RD-EATI NG SPI DER
Avicularia avicularia
to 1 % i n. (34 mm)
Amazon regi on
CURLY-HAI RED
TARANTULA
Euthalus albipilasa
to 2 i n. (52 mm)
Central America
33
BROWN RECLUSE spi ders bel ong to the true spi der group,
as do the fol l owing (pp. 35-37) . Most true spi ders (nearl y
37,000 speci es) have fangs too short or venom too weak to
i nj ure humans. Only about 80 speci es worl dwi de are capabl e
of i njecti ng venom i n humans.
The Brown Recl use, one of the two dangerous spi ders i n
the United States, i s most common i n t he southern states but
may l ive i n bui l di ngs throughout the country. The Brown
Recl use and rel ated species have been acci dental l y i ntro
duced around the worl d. The bi tes of many or al l of these
spi ders i ni ti al l y burn and itch, or occasi onal l y cause no di s
tress at al l . The area around the bi te then turns red (or bl ack
and bl ue) as the ti ssue around the bi te i s di gested away and
fal l s of. The acti on of the venom of the Brown Recl use and
rel ated spi ders i s referred to as "l oxoscel i sm, " after the
sci enti fi c name of these spi ders. Another common name of
the Brown Recl use i s the Fi ddleback because of the dark
fiddl e-shaped mark on the back.
BROWN RECLUSE
Loxosceles reclusa
to '/ D. ( 1 1 mm)
North America
3
WI DOWS of si x species occur nearl y everywhere in the worl d
but are most common i n warm regi ons. Femal es of some of
the wi dows have a venomous bi te. Best known of these i s the
Bl ack Wi dow, abundant i n warm regi ons around human
dwel l i ngs-speci al l y wood pi l es, stone wal l s, and outsi de
toi l ets. Most of the wi dows are shi ny bl ack wi th red marki ngs
on the abdomen. The Bl ack Wi dow has a red hourgl ass
shaped mark on the bel ly. The Bl ack Wi dow's neurotoxi c
venom often produces a pai nl ess bi te that i s fol l owed l ater
by cramps i n the chest, abdomen, and muscl es and someti mes
by nausea, reduced heart rate, and shock. Ful l recovery can
take a month or l onger. About 5 peopl e of every 1 00 bi tten
di e. Poi soni ng by a wi dow's venom i s cal l ed "l atrodecti sm. "

/
~

BLACK WI DOW
Latrodectus mactans
to obout in. ( 1 5 mm)
North America
the same or cl osel y
rel ated species occur
nearly worl dwide
RED-BACK SPI DER
Latrodectus hasseltii
to about in. ( 1 5 mm)
Austral i a
35
WOLF SPI DERS of about 3, 000 species are l argel y confined
to the Northern Hemi sphere. About 200 species occur i n the
Uni ted States. None i s dangerous, but the bites of some
species cause l ocal i zed pai n, swel l i ng, and l i ght-headedness.
The tarantel l a, a l ivel y I tal i an fol k dance, was bel i eved to ri d
the body of a wol f spi der's venom.
WOLF SPI DER
Trebacosa sp.
to i n. ( 9 mm)
Guatemal a
femal e with spi derl i ngs
JUMPI NG SPI DERS are smal l and usual l y brightl y col ored.
About 300 of the some 5, 000 species occur in the United
States. Some have been reported to give pai nful bi tes, with
reacti on to the venom l asti ng up to two weeks. None is
dangerousl y venomous.
36
JUMPING SPI DER
Salticus scenicus
to about V2 in. ( 1 3 mm)
Europ and North America
DARI NG JUMPI NG SPI DER
Phidippus audax
to 'in. ( 1 5 mm)
eastern to thi rds of North America
WANDERI NG SPI DERS of some 550 speci es l ive in tropi cal
regi ons. They hunt on the ground or in vegetati on and do not
buil d webs . The venom of some species i s high i n serotoni n,
whi ch affects the nervous system and causes a very pai nful
bi te.
GARDEN SPI DERS are l arge common spi ders. Thei r bi tes
cause pai n, smal l open wounds, and symptoms suggestive of
a neurotoxi n, but they are probabl y not seri ousl y dangerous.
Garden spi ders are members of the orb-weaver fami l y con
tai ni ng about 3, 500 speci es. Onl y about 1 80 speci es occur
i n the Uni ted States.
BLACK-AND- YELLOW
GARDEN SPI DER
Argiope aurantia
about 1 in. (25 mm)
Oregan, Cal iforni a, and
eastern U. S.
37
CENTIPEDES
Al l members of one group of centi pedes, the scol opendro
morphs (about 500 species), are venomous to some degree.
These centi pedes are nearl y worl dwi de in di stri buti on . Thei r
fi rst pai r of "l egs" i s modi fi ed i nto hol l ow fangs (see p. 5),
each wi th a venom gl and at i ts base. Prey are sei zed and
hel d wi th the fangs as the centi pede feeds . Large cen
tipedes-some to 1 2 i nches l ong-may ki l l and feed on smal l
bi rds, mammal s, l i zards, snakes, and frogs. Al l centi pedes
eat i nsects and other arthropods.
Centi pede bites produce a burni ng pai n, those from l arge
speci es causi ng nausea and temporary paral ysi s. Deaths
have occurred. Claw scratches of some speci es may cause
pai n due to toxi ns produced by gl ands i n the wal ki ng l egs.
Some centipedes are colored bright red, orange, bl ue, green,
or yel l ow; others are brown or bl ack.
BANDED CENTI PEDE
Scolopendra polymorpha
to 5 in. ( 1 25 mm)
southwestern U. S.
GIANT NORTH AMERICAN CENTI PEDE
Scolopendro heros
to 7 in. ( 1 72 mm)
southern U. S.
BLUE-TAILED CENTI PEDE
Scolopendra sp.
to 2 i n. (53 mm)
Texas
39
MILLIPEDES
Mi l l i pedes defend themselves by secreting toxi ns from gl ands
either al ong the si des of the body or the mi ddl e of the back
or both. Many of the secreti ons are anti bi oti c, preventi ng
growths of bacteri a or fungi , and probabl y evolved for that
purpose. Others are sticky when secreted but harden upon
contact with the ai r. Thei r shel l -l i ke coati ng hel ps protect
mi l l i pedes from ants and other smal l predators. The secre
ti ons of sti l l other mi l l i pedes paral yze spi ders, mi ce, and
other creatures . More than 30 toxi ns have been i denti fied
from about 60 speci es. Among the toxi ns known i n mi l l i pedes
are hydrogen cyani de, formi c aci d, aceti c aci d, benzal de
hyde, and phenol . Most of the worl d's about 8, 000 speci es
have not been exami ned. Mi l l i pedes are not known to be
dangerous to humans.
YELLOW AND BLACK MILLIPEDE
unidentified
to 5 i n. ( 1 25 mm)
Mexico and Central America
40
YELLOW SPOTTED MILLI PEDE
Sigmoria Q.
to 1u :n. (36 mm)
North Carol ina
WHIP SCORPIONS
Whi p scorpi ons of about 85 species range throughout Cen
tral and South America, Asi a, and i nto the southern United
States . They do not sting or have a venomous bi te. They do
spray i rri tants from anal gl ands l ocated at the base of the
whi p, however. The United States species sprays aceti c aci d
that smel l s l i ke vi negar, l eadi ng to the common name Vi ne
garcon. Other speci es spray formi c aci d or chl ori ne. The
spray i s not dangerous but i s efective i n repel l i ng mi ce,
bi rds, and other smal l predators.
VINEGAROON
Mastigoproctus giganteus
to 3V, in. (8 em)
southern U. S.
41
SCORPIONS
Scorpi ons of roughl y 1 , 200 species are nearl y worl dwide i n
di stri buti on, but most speci es occur i n dry, warm regi ons. A
pai r of venom gl ands is l ocated in the sti nger, whi ch is the
l ast segment of the tai l . These gl ands are connected by ducts
to the sharp tip of the stinger (see p. 7) . When scorpi ons
sti ng, muscl es i n the sti nger cause venom to be i nj ected i nto
the wound. Scorpi ons use the venom to ki l l prey and to defend
themsel ves.
Fewer than 50 species of scorpi ons are known to be
dangerous to humans. The greatest ri sk from these species is
to smal l chi ldren, as many as 50 percent of the sti ngs causi ng
fatal i ti es . Scorpi on sti ngs are sel dom fatal to heal thy adul ts.
not dangerously venomous
TROPICAL CENTRUROI DES
Centruroides gracilis
to 3Y, in. (83 mm)
Texas to South America
Centruroides sculpturafus
to 2' in. (69 mm)
Arizona, western New Mexico,
southeastern Cal i fornia and
adjacent Mexico
42
SCULPTURED CENTRUROI DES is the onl y one of the 20 to
30 species of scorpi ons i n the Uni ted States known to be
dangerous to humans . Its sti ng causes severe pai n, sal ivati on,
paral ysi s, and convul si ons . Deaths are not common but do
occur, especi al l y i n chi l dren. Other Uni ted States speci es,
even members of the same genus, have pai nful sti ngs but do
not represent a seri ous threat.
PELLENCI O DIPLOCENTRUS
Diplocenfrvs pellencioensis
to 2% in. (65 mm)
New Mexico
STRI PE-TAI LED VEJOVI S
Vejovis spinigerus
to 2 in. (52 mm)
southwestern U. S.
DANGEROUS SCORPIONS occur in North Afri ca and the
Middle East, southern Afri ca, I ndi a, Mexi co, and South
Ameri ca. Sti ngs of these species cause i ntense l ocal pai n and
swel l i ng, fol l owed by convul si ons, paral ysi s, and sometimes
death. Death may occur wi thi n only a few mi nutes or after
several days. Typi cal ly, species with sl ender, weak pi ncers
are dangerous; those wi th strong, heavy pi ncers have mi l d
venoms that may cause i ntense pai n but ore not l ethal .
4
Pandinis imperator
to 7 i n. ( l80 mm)
Africa
Stings of the four scorpions shown here are
painful but nat l ife threateni ng.
.
CAPE BURROWING SCORPION
Opisthophthalmus capensis
to JY2 i n. (90 mm)
southern Africa
PALE LEGGED SCORPION
Opisthophthalmus pallidipes
to 4 i n. ( 1 00 mm)
southern Africa
45
bLLKFlLMb
46
CAPE THI CK-TAILED SCORPION
Parabuthus capensis
to 2V. in. (55 mm)
southern Africa
Some members of this genus are said to be
able to spray venom into the eyes of a victim
at a di stance of 3 feet.
SHORT-HANDED THI CK-TAI LED
SCORPION
Parabuthus granulatus
to 4V, i n. ( 1 1 5 mm)
southern Africa
CARINATED THI CK-TAI LED
SCORPION
Uroplectes carinatus
to 1 % in. (40 mm)
southern Africa
Buthus occitanus
to 3 in. (75 mm)
Mediterranean and
North Africa
HOUSE SCORPION
47
INSECTS
Nearl y three fourths of al l the known speci es of ani mal s are
i nsects. I nsects have si x l egs, and most ki nds have to pai rs
of wi ngs . They ei ther produce or retai n from thei r food a
bewi l deri ng array of chemi cal substances that are used to
subdue prey or to repel predators . A number of i nsects have
evolved resistance to the pesti ci des devel oped to control
them. In a few cases, the i nsects even retai n the chemi cal s
and uti l i ze them i n thei r own defensive secreti ons.
Many i nsects, such as mosqui toes, bl ack fl i es, horse fl i es,
and some bugs, bi te and feed on the bl ood of humans and
other ani mal s. Many of these speci es transmi t di seases such
as mal ari a, yel l ow fever, sl eepi ng si ckness, and Chagas'
di sease to humans. Sal iva rel eased i n the bi te wound some
ti mes causes an al l ergi c reacti on or mi l d pai n. These i nsects
are not treated i n this book.
Other i nsects ki l l prey wi th a venomous sal iva (pri mari l y
the true bugs, p. 49) or are equi pped wi th sti ngers that i nj ect
venom from speci al i zed gl ands at the rear of the body (bees,
wasps, and ants, pp. 50-57) . These venoms may al so pro
duce very pai nful reacti ons i n humans.
Some i nsects repel predators by toxi ns. These chemi cal s
may be associ ated wi th speci al l y modified bri stl es (caterpi l
l ars and moths, pp. 58-59) or produced i n gl ands that empty
onto the surface of the body (beetl es and bugs, p. 62) .
I nsects that feed on poisonous pl ants normal l y concentrate
the toxi ns from their food i n thei r body tissues, and this makes
them i nedi bl e to bi rds and other predators ( but ter
fl i es, moths, beetl es, and bugs, pp. 60-61 ) .
A few i nsects not onl y produce toxi c chemi cal s but al so
have speci al chambers from whi ch these chemi cal s can be
sprayed onto attackers (beetl es, caterpi l l ars, and earwi gs,
p. 63) .
48
VENOMOUS SALIVA i s produced by a number of i nsects,
most notabl y the true bugs (hemi pterans) that puncture thei r
prey wi th a beak (probosci s) and then i nj ect the sal iva that
both ki l l s and then di gests the ani mal . The bugs then suck out
the di gested contents of thei r ki l l . Pri mari l y they eat other
i nsects, but they wi l l bi te l arge ani mal s, i ncl udi ng humans, i n
defense. The l arvae of some aquati c beetl es feed i n a si mi l ar
manner and al so produce pai nful bites i n humans.
COMMON BACKSWIMMER
Notoooctooodo/oto
to !:i n. (13 mm)
North America
WHEEL BUG
Arilus cristatus
to I/si n. (36 mm)
eastern to thi rds of
North America
GIANT WATER BUG
Ietccomsomoncooos
to 2in. (mm)
North America
PREDACEOUS
DIVING BEETLE LARVA
scosvottico/|s
O in. (4mm)
eastern North America
4
STI NGI NG I NSECTS ki l l approxi matel y 25 peopl e per year
i n the Uni ted States. Most peopl e who di e are al l ergi c t o the
venom, and death often occurs wi thi n a few mi nutes . Honey
bees account for about 50 percent of the fatal i ti es. Yel l ow
Jackets and other wasps account for nearly al l of the remai n
i ng deaths. Ant sti ngs are rarel y l ethal . Onl y femal es have
sti ngers, whi ch are modified egg-l ayi ng structures (oviposi
tors) . Soci al hymenopterans, such as Honeybees, sti ng i n
defense of thei r nest and ore more l i kel y t o attack i ntruders
than ore sol i tary wasps that use thei r venom pri mari l y to
paral yze i nsect or spider prey to provi si on their nests. The
wasp l arvae eat the paral yzed prey duri ng thei r devel op
ment. Sti ngi ng i nsects seem to be attracted to strong per
fumes and bri ght cl othi ng.
HONEYBEES and thei r aggressive and more dangerous rel
ative the Afri can Honeybee (someti mes referred to as the
Ki l l er Bee) protect thei r hives by attacki ng i ntruders i n num
ber. The attackers are steri l e females wi th barbed stingers
that remai n i n the vi ct i m. The rear of the abdomen pul l s out
with the venom gl and, whi ch contracts-i nj ecti ng i ts contents
i nto the i ntruder. The nest i s thereby protected even though
the i ndi vi dual bees di e. Honeybees ore not nati ve to North
America but were i ntroduced by earl y settl ers . They l ive i n
col oni es that may contai n as many as 80, 000 i ndi vi dual s.
HONEYBEE
Apis mellifera
worker to !:i n. ( 1 2 mm)
queen to t i n. (20 mm)
nearly worldwide
50
OTHER BEES native to North Ameri ca are mostl y sol i tary
(except bumbl ebees) . Each femal e provi si ons her own nest
wi th pol l en . Bumbl ebees l i ve i n much smal l er col oni es than
do Honeybees . Native North Ameri can bees do not have
barbed sti ngers and may therefore sti ng more than once.
RED-TAI LED BUMBLEBEE
Bombus borealis
worker to :i n. ( 1 8 mm}
queen to '/si n. (23 mm}
east coast of northern U. S.
ond Canada
VI RESCENT GREEN METALLIC BEE
Agapostemon virescens
to V2 i n. ( 1 2 mm}
eastern North America
GOLDEN NORTHERN BUMBLEBEE
Bombus feridus
worker ta 'i n. ( 1 8 mm}
queen to% i n. (23 mm}
North America
FAI THFUL LEAF-CUTTING BEE
Megachile fidelis
ta V2 i n. ( 1 2 mm}
western hal l of U. S.
Honeybee stinger, photographed with a
scanni ng electron mi croscope. Note the
barbs.
51
SOCI AL WASPS, l i ke Honeybees, attack in groups to defend
thei r nests, but unl i ke Honeybees, they can sti ng repeatedl y
without dyi ng. Their venoms are neurotoxic, consisting l argely
of hi stami ne and serotoni n. Their stings are very pai nful but
are not dangerous unl ess a person i s stung a great many
ti mes or i s al l ergi c.
GIANT HORNET
Vespa crabro
to Iy, i n. (30 mm)
introduced to eastern U. S.
Stinger of a wasp, photographed with a scanni ng electron microscope
Mischocyttarus flavitarsus
to i n. ( 1 7 mm)
western North America
SANDHI LLS HORNET
Vespulo arenaria
to :i n. (20 mm)
northern U. S. , Canada,
and Al aska
PAPER WASP
Po/istes sp.
to 1 i n. (25 mm)
Americas
53
SOLI TARY WASPS are usual l y not aggressi ve, sti ngi ng onl y
i f attacked or captured. Many of these wasps are l arge and
have powerful venom, but because of thei r mi l d tempera
ments, they are not dangerous to peopl e.
THI STLEDOWN VELVET-ANT
Dasymutilla gloriosa
to % i n. ( 1 6 mm)
southwestern U. S. ond Mexico
COW KILLER
Dasymutilla magnifica
to i n. (21 mm)
southwestern U. S. and Mexico
TARANTULA HAWK
Pepsis sp.
to 1% i n. (40 mm)
U. S. to Central America
54
EASTERN SAND WASP
Bembix americana
to % i n. ( 1 6 mm)
North America
Sceliphron caementarium
to 1 '+ i n. (30 mm)
North America
POTTER WASP
Eumenes fraterus
ta Z4 i n. (20 mm)
eastern North America
55
ANTS are fl i ghtl ess rel atives of bees and wasps. Ants are
found throughout the worl d, with most species occurri ng i n
the tropi cs. Reproducti ve ants have wi ngs but shed them after
they mate and swarm. The pri mary venom of ants i s formi c
aci d, whi ch bl ocks the respi ratory mechani sm of other i nsects
and i s very pai nful to peopl e and other vertebrates.
In the Uni ted States, the most aggressive and dangerous
are fi re ants and harvester ants. An esti mated 2V2 mi l l i on
peopl e are stung each month i n the United States by fire
ants. Many of these tiny ants wil l crawl onto an i ntruder, and
the first ant to sti ng rel eases a chemi cal si gnal i ng al l the other
ants to sti ng. I ntroduced acci dental l y to the United States
from Brazi l , the Tropi cal Fi re Ant makes mounds 2 feet in
di ameter and as much as 3 feet hi gh. Hundreds of thousands
of ants l ive i n a si ngl e mound.
TROPICAL FI RE ANT
Solenopsis geminata
to '+ i n. (6 mm)
southwestern U. S. and
Pacific Coast
A Tropical Fi re Ant, photographed with a scanning electron microscope
ROUGH HARVESTER ANT
Pogonomyrmex rugO$u$
to Y2 in. ( 1 3 mm)
southwestern U. S.
Formica sp.
to Y2 i n. ( 1 3 mm)
North America
ACACI A ANTS l ive in the Ameri cas and in Afri ca where they
nest i n hol l ow growths produced by the acaci as. These hi ghl y
aggressive ants i nfl i ct very pai nful sti ngs that protect the
acacias from ani mal s that woul d otherwise eat the l eaves.
American Ant Acacia African Ant Acacia
57
STI NGI NG HAI RS occur on hundreds (perhaps even thou
sands) of speci es of moths and butterfl ies . I n most they are
found onl y i n the l arval or caterpi l l ar stages, but a few adul t
moths are protected by sti ngi ng scal es. As i n spi ders, they
cause a rash. In caterpi l l ars, these urti cati ng hai rs are stif
and sharp, and some are barbed and hol l ow, with venom
transmi tted from sacs at thei r base. little i s known about the
venoms i nvolved, but some consi st of a histami nel i ke sub
stance or formi c aci d. Both compounds produce a burni ng
pai n when i ntroduced i nto the ski n. Common symptoms are
fever, i nfl ammati on, and nausea, but a few peopl e have di ed
as a resul t of caterpi l l ar sti ngs, probabl y due to al l ergi c
reacti ons. Many hai ry caterpi l l ars l i ke the ones i l l ustrated
here are very pai nful to touch, but other species that appear
to have spi nes are harmless .
These caterpi
l l
ar s have spi ky hai rs that are
em
b
e
dd
e
d
in vi cti ms wi th a rapi
d
thrashi ng
moti on o
f
t
h
e
f
ront
h
a
l f
o
f
the
b
o
d
y.
STI NGI NG CATERPI LLAR
Gonometo podocorpi
to 3 i n. (75 mm)
Kenya
SADDLEBACK CATERPI LLAR
Sibine stimulea
to l i n. (25 mm)
eastern U. S.
PUSS MOTH CATERPI LLAR
Megalopyge sp.
to about l i n. (25 mm)
U. O.
1 0 MOTH CATERPI LLAR
Automeris io
to 3 in. (75 mm)
eastern North America
-WHITE-MARKED
TUSSOCK MOTH
Orgyia leucostigma
to l '+ i n. [33 mm)
eastern t wo t hi rds o
f
Nort
h
Ameri ca
URTICATING CATERPI LLAR
59
DI STASTEFUL AND POI SONOUS I NSECTS Many pl ants
produce powerful toxi ns that prevent them from bei ng eaten.
Thi s is general l y efective agai nst mammal s, but many i nsects
have devel oped a resi stance to the toxi ns. They eat the
pl ants, and the toxi ns concentrate i n their ti ssues . As a resul t,
these i nsects become poi sonous to predators . Many have
bri ght col orati on that adverti ses thei r di stasteful ness .
SMALL WHI RLIGIG BEETLE
Gyrinus sp.
to y, in. (7 mm)
North America
COLORADO POTATO BEETLE
Leptinotarsa decimlineata
to y, i n. ( 1 1 mm)
North America
GOLDEN NET-WI NG BEETLE
Lycostomus loripes
to i n. (9 mm)
Arizona

RATTLEBOX MOTH
Utetheisa bella
!O 1 + i n. (46 mm)
North America
CI NNABAR MOTH CATERPI LLAR
Callimorpha ;acobaeae
!O 1 y, i n. ( 31 mm)
introduced i nto U. S. and
Canada from Europe
Caterpi l lars accumulate al kal oi ds
from the ragworl pl ant (Senecio
;acobaeae) .
Chelymorpha cassidea
to Y2 i n. ( 1 3 mm)
North America
Species that feed on mi l kweed (Asclepias) concentrate
and use toxi ns from the plant to repulse predators.
61
POI SONOUS BODY FLUI DS and gl andul ar secreti ons pro
duced by many i nsects repel predators. They vary from the
odor of sti nkbugs to the i rri tati ng fluids of bl ister beetl es.
These substances may be dangerous to humans if eaten. Thi s
i s especi al l y true of the canthari di n produced by bl i ster
beetl es. The chemi cal severel y i rritates the uri nary tract .
There are reports of peopl e even bei ng afected after eati ng
frogs that had made meal s of these beetl es.
STRIPED BLISTER BEETLE
SPANI SH FLY
62
NUTTALL BLISTER BEETLE
Lytta nuttal/ii
to 1 Yo in. (28 mm)
western North America
I NSECTS THAT SPRAY TOXI NS use these chemi cal s to repel
attackers. The compounds usual l y i rri tate the mouth l i ni ng
and eyes, often causi ng temporary bl i ndness . Bombardi er
Beetl es spray boi l i ng hot chemi cal s (qui nones) produced by
an expl osi on i n a speci al i zed chamber at the rear of the
body. These sprays erupt wi th an audi bl e poppi ng sound and
can bl i ster the ski n of humans and smal l predators.
Some darkl i ng beetles spray qui nones wi th smal l expl o
si ons and posture i n a characteristic head-stand whi l e spray
i ng. Other beetl es and some ants spray formi c aci ds.
Caterpi l l ar ejects formi c acid fram fi l aments an abomen.
TENTACLED CATERPI LLAR
Cerura sp.
to l '+ in. (33 mm)
North America ond Europe
BOMBARDI ER BEETLE
Eleodes tricosfafo
to % i n. { 1 5 mm)
southwestern U. S.
MI MI CRY is a protecti on derived from resembl i ng another
organi sm-the mi mi c l ooki ng l i ke the model . A predator
cannot di sti ngui sh one from the other. Mi mi cry i s quite com
mon i n i nsects. There are three common forms: ( 1 ) Speci al
Resembl ance, i n which an i nsect l ooks l i ke a thorn, sti ck,
rock, or some other i nedi bl e obj ect; (2) Batesi an Mi mi cry, i n
whi ch an edi bl e i nsect resembl es an i nedi bl e i nsect; and (3)
Mul l eri an Mi mi cry, i n which to i nedi bl e species resembl e
each other, such as the yel l ow-and-bl ack col or patterns of
wasps .
ANT-MIMIC SPI DER
Castianeira sp.
to /s i n. ( 1 0 mm)
southeastern U. S.
VI CEROY
Limenitis archippus
to 2/i n. (70 mm) wingspan
U. S. and Canada

ANT-MIMIC JUMPI NG SPI DER

Peckhamia picoto
to y, i n. (5 mm)
eastern U. S. and Canada
mi mi cs the Monarch (p. 61 )
mi mi cs and al so eats
bumblebees {p. 5 1 )
DRONE FLY
Eristolis tenax
to % i n. ( 1 6 mm)
North America
DOLLS CLEARWI NG MOTH
Paranthrene do/Iii
to 'si n. (23 mm)
Atlantic Coast of U. S.
Laphria sackeni
to '/si n. (23 mm)
Oregon and Cal ifornia
65
FISHES
More than hal f of al l the worl d's ani mal s wi th backbones
(vertebrates) are fishes, total i ng more than 21 , 500 speci es.
They bel ong to four di sti nctl y di fferent vertebrate cl asses .
A l arge number of fi shes produce toxi ns or are venomous,
but onl y a smal l percentage are covered i n thi s book.
LAMPREYS ( Cl ass Cephal aspi domorphi , 36 speci es) and
Hagfi shes ( Cl ass Myxi ni , 32 speci es) are eel - l i ke and j aw

l ess. Both secrete toxi c ski n sl i me. Al so, the uncooked

bl ood of these and vari ous true eel s (bony fi sh, p. 72) ,
such as common, conger, moray and snake eel s , is toxi c.
The bl ood has a burni ng bi tter taste, i rri tates t he eyes, and
can cause death i f eaten . The toxi n prevents coagul ati on
of bl ood and causes i nternal bl eedi ng.
0
Myxine glutinosa
Lampetra planeri
to 6 i n. ( 1 6 em)
Europ
to about 32 in. (80 em)
Atlantic Ocean
MOTTLED EEL
Echidna nebulosa
to 2Y2 ft. (75 em)
Indo-Pacifi c, Chi na
Gymnothorox moringo
to 3 ft. ( 1 0 em)
Atl anti c Ocean
Gymnothorax nigromarginatus
to 2 ft. (60 em)
Gulf of Mexico
Gymnothorax pictus
to 2Y2 ft. (75 em)
Indo-Pacific
RAYS, skates, sharks, and chi maeras are members of the
Cl ass Chondri chthyes, and they have skeletons of carti l age
rather than bone. Many speci es have venomous spi nes, and
many al so have poisonous l ivers. A few have poi sonous fl esh.
The roughl y 320 species of rays and skates occur in seas
throughout the worl d. Two species l ive i n fresh water in South
America.
Sti ngrays are a hazard to peopl e wadi ng in shal l ow, warm
seas. I n the Uni ted States al one, about 750 peopl e are stung
every year, but very few deaths resul t. Sti ngrays have a
serrated (saw-toothed) spi ne on the upper surface of the tai l ,
and when the tai l i s l ashed, thi s spi ne cuts i nto the vi cti m. A
gl andul ar ski n coveri ng the spi ne or sti ng produces a venom,
and some of the venom remai ns in the wound when the spi ne
i s wi thdrawn. Sti ngs cause i ntense pai n fol l owed by l oss of
bl ood pressure and an erratic heartbeat. Largest is the I ndo
Paci fi c Smooth Sti ngray-up to 7 feet wide and 1 5 feet l ong,
wi th a sti ng to as much as 1 foot l ong. Some el ectri c rays are
as much as 6 feet l ong and wei gh over 200 pounds. Whi l e
not venomous, they can generate shocks as great as 220
vol ts-nough to stun an adul t human.
68

sting of Bat Ray

Myliobatis australis
to more than 4 ft. ( 1 30 em) wide
Austral i a
Potamotrygon reticulatus
to 20 in. (50 em) wide
South America
sting of Freshwater Stingray
BLUE-SPOTTED STI NGRAY
Taeniura lymma
to 6 ft. (2 m) long
Indo-Pacific
YELLOW STINGRAY
sting of Yel l ow Stingray
sting of Blue-spotted Stingray
Narcine brasiliensis
to 1 8 in. (46 em) l ong
Atlantic, U. S. to South America
0
SHARKS of about 370 species occur in oceans throughout
the worl d. Some have venom gl ands i n the ski n coveri ng the
spines near their fi ns. The occasi onal attacks of sharks on
swi mmers represent a greater danger to humans than do
those wi th venom, however.
70
HORN SHARK
Heterodontus francisci
to 4 ft. ( 1 . 2 m)
coast of Cal ifornia
CHI MAERAS, al so known as ratfi shes, are odd-l ooki ng
members of the Cl ass Chondri chthyes. Al l of the 23 species
are mari ne and are most common i n temperate waters.
Venom from gl ands associ ated wi th at l east the dorsal fi n
spi nes can cause extremel y pai nful puncture wounds. Rat
fishes can al so give severe but not venomous bi tes .
RATFI SH
Hydrolagus colliei
to 3 ft. ( l m)
Pacific Coast of North America
dorsal spine of Ratfish
71
BONY F| 5HE5(Cl ass Ostei chthyes) of some 20, 750 species
are common throughout the world i n both fresh and sal t
waters. Many species have venomous spi nes, others have
toxi c ski n secreti ons, and at least one has a venomous bi te.
CAIF| 5H5of about 2, 400 speci es occur nearl y throughout
the worl d i n fresh waters and tropi cal oceans. Most of them
have venomous spi nes, and the spi nes, at l east on the pec
toral and dorsal fi ns, are usual l y toothed, or serrated. Many
species al so are heavi l y armored with spi nes al ong the body.
The fin spi nes and dorsal spi nes of many species can be
l ocked in an erect positi on. Al so, the spi nes of some species
are hol l ow and i nject venom i nto wounds. Stings are pai nful
and cause deadeni ng, but most species are not known to be
seri ous heal th hazards to humans.
Notorus insignis
to 4 in. ( 1 01 mm)
eastern U. S.
BRI NDLED MADTOM
Notorus miurus
to 5 in. ( 1 27 mm)
Mississippi River drainage to Canada
72
These and other members of the genus Notorus in the U. S. give
painful but not dangerous puncture wounds with their spines.
bLU1H MbKlLML1IbHbb
Pimelodus maculatus
to about 5 in. ( 1 27 mm)
Brazi l
Agamyxis pectinifons
to about 3 in. (76 mm)
Ecuador
Pterygoplichthys gibbiceps
to about 20 in. (50 mm)
Brazi l
pectoral spine
of Agamyxis
73
KlLM L1lbHbb
74
Mochokiella paynei
to 4 in. ( l O cm)
West Africo
MARI NE CATFI SH are among the most venomous of al l
fishes. Gl ands suppl y both the dorsal and pectoral spi nes
with venom that i s both neurotoxi c and hemotoxi c. The potent
toxi n has been responsi bl e for human deaths .
MARI NE CATFISH
Plotosus lineatus
to 1 2 in. (30 Cm)
Indo-Pacific
I NDI AN CATFI SHES are al so deadl y venomous and al l eg
edl y attack and sti ng peopl e i n the water.
I NDIAN CATFISH
Heteropneustes fossilis
to 1 0 i n. (25 Cm)
Indi a to Vietnam
75
SCORPI ONFI SHES and thei r rel atives (about 1 , 000 species)
occur in shal l ow mari ne waters throughout the worl d. The
venom i s produced by gl ands al ong the spi ne or at their base,
and i ts strength vari es greatl y. Some have grooved venom
spi nes l ocated on the head and al l fi ns. Scorpionfishes often
posture the body and jab spi nes i nto thei r victi ms. The sti ngs
cause severe pai n or death . The Stone Fi sh from Austral i a
has the l argest venom gl and of any fi sh and i s recogni zed as
such a hazard that an antiveni n has been devel oped.
STONE FI SH
Synanceja horida
to 1 2 in. (30 cm)
Austral i a, Indo-Pacific,
and Red Sea
TIGER ROCKFI SH
Sebastes nigrocinclus
to 24 in. (61 em)
Paci fi c Coast of U. S.
and Canada
76
venom gl and
dorsal sting of Stone Fi sh
ZEBRAFI SH
Pterois volitons
to about 1 2 in. (30 em)
I ndo-Pacific, Chi no, Austral i a,
and Red Sea
LIONFI SH
Brachirus biocellatus
to about 6 in. (15 em)
Indo-Pacific

WEEVERFI SHES occur al ong the eastern Atl anti c and Medi
terranean coasts. Venomous sti ngs resul t from contact with
the five or more dorsal spi nes or the dagger-shaped spine on
the gi l l cover (opercul um) on each si de of the head. Vi cti ms
sufer excruciating pi n, often scremi ng and thrashi ng about
before l osi ng consciousness . Sti ngs are occasi onal l y fatal .
78
GREATER WEEVERFI SH
Trachinus draco
to 1 8 i n. (45 Cm)
northeastern Atlantic,
Mediterranean, North Africa
WEEVERFISH
Trachinus radiatus
to 1 0 i n. (25 Cm)
Mediterranean, west coast of Africa
TOADFI SHES of about 60 speci es occur nearl y worl dwi de i n
mari ne waters, a few i n fresh water. They ar e bottom dwel l ers
with broad fl at heads and l arge mouths. Toadfi shes erect
thei r dorsal and opercul ar spines aggressivel y when di s
turbed. The hi ghl y developed venom mechani sm consi sts of a
hol l ow spi ne through whi ch venom is i nj ected as the gl and i s
pressed when the spi ne pi erces a victi m. Wounds are usual l y
the resul t of a toadfi sh bei ng stepped on whi l e i t i s buri ed i n
the mud. The sti ngs cause great pai n, and the swel l i ng may
l ast for months. No fatal i ti es have been reported.
TOADFI SH
Opsanus tau
to 15 i n. (38 em)
Atl cti c Coast of U. S.
79
STARGAZERS of about ten species l ive in tropi cal areas.
They have spi nes ( cl ei thral ) on each shoul der, and each i s
surrounded by a venom gl and. Li ttl e i s known about the
efects of the venom.
Uranoscopus sp.
to about 16 i n. (40 em)
tropical waters
SURGEONFI SHES (about 1 , 000 speci es) i nhabi t tropical
seas. Erectabl e spi nes at the base of the tai l can i nfl i ct pai nful
wounds. When a spi ne i s drawn back i nto its sheath, or
pocket, i t i s covered wi th venom produced by the pocket
l i ni ng.
SURGEONFI SH
80
RED SEA SOLES and Paci fi c Sol es secrete from ski n gl ands
toxi ns known as pavoni ni ns. They are potent enough to repel
predatory fishes, i ncl udi ng sharks.
Pardachirus marmoratus
to 1 0 in. (25 em)
Red Seo
BLENNI ES of the genus Meiacanthus are the onl y fi shes
known to have fangs and venomous bites. When the fish
bites, the mi l ky venom fl ows up the deepl y grooved fangs in
the lower jaw. The venom i s not used when the fi sh i s feedi ng
but i s released when the fi sh bi tes i n i ts own defense.
venom fong
FANGED BLENNY
Meiaconthus nigrolineatus
to 2V2 in. (65 mm)
Red Seo
81
TETRODOTOXI N is one of the strongest toxi ns known. A
neurotoxi n, it is found in sal amanders (pp. 98- 1 0 1 ) , frogs
(p. 92), octopuses (p. 21 ), snai l s ( p. 1 8) , and fi sh in at l east
four fami l i es . They are known as puffers or porcupi ne fi shes.
Tetrodotoxi n i s found al so i n the Ocean Sunfi sh and probabl y
seven other fami l i es of rel ated fi shes, i ncl udi ng tri ggerfi shes,
fi l efi shes, spi kefi shes, and trunkfi shes. Both mari ne and fresh
water speci es are toxi c. The greatest concentrati ons of the
toxi n are i n the ski n, l i ver, and ovari es, but even smal l
amounts of muscl e ti ssue from some species can be l ethal .
Many of these fi shes have sharp, spi ne-shaped scal es sur
rounded by toxi c gl andul ar ski n.
Puffers are eaten i n Japan as raw "sashi mi fugu" and i n a
soup cal l ed "chi ri . " Most cases of poi soni ng are from the
soup. Eating sashi mi fugu often causes i ntoxi cati on, with
l i ght-headedness and numbness of the l i ps. I t i s eaten by
many, in fact, to get these effects.
Fatal doses can cause death from wi thi n a few mi nutes to
a day. I f a vi cti m survives l onger than 24 hours, recovery i s
usual . Apparentl y, a vi cti m can seem to be comatose yet
remai n consci ous and mental l y al ert. Some have recovered
after several days i n an apparent coma and have cl ai med to
remember everythi ng that happened.
The fi rst symptoms of a dangerous dosage i ncl ude dead
ening of the l i ps and tongue, di zzi ness, and vomi ti ng wi thi n
a few mi nutes. These are fol l owed by numbness and pri ckl i ng
over the enti re body, rapi d heartbeat, decreased bl ood
pressure, and paral ysi s of muscl es . Death i s caused by suf
focati on when the di aphragm muscl es are paral yzed and
breathi ng stops.
Tetrodotoxi n has many uses. I t is i sol ated from pufer fishes
in Japan. The purified toxi n has been used to reduce pai n
and i n research on the nervous system. Pufer fishes are
reputedl y used in voodoo to turn vi cti ms i nto "zombi es . "
82
at rest
PLANE HEAD FI LEFI SH
Monacanthus hispidus
to 9 i n. (23 em)
Atl anti c, North Ameri ca to Brazi l
Sphaeroides maculatus
to 1 0 in. (25 em)
Atl anti c, both North and
Central America
83
TbTkTAlL bHbb
PORCUPI NEFI SH
Chilomycters orbicularis
to 10 i n. (25 Cm)
Indo-Pacific
PUFFER
Arothron nigropunctatus
to 10 in. (25 Cm)
Indo-Pacific

BALLOONFI SH
Diodon holacanthus
to 1 8 in. (46 Cm)
tropics worldwide
PORCUPI NEFI SH
Diodon hystrix
to 3 ft. ( 91 Cm)
Atlantic and Pacific
SPOTTED TRUNKFISH
Lactophrys bicaudalis
to 21 in. (53 em)
Atl anti c off Fl ori da,
Gulf of Mexico to South America
TRIGGERFISH
Rhinecanthus aculeatus
to 1 2 in. (30 em)
Indo-Pacific
Rhynchostracion nasus
to 1 4 in. (35 em)
Red Sea
85
AMPHIBIANS
Amphi bi ans (frogs, sal amanders, and caeci l i anbout
4, 000 species in al l ) have a smooth, gl andul ar ski n. Mucous
gl ands keep the skin moist. Granul ar gl ands, whi ch are found
i n the skin in many speci es, produce toxi ns that repel preda
tors and may al so prevent i nfecti on by mi croorgani sms. The
toxi ns are not used to ki l l or subdue prey. In some species the
toxi ns produced by the skin gl ands are deposi ted in the eggs
and protect the devel opi ng embryos . The l arvae, which are
normal l y aquati c, are unprotected by gl andul ar secreti ons
unti l thei r own ski n gl ands become active when they meta
morphose i nto thei r adul t terrestri al stage.
More than 200 diferent ki nds of toxi ns produced by
amphi bi ans have been described, and many more awai t
AERICAN TOAD
86
i denti fi cat i on . The toxi n
-
produci ng gl ands are usual l y
enl arged and often are concentrated i n speci fi c regi ons of
the body. Amphi bi ans posture thei r body so that an attack

i ng predator wi l l make contact wi th concentrati ons of the

toxi c, di stasteful secret i ons. Some snakes have evol ved a
resi stance to amphi bi an toxi ns.
Although most snakes would di e at once if they were t o eat
a toxic toad, some snakes-such as the nonvenomous Common
Gorter Snake-re not harmed by amphibian poisons.
Auatic insects eat unprotected tadpoles.
TRUE TOADS (genus Bufo) occur worl dwide except in Aus
tral i a and the deserts of North Afri ca. Toads are frogs of the
fami l y Bufoni dae. I n thei r ski n gl ands they produce a number
of secreti ons that repel predators. These secreti ons, whi ch
i ncl ude bufotoxi n, bufoteni n, and adrenal i n, are concen
trated i n the parotoid gl ands, one on each si de of the neck.
If eaten or i f appl ied to scratched ski n, these toxi ns sti mulate
the heart rate, act as l ocal i rritants, and cause numbi ng.
Onl y two of the 1 7 species of true toads in the Uni ted
States are dangerous to handl e: the Mari ne Toad and the
Col orado River Toad. Human deaths have been caused by
eating Marine Toad eggs. I n Hawai i , an esti mated 50 dogs
di e every year as a resul t of bi ti ng Marine Toads. The Colo
rado River Toad produces the hi ghl y hal l uci nogeni c toxi n
0-methyl -bufoteni n.
toxic gl andul ar secretions
88
WESTERN TOAD
Bufo boras
to 5 in. ( 1 27 mm)
western U. S. and Canada
MARI NE TOAD
Bufo marinus
to 9 in. (229 mm)
southern Texas to South America
protoid gl ands
The protoids ond other wortl i ke ski n glands
produce a foul-tasting poison that discourages
predators.
COLORADO RIVER TOAD
Bufo alvarius
to 6 in. ( 1 50 mm)
southern Arizona, adjacent areas
protoid gl ands
89
ALL TRUE TOADS have venomous ski n secreti ons that pro
vi de effective protection from bi rds, foxes, and most other
smal l predators. The United States toads on these pages are
not dangerous to peopl e. Warts on toads are groups of
enl arged skin gl ands. Toads do not cause warts i n humans !
Bufo woodhousei
to 5 i n. ( 1 27 mm)
irregul ar di stribution,
nearly every state
Bufo retiformis
to 2V in. (57 mm)
south-central Arizona
Y
GREAT PLAI NS TOAD
Bufo cognatus
to 4V2 i n. ( 1 1 4 mm)
Great Pl ai ns from
Canada to Mexico
RED-SPOTTED TOAD
Bufo punctatus
to 3 in. (76 mm)
western Texas to
southeastern Cal ifornia
MOST FROGS in the United States are safe to handl e. They
do produce a vari ety of ski n secreti ons, i ncl udi ng hi stami ne
and serotoni n, that repel predators. In humans, these secre
tions wi l l cause a burni ng sensation i f they get i nto the eyes
or in open scratches in the ski n.
GREATER GRAY TREE FROG
Rona sylvotica
to 2% in. (66 mm)
Canada and northeastern U. S.
COUCH'S SPADEFOOT
Scaphiopus couchi
to JY2 in. (90 mm)
western Texas and
desert Southwest
91
FkOG5from oi l over the world may have toxi ns produced by
skin gl ands. Many of these secretions are pai nful and dan
gerous i n an open scratch or cut.
SOUTH AMERICAN BULLFROG
Leptodactylus pentadactylus
to 8'z in. (21 6 mm)
South and Central America
HARLEQUIN FROG
Ate/opus varius
to 2% i n. (58 mm)
Costa Rica to Col ombia
92
DARWIN'S FROG
Rhinodena darinii
to 1 '+ in. (30 mm)
Chi l e and Argentina
Skin of Darin's Frog has
hi ghest known levels of sero
toni n, a chemical that at
hi gh doses affects the ner
vous system.
at rest
defensive posture
5ecretian i s released from a thick
pd of glands under each eyespot.
BANDED RUBBER FROG
Phrynomerus bifosciafus
to Iz i n. (45 mm)
southern Africa
A careless scientist was hospital i zed
after handl i ng thi s frog.
FALSE-EYED FROG
Physalaemus notereri
to 1 . i n. (45 mm)
South America
93
POI SON DART FROGS are smal l , bri ghtl y col ored frogs of
Central and South Ameri ca. They produce a vari ety of car
di ac and nerve toxi ns, more than 200 of them (steroi dal
al kal oi ds) descri bed. These frogs are suffi ci entl y di stasteful
and toxi c to repel al l predators except a few ki nds of snakes.
The most toxi c of these frogs is Phyllobates terribilis from
Col ombi a. I t contai ns enough toxi n to ki l l 20, 000 mi ce and
i s dangerous to handl e. Some South Ameri can I ndi ans use
the skin secreti ons to poi son the tips of thei r bl owgun darts.
Top left,
Dendrobotes pumilio
to 1 in. (24 mm)
Ni caragua to Panama
Bottom left,
Dendrobates lehmanni
to 1 % in. (35 mm)
Col ombia
Top right,
Dendrobates auratus
to 1 '2 in. (39 mm)
Ni caragua to Col ombi a
Bottom right,
Dendrobates granuliferus
to i n. (22 mm)
Costa Ri ca
95
1HUNkN kF|X is an unusual behavior pattern exhib
ited by some of the most toxic frogs . Though they behave
si mi l arly, the frogs are not cl osel y related. When attacked
by predators, the frogs shut thei r eyes and bend their head
and legs back over thei r body so that the bright colors on
their bel l i es and the bottoms of their feet are exposed. Thi s
curved posture and col or di spl ay presumabl y warn a preda
tor of danger, spari ng both the frog and its attacker.
Best known for this behavior i s the European Fi re-bel l ied
Toad, cal l ed Unke i n German, and thus the term "unken. "
Many newts (pp. 98- 1 02) al so exhi bi t thi s behavior pattern.
96
YELLOW-BELLI ED TOAD
Bambino variegata
to 2 in. (50 mm)
Europ
at rest
unken reflex
Melanophryniscus stelzneri
to 1 '+ in. (30 mm)
Brazi l to Argentina
HARLEQUI N FROG
Atelopus pulcher
to P/a in. (35 mm)
Ecuador
97
NEWTS are rough-ski nned sal amanders of the fami l y Sal a
mandri dae. The ski n gl ands of many (perhaps al l) newts
produce tetrodotoxi n and other as yet unidentified toxi ns.
The secreti ons burn the eyes and mouth and prevent the newts
from bei ng eaten by al l predators except some garter snakes.
Both human and ani mal deaths have resul ted from eating
western newts (genus Taricha). Newts are not dangerous to
handl e unless there are open cuts i n the ski n.
Scienti sts have determi ned the toxi ci ty of some newts i n
mouse uni ts (the amount of toxi n needed to ki l l a 20-gram
mouse i n 1 0 mi nutes) . Western newts have as much as 25, 000
mouse units of toxi n. Efts (terrestri al j uveni l es) of the Eastern
Newt are less than one-hal f as toxic as some western newts
but are 1 0 ti mes as toxic as the adul t Eastern Newt.
98
WESTERN NEWTS
Taricha sp.
to 7/sin. (201 mm)
west coast of U. S. and Canada
defensive posture
( unken reflex)
EASTERN NEWT
Notophtholmus viridescens
to 4' in. ( 1 1 2 mm)
eastern thi rd of U. S.
EUROPEAN NEWTS (22 species) al l have ski n toxi ns but are
less toxi c than western newts (p. 98) . Most European and
Asi an newts have bri ghtl y col ored bel l i es, whi ch they expose
when predators attack.
1 0
Euproctus asper
to 61/2 in. ( 1 67 mm)
Spai n and France
Triturus marmoratus
to 6Y2 i n. ( 1 60 mm)
Spai n and France
SPECTACLED NEWT
Salamandrina terdigitata
to 4 in. (1 05 mm)
Italy
ASI AN NEWTS (20 species) are probabl y al l toxic at level s
between European newts and western newts .
TAI L-SPOTTED NEWT
Poramesotriton
coudopuncfatus
to 7 in. ( 1 70 mm)
Chi na
SWORD-TAILED NEWT
Cynops ensicauda
to 6 i n. ( 1 56 mm)
Japan
EMPEROR NEWT
Tylototriton verrucosus
to 8 i n. ( 1 97 mm)
southwestern Chi na,
adjacent regi ons
defensive pasture
1 01
SPI NEY NEWTS, found on the southern i sl ands of Japan and
the adj acent coast of Chi na, have excepti onal l y l ong,
branched ri bs, thei r sharp ti ps pierci ng the ski n through warts
that consi st of enl arged poison gl ands. The rib ti ps al so carry
smal l amounts of the poison when they j ab i nto the mouth of
an attacking predator. I n humans, the venom causes a burn
i ng pai n for at least 20 mi nutes if the ri bs puncture the ski n.
1 02
SPI NEY NEW
Echinotriton andersoni
to 6Y2 in. ( 1 60 mm}
Japan
FI RE SALAMANDERS spray toxic secretions (pri mari l y
samandari n) from greatly enl arged gl ands al ong the mi ddl e
of its back. The sal amander can di rect the spray accuratel y
to a di stance of 6 feet . The spray contai ns a toxi n that affects
the central nervous system and burns the eyes and mouth. I t
i s an efective protection from predators. Fi re Sal amander
femal es mi grate to streams to give bi rth to l arvae rather than
l ayi ng eggs l i ke other sal amanders and newts .
In mythol ogy, these sal amanders were bel i eved i mmune to
heat and fire. Their skin was bel i eved to be made of asbestos,
which cannot be burned. I t was sai d al so that peopl e woul d
die i f they ate food over which these salamanders hod crawled.
Another bel ief was that touching the secreti on of a Fi re
Sal amander woul d cause a person's hai r to fal l out .
MOST SALAMANDERS produce ski n secreti ons that are
di stasteful to woul d-be predators. I f swal l owed, the secre
ti ons burn the mouth and may cause nausea.
The sal amanders present their most di stasteful parts (usu
al l y the tai l ) to an attacker. Thi s defensive behavi or pattern
and others are shown on these two pages.
TIGER SALAMNDER
Ambystoma tigrinum
to 1 3 in. (338 mm)
Canada to Mexico
cross section of sal amander tai l
NORTHWESTERN
SALAMANDER
Ambystoma gracile
to B'z in. ( 1 94 mm)
Al aska to Cal i
f
orni a
1 0
tail-waving behavior
JEFFERSON'S SALAMANDER
Ambystoma jeffersonianum
to 8Y2 in. ( 1 96 mm)
eastern Canada to Kentucky
Dicamptodon ensatus
to 1 2 in. (30 mm)
Bri ti sh Col umbi a to Cal ifornia
furycea lucifuga
to 7 i n. ( 1 8 1 mm)
east-central U. S.
MEXICAN BOLITOGLOSSA
Bolitoglossa mexicanum
to 8 in. ( 1 92 mm)
Mexico to Honduras
Ensatino eschscholtzi
to 6 in. ( 1 50 mm)
Bri ti sh Col umbi a to Cal ifornia
tai l -waving behavior
1 05
REPTILES
About 800 of the 6, 500 speci es of repti l es in the worl d are
venomous, thei r toxi ns produced by modi fied sal ivary gl ands.
Venoms are i nj ected by enl arged teeth, and thei r pri mary
use i s to subdue prey. None of the turtl es, crocodi l i ans,
amphi sbaeni ds, or t he tuatara i s venomous.
LI ZARDS Onl y two speci es of venomous l i zards occur i n the
worl d: the Gi l a Monster and the Beaded Li zard. Their venom
gl ands are l ocated al ong the outer edge of the l ower j aw,
and ducts empty the venom at the bases of greatl y enl arged,
grooved teeth . These l i zards bi te in sel f defense, hol di ng on
with a visel ike gri p and releasing venom i nto the wound. The
venom causes excruciati ng pai n, weakness, and di zzi ness but
sel dom death . The area around a bi te remai ns tender for
severo I weeks.
tooth
1 0

GI LA MONSTER
Heloderma suspectum
to 2 ft. (61 em)
southwestern U. S.
BEADED LIZARD
Heloderma horridum
to 3 ft. 3 i n. ( 1 0 em)
western Mexico to Guatemal a
1 07
SNAKES have been the subj ect of fasci nati on, fear, and
myths i n al l cul tures. I n the 1 600s and before, the mythi cal
cockatri ce was consi dered the "ki ng of snakes, " its venom
feared by al l . I t was bel ieved to crawl wi th the front part of
its body of the ground, and some bel ieved it had wi ngs.
Of the some 2, 400 species of snakes i n the worl d, at l east
800 are venomous to some degree. An esti mated 1 , 700, 000
pople are bitten by venomous snakes every yar, and 40, 0
to 50, 000 of these bi te vi cti ms di e. In l ess i ndustri al i zed
countries many bites and deaths are not reported, and so
thi s esti mate of deaths i s probabl y l ow. Al l the members of
to fami l i es of snakes-Viperidae and El api daUre ven
omous. The fami l y Col ubri dae contai ns both venomous and
nonvenomous species . I n other fami l i es, none of the members
are venomous, the snakes havi ng sol i d, ungrooved teeth (no
fangs, or agl yphous) .
no grooved teeth
skul l of nonvenomous snake
1 08
COLUBRI DAE is a fami l y of about 1 , 600 speci es, 400 of
whi ch are venomous to some extent. Because most of these
snakes are smal l and thei r venom weak, they are not danger
ous. The venom i s produced by Duvernay's gl and, l ocated
behi nd the eye, and i s transmi tted through enl arged and
grooved teeth at the rear of the mouth . For thi s reason they
are known as rear-fanged {opi sthogl yphous) snakes . Among
the most dangerous of the venomous col ubri ds are the Boom
sl ang and the Bi rd Snake, both of Afri ca, the Yamakagashi
from the Ori ent, and the South Ameri can Hognose Snake,
whi ch has enormous rear fangs that can be erected.
Col ubri ds, worldwide di stribution
1 09
ELAPI DAE is a fami l y made up of front-fanged snakes, thei r
deepl y grooved or hol l ow fangs fixed i n an erect posi ti on at
the front of the mouth (proterogl yphous) . Venoms produced
by these snakes are pri mari l y neurotoxi c, but the venoms of
some species al so afect the heart. The bi tes of many of these
snakes are no more pai nful than pin pri cks, but the venom
acts rapi dl y on the nervous system and causes death by
sufocati on when the respiratory system becomes paral yzed.
Coral snakes, cobras, krai ts, mambas, and thei r Austra
lian rel atives are among the nearl y 200 l and-dwel l i ng species
i n this fami ly. Bl ack Mambas are probabl y the most danger
ous because of their si ze (nearl y 1 4 feet), potent venom, and
aggressive nature. Spi tti ng Cobras have fangs wi th forward
faci ng openi ngs from whi ch they spray thei r venom i nto the
eyes of vi cti ms.
The roughl y 50 species of sea snakes are aquati c el api ds.
Some authori ti es cl assify them i n a separate fami l y: the
Hydrophi dae. The bodies and especi al l y the tai l s are fl at
tened si de to side, enhancing thei r swi mmi ng abi l ity. Sea
snakes are most common i n the South Paci fi c. Most species
spend thei r enti re l ives in the water. Some are pel agi c,
formi ng rafts of snakes that may extend for mi l es i n the open
sea.
El api ds, worldwide di stribution
1 1 0
` `'~=
skul l of Ki ng Cobra
--
spray of venom
SPITTI NG COBRA
spitting cobra non-spitting cobra
-opening of venom canol
1 1 1
VI PERI DAE is a fami l y of stocky snakes wi th tri angul ar
heads. The rear swel l i ngs of the head house the venom
gl ands, and the l ong, hol l ow fangs are l ocated on the upper
jaw bone, whi ch can be rotated to erect the fangs when the
snake stri kes . When the mouth i s cl osed, the fangs are fol ded
back agai nst its roof. Thi s fang arrangement is cal l ed sol eno
gl yphous. The venoms of vi pers are pri mari l y hemotoxi c.
Bi tes are pai nful and cause bl i steri ng, hemorrhagi ng, and
di gesti on of ti ssue around the wound.
Vi pers are often divided i nto two groups: true vi pers
(about 45 species) of Afri ca, Europe, and Asi a, and the pit
vi pers, found pri mari l y i n the Americas but wi th a few speci es
i n Southeast Asi a. Pi t vi pers are someti mes recogni zed as a
separate fami l y-the Crotal i dae. Pi t vi pers, whi ch i ncl ude
the rattl esnakes and moccasi ns, have a heat-sensi tive pit
between the nostri l and the eye. These heat sensors al low the
snakes to detect warm-bl ooded prey at considerabl e di s
tances and al so i n the dark. Pi t vi pers di rect thei r stri kes by
usi ng the "i mage" formed by the heat sensors.
rattlesnake skul l
1 1 2
Vipers, worldwide di stribution
longs erect
rottlesnoke skul l
mouth opened to strike
1 1 3
U. S. venomous snakes i ncl ude 1 3 speci es of rattl esnakes,
2 pi gmy rattl esnakes, 2 moccasi ns, 2 coral snakes, and at
l east 25 speci es of rear-fanged col ubri ds, of whi ch onl y 2
are at al l dangerous .
RATTLESNAKES (genus Crotalus) account f or an est i mated
7, 000 bi tes per year i n the Uni ted State5, but only 9 or 1 0 of
the bi tes are fatal . Most of the deaths are from bi tes of the
Eastern Di amondback or the Western Di amondback. West
ern Rattl esnakes, Ti mber Rattl esnakes, and Si dewi nders
account for the l argest number of bi tes, but few of the bi tes
are fatal . The Mojave and Tiger rattl esnakes have a stronger
venom than do most U. S. speci es, but they are responsi bl e
for onl y a few of the bi tes . Adj usted for number of peopl e,
the greatest number of bi tes occur i n North Carol i na,
Arkansas, Texas, and Georgi a .
EASTERN DIAMONDBACK RATTLESNAKE
Crotalus adamanteus
to 8 ft. (24 em)
Gulf Coast and Atlantic seaboard from
eastern loui si ana to North Carol i na
WESTERN DIAMONDBACK
RATTLESNAKE
Crotalus atrox
to 7 ft. (21 3 Cm)
Cal ifornia to Arkansas,
into Mexico
WESTERN RATTLESNAKE
Crotalus viridis
to 5 ft. 4 i n. ( 1 63 Cm)
Great Pl ai ns to Pacific Coos
)
,
Canada to Mexico
1 1 5
Crotalus horridus
1o 6 ft. 2 i n. ( 1
eastern Texas to
New Hampshi re, and Fl orida
SI DEWI NDER
Crotalus cerastes
to 2 ft. 7 i n. (79 em)
deserts of southern Cal iforni a,
Ari zona, and Nevada to Mexico
1 1 6
U.b. K11LbbMKbb
TI GER RATTLESNAKE
Crotalus tigris
to 3 ft. (91 em)
Ari zona into Mexico
sutulatus
. 3 m ( l 30 cm)
southern Cal iforni a,
Ndo, Arizona,
western Texas, into Mexico
1 1 7
U. b. K11LbbMKbb
1 1 8
Crotalus lepidus
to 2 ft. 9 i n. (83 em)
southeastern Ari zona to
western Texas, into Mexico
RI DGENOSE
RATTLESNAKE
Crotalus willordi
2 ft. 1 y, i n. (635 mm)
New Mexico, Ari zona,
and adjacent Mexico
PI GMY RATTLESNAKES (genus Sistrurus) of two species
occur i n the United States. Thei r tai l s are more sl ender and
thei r rattl es narrower than rattl esnakes . These snakes are
responsi bl e for a number of painful bites every year, but
fatal i ti es are rare. A newly born pigmy rattl esnake has a
bri ght yel l ow tai l used to l ure prey near enough to bi te.
MASSASAUGA
Sistrurus catenatus
to 3 ft. 4 in. ( 1 0 em)
New York and Michigan to
Texas and Arizona
PIGMY RATTLESNAKE
Sistrurus miliarius
to 2 ft. 7 i n (79 em)
North Carol i na to Fl ori da,
Texas, and Oklahoma
female and newborns
1 1 9
MOCCASI NS (genus Agkistrodon) are pit viprs with a venom
si mi l ar to that of rattl esnakes, but moccasi ns do not have
rattl es . Worl dwi de, there are about a dozen speci es, most
of them i n Southeast Asi a. One l i ves i n Mexi co. Two speci es
the Cottonmouth and the Copperhead-occur in the Uni ted
States. The Cottonmouth causes an average of one death
per year. The Copperhead i s responsi bl e for more bi tes than
any other venomous snake in the Uni ted States, but deaths
due to the bites are extremel y rare.
Agkistrodon
to 4 ft. 5 i n. ( 1
New York and Ma: ssacnuseTl .
to Nebraska south to
Fl orida and Texas
1 20
CORAL SNAKES of some 50 species bel ongi ng to the fami l y
El api dae are restri cted to the Ameri cas. Onl y two speci es
occur i n the Uni ted States. Both have powerful neurotoxi c
venoms. The Ari zona Coral Snake i s general l y nonaggres
sive, however, and no human deaths due to its bi te are
recorded. Several peopl e, mostl y i n Texas and Fl ori da, are
bitten every year by Eastern Coral Snakes, and a death i s
recorded roughl y every five years. The deaths ar e usual l y
from respi ratory paral ysi s and occur withi n 36 hours .
ARIZONA CORAL SNAKE
Micruroides euryxanthus
to 1 ft. 9 in. (53 em)
Arizona and New Mexico i nto Mexico
Micrurus fulvius
to 4 ft ( 1 2 1 em)
North Carol i na and Fl ori da
to Texas into Mexico
Yel l ow bands ore
white i n some i ndi vi dual s.
1 2 1
VENOMOUS REAR-FANGED SNAKES i ncl ude more than
25 of the 92 species of col ubri d snakes i n the Uni ted States.
They have grooved, enl arged teeth at the rear of the mouth,
and they produce venoms used to paral yze thei r prey, often
l i zards. Most of these snakes have smal l mouths, and they
are not dangerous to humans. The three species shown
herend especi al l y l arge i ndividual s-an give pai nful bi tes
and shoul d bhandl ed with care. Many species i n thi s fami ly,
such as racers, water snakes, ki ngsnakes, garter snakes,
and bul l snakes, bi te when captured but are not venomous.
CAT-EYED SNAKE
Leptoceiro septentrionalis
to 3 ft. 3 i n. (99 Cm)
southern Texas,
into Mexico
1 22
NI GHT SNAKE
Hypsiglena torquato
fO 2 ft. 2 i n. [6Cm)
Washington to Nebraska,
into Mexico
LYRE SNAKE
Trimorhodon biseutatus
to 4 ft. ( 1 2 1 Cm)
southern Cal ifornia to
Texas, into Mexico
EUROPE has onl y seven species of dangerousl y venomous
snakes, and al l are vi pers. The most dangerous are the Nose
horned Vi per, Ottoman Vi per, and Bl unt-nosed Vi per. The
l ast of these has even been reported to ki l l camel s.
ADDER
Vipera berus
!O 3 ft. (90 Cm)
wide-ranging i n Europe and
USSR, to Pacific Ocean
Vipera ammodytes
to 3 ft. (90 Cm)
southeastern Europe and
southwestern Asia
ASP VI PER
Vipera xanthino
to 4 ft. ( 1 20 Cm)
Turkey, al so Asi a Mi nor
BLUNT-NOSED VIPER
Vipera lebetina
to 5 ft. ( 1 50 Cm)
Greek I sl ands, al so
southwestern Asi a,
northwestern Africa
1 23
I NDI A is i nhabi ted by 230 species of snakes, of whi ch about
50 are venomous . The l arge number of venomous snakes and
dense human popul ati ons resul t i n an esti mated 200, 000
bi tes each year, from which an esti mated 1 0, 000 to 1 5, 000
peopl e di e. Most of these bi tes are by onl y four speci es of
snake: Russel l 's Vi per, Saw-scal ed Vi per, Common Krai t, and
Common Cobra, the l ast probabl y accounti ng for the most
deaths. The Ki ng Cobra, whi ch has enough venom to ki l l an
el ephant and whose bi te i s normal l y fatal to humans, i s
uncommon, and bi tes to humans ar e rare.
KING COBRA
Ophiophagus hannah
to l 9V, ft. (600 cm)
I ndi o, Southeast Asi a
COMON COBRA
Bungaris caeruleus
to 5% ft. ( 1 73 Cm)
I ndi a
RUSSELL'S VI PER
Vipera rvsselli
to 5V, It. ( 1 68 Cm)
I ndi a, Southeast Asi a
1 25
SOUTHEAST ASI A has many of the same venomous snakes
as I ndi a, and snakebites are common. Burma apparentl y has
the dubi ous honor of being the place i n the world where one
has the greatest chance of dyi ng from snakebite. An esti
mated 1 5 per 1 00, 000 peopl e di e yearl y.
OKI NAWA HABU
Trimeresurus favoviridis
to ?V2 ft. (225 Cm)
Okinawa
Deinagkistrodon oculus
to 5 ft. ( 1 50 Cm)
Chi na, Taiwan
1 26
MALAYAN PIT VI PER
Calleselasma rhodostoma
to 3 ft. 4 i n. ( 1 02 Cm)
Southeast Asia
NORTH AFRI CA has a rather l i mi ted number of venomous
snakes (four el apids and ten viprs) . Thes are spcies adapte
to desert or grassl and condi ti ons. The most dangerous snakes
i n thi s area are probabl y the to species of Saw-scal ed
Vi pers, one shown here and the other on p. 1 46.
_
SAW-SCALED VI PER
Echis colorofus
to 2 ft . 8 i n. ( 81 Cm)
Egypt and Arabian Peninsul a
Noia ha;e
to 8 ft. (24 Cm)
Africa and Arabi an Peni nsul a
SAHARA SAND VIPER
Cerastes vipera
to 1 ft. 1 0 i n. (56 Cm)
Sahara Desrt
1 27
AFRI CA south of the Sahara Desert has about 300 snakes of
the fami l y Col ubri dae. Many of them are rear-fanged. Two
of these, the Boomsl ang and the Bi rd Snake, are dangerousl y
venomous. Both are arboreal snakes, and both can expand
thei r necks in a threat di spl ay. I n humans the bi te causes
extensive i nternal bl eedi ng, someti mes resul ti ng i n death.
BOOMS LANG
ELAPI D snakes of about 20 species al so i nhabi t Afri ca south
of the Sahara. Most of these have dangerousl y neurotoxi c
venom, and several are "spi tters" that are abl e to spray thei r
venom i nto the eyes of peopl e. The venom can cause bl i ndness
if not removed qui ckl y. The Bl ack Mamba i s the l ongest and
most feared of Afri ca's venomous snakes.
BLACK MAMBA
Dendroaspis polylepis
to 1 4 ft . (427 Cm)
eastern half of tropical Africa
a "spitter"
Hemachatus haemachatus
to 5 ft. ( 1 52 Cm)
southern Africa
1 29
VI PERS of about 30 species i nhabi t Africa south of the
Sahara Desert . Many of these vi pers are smal l or uncommon,
but the l arge vi pers are very dangerous. The Puff Adder
probabl y ki l l s more peopl e than any other Afri can snake.
The Gaboon Vi per may have a head wi dth of 5 i nches, wi th
fangs 2 i nches l ong.
Bitis gabonica
to 6 ft . 8 in. (204 em)
forest areas
south of Sahara
1 30
AFRICAN BUSH VIPER
Atheris squomiger
to 2 ft. 5 in. (78 Cm,
forests of tropical Africa

RHI NOCEROS VI PER

Bitis nasicoris
to 4 ft. ( 1 22 Cm,
rain forests of
central Africa
1 3 1
AUSTRALIA has some of the world's most dangerous el apids
(about 75 speci es) such as the Death Adder, Tai pan, Ti ger
Snake, and Ki ng Brown Snake. Because of excel l ent anti
veni n producti on in Austral i a, however, there are onl y about
five human deaths per year.
1 32
Notechis scutatus
to 6 ft. 7 in. (20 Cm)
southern Austral i a
COMON DEATH ADDER
Acanthophis antarcticus
to 3 ft. 3 in. ( 1 0 Cm)
southern and
eastern Austral i a
Pseudeehis australis
to 8 ft. 1 0 i n. ( 270 em)
Austral i a
Pseudeehis porphyriaeus
to 8 ft. 2 i n. (250 em)
eastern Austral i a
SEA SNAKES are most common in the coastal waters of
Austral i a and southern Asi a, wi th one species rangi ng across
the Pacific Ocean to Central and South Ameri ca. Most of
these are hi ghl y venomous but mi l d tempered.
1 3
HARDWICKE'S SEA SNAKE
Lapemis hardwickii
to 2 ft. l l i n. (89 em)
Austral i a to
Southeast Asi a
Hydrophis melanoeephalus
to 3 ft. 3 in. (1 0 Cm)
Austral i a
SEA SNAKE
Aipysurus apraefrontalis
to 1 ft. 8 i n. (50 Cm)
Austral i a
Latieauda eolubrina
to 4 ft. 7 i n. ( 1 40 Cm)
Austral i a to
Southeast Asi a
1 35
MEXI CO has more species of venomous snakes than any
other country i n the Ameri cas. The el api ds i ncl ude 1 sea
snake and 1 4 coral snakes . The vi pers are represented by 24
rattl esnakes, 2 pi gmy rattl esnakes, 2 moccasi ns, and 1 6
other pi t vi pers. I n addi ti on, there i s an undetermi ned number
of venomous rear-fanged col ubri ds.
BLACKTAIL RATTLESNAKE
Crotalus molossus
to 4 ft. 2 in. ( 1 26 em)
Arizona, New Mexico, and
Texas, into Mexico
1 36
MEXICAN WEST-COAST
RATTLESNAKE
Sistrurus ravus
to 2 ft. 4 i n. (70 Cm)
central Mexico
MEXICAN SMALL-HEADED
RATTLESNAKE
Crotalus intermedius
to 2 ft. (60 Cm)
central Mexico
VARIABLE CORAL SNAKE
Micrurus diastema
to 2 ft. 1 0 in. (85 Cm)
central Mexico to Honduras
CENTRAL AMERI CA'S venomous snakes total 33 speci es:
1 6 el api ds and 1 7 pi t vi pers (1 rattl esnake, 1 moccasi n, and
1 5 others) . The Barba Amari l l a i s responsi bl e for the most
bi tes, many of them fatal .
RAI NFOREST HOGNOSED
PITVI PER
Porthidium nasutum
to 2 ft. (60 em)
southern Mexico to Col ombi a
CANTIL
Agkistrodon bilineatus
to 4 ft. 7 in. ( 1 38 em)
Pacific Coost of Mexico
to Costa Rica
1 38
NEOTROPICAL RATTLESNAKE
Crotalus durissus
to 6 ft. ( 1 80 cm)
Mexico into South America
Porthidium nummifer
to 2 ft. 7 i n. (80 em)
southern Mexi co to Panama
1 39
Bothriechis aurifer
to 3 ft. 4 i n. ( 1 01 em)
southern Mexico and Guatemala
EYELASH PAL PITIPER
Bathriechis schlegeli
Ia 2 ft. 7 in. (80 em)
southern Mexico into
South America
CENTRAL AMERI CAN CORAL SNAKE
Micrurus nigrocinctus
to 3 ft. 3 i n. ( 1 0 em)
southern Mexi co to Panama
Micrurus multifasciotus
to 4 ft. ( 1 20 cm)
Ni caragua to Panama
1 41
SOUTH AMERI CA has 83 species of dangerousl y venomous
snakes. El api ds are represented by 37 speci es of coral snakes
and sea snake; pi t vi pers by 45 speci es, two of whi ch are
rattl esnakes . An unknown number of col ubri ds from thi s
regi on, and the rest of the worl d, are venomous, but most
are not dangerous.
1 42
COMON LANCE HEAD
Bothrops atrox
to 6 ft. 7 in. (20 em)
South America
Bothriopsis bilineata
to 3 ft. 3 in. ( 1 00 em)
South America
Lachesis muta
to 1 2 ft. (360 em)
Central and
South America
SOUTHERN CORAL SNAKE
Micrurus spixii
to 5 ft. 3 in. { 1 60 em)
Amazon and Ori noco Basi ns
AQUATIC CORAL SNAKE
Micrurus surinomensis
to 5 ft. 1 1 i n. ( 1 80 em)
South America
1 43
CORAL SNAKE MI MI CRY occurs in many speci es of col ubri d
snakes i n North, Central , and South Ameri ca. These ore
nonvenomous or rear-fanged speci es, and the coral snake
resembl ance, known as mi mi cry, i s an advantage to the
mi mi cs because predators avoi d the bri ghtl y banded coral
snakes. Mi gratory bi rds may l earn to avoid coral snakes i n
Central or South Ameri ca and then avoi d certai n ki ng snakes
i n regi ons of the United States where there ore no coral
snakes .
M| |k5NAk
Lampropeltis triangulum
to 4 ft. 4 in. ( 1 32 em)
Populations i n the same areas as coral snakes have
banded patterns; most other popul ations do not.
eastern two thi rds
of U. S. to Central
America
nonvenomous
1 4
CALI FORNIA MOUNTAI N KINGSNAKE
Lampropeltis zonata
to 3 ft. 4 in. ( 1 02 em)
Cal iforni a and southwestern Oregon
Cemophora coccinea
to 2 ft. 8V2 in. (83 em)
southeastern U. S.
LLKLbMKb MlMlLb KLMLbM1KLMbLU1H MbKlL
Scaphiodontophis annulatus
to 2 ft. 7 in. (78 em)
Honduras
1 45
VI PER MI MI CRY al so occurs throughout the worl d. These
are harml ess speci es of snakes si mi l ar enough in col or pattern
and behavior to be mi staken by peopl e and probabl y pre
dators for vari ous vi pers. I n Afri ca, Egg-eati ng Snakes even
mi mi c the behavi or and sound of Saw-scal e Vi pers, whi ch
make a raspi ng sound by rubbi ng thei r scal es together.
SAW-SCALED VI PER
Echis carinatus
to 3 ft. (90 em)
Africa
venomous
EGG-EATI NG SNAKE
Dasypeltis scabra
to 4 ft. ( 1 20 em)
Africa
1 46
RATTLESNAKES are mi mi cked by snakes such as gopher
snakes and hognose snakes. These harml ess snakes vi brate
thei r tai l s, which i n dry grass or l eaves resul ts i n a sound that
resembl es the rattle of rattl esnakes. Burrowi ng Owl s hi ss
from thei r burrows wi th a sound l i ke a rattl esnake rattl e
frighteni ng off ani mal s l i ke foxes and badgers .
Crotalns viridis
to 5 ft. 4 i n. ( 1 63 em)
Great Pl ai ns to Pacific
Coast, Canada to Mexico
Heterodon nasicus
to 3 ft. (90 em)
Great Pl ai ns slates
The hiss of a Burrowing Owl sounds a
lot l i ke the frighteni ng rattle of
a venomous rattlesnake.
nonvenomous
1 47
MAMMALS
Onl y a few mammal s are venomous . Monotremes have ven
omous spurs, and some shrews and their rel atives have ven
omous sal iva. Tenrecs and hedgehogs annoi nt thei r spi nes
with toxi ns of other ani mal s.
MONOTREMES are pri mi tive mammal s that l ay eggs . Al l
l i vi ng monotremes (the Pl atypus and the echi dnas) have hol
l ow spurs on the i nner si de of thei r lower hi nd l egs . I n the
male Pl atypus, the hal f-i nch-l ong spurs can be erected, and
the venom they rel ease i nto a wound causes pai n and swel l i ng
for several days. Dogs have been ki l led by thi s venom, but
no human deaths have been reported. The spurs may be used
for territori al fights with other mal es, to subdue l arge prey,
or to repel predators . Echi dnas have a si mi l ar spur, but thei r
venoms have not been studi ed.
Tachyglossus aculeatus
to 1 8 in. (45 em)
weight to 1 7!> lbs. (8 kg)
New Gui nea and Austral i a
\
venom gl and
SHREWS are fierce predators that use thei r venomous sal iva
to i mmobi l i ze mi ce and other ani mal s l arger than themselves .
Shrews then store thei r prey, sometimes al ive but paral yzed,
to be eaten l ater. The venom is transmi tted i nto a bi te wound
al ong a groove formed by the l ower i nci sor (front) teeth. The
venom has di fferent components. One afects col d-bl ooded
prey, such as i nsects; another mi ce, or other warm-bl ooded
ani mal s. Shrew bi tes are not dangerous to humans but can
cause a burni ng pai n that l asts for hours. The Short-tai l ed
Shrew of North Ameri ca is about three ti mes more venomous
than the European Water Shrew.
SHORT-TAILED SHREW
8/arina brevicauda
to 6 in. ( 1 60 mm)
eastern U. S. and adj acent Canada
1 50
food cache of frogs
EUROPEAN WATER SHREW
Neomys fodiens
to 7 i n. (75 mm)
Europe
These shrews capture prey both
underwater and on land.
SHREWS of about 250 species occur everywhere i n the worl d
except i n Austral i a and southern South Ameri ca. Some are
very smal l , wei ghi ng l ess than an ounce and onl y about an
i nch and a hal f l ong. One species measures more than 8
i nches l ong. The toxi ci ty of the sal iva of most species has not
been tested.
1 52
VAGRANT SHREW
Sorex vagrans
to 5% in. ( 1 46 mm)
western North America
To fol l ow their mother, young shrews hol d onto her
toi l or the tai l of a l i tter mate.
SOLENODONS are l arger rel atives of shrews and are al so
mi l dl y toxi c. The to species occur onl y in Hai ti , the Domi ni
can Republ i c, and Cuba. Both are endangered. Thei r venom,
whi ch i s much l ess toxi c than that of a Short-tai l ed Shrew, i s
conducted up grooves on t he rear surface of thei r el ongated
l ower i nci sor teeth. Because of their rel ati vel y l arge size and
the greater vol ume of venom, thei r bi tes are pai nful .
HAITIAN SOLENODON
Solenodon paradoxus
to 23 i n. (58 em)
Haiti and Domi ni can Republ i c
1 53
HEDGEHOGS ( 1 2 species) l ive in Europe, Afri ca, and Asi a.
They protect themselves by anoi nti ng thei r spi nes wi th the
poi sonous secreti ons of other ani mal s. Before eati ng a toad,
a hedgehog chews the secreti ons from the toad's ski n i nto a
froth that is then l i cked onto the spi nes. When attacked,
hedgehogs curl i nto a bal l , protecti ng the head and bel ly.
They al so hiss and j ump, j abbi ng the spines coated wi th dri ed
toxi ns i nto the attacki ng predator. Thi s greatl y i ncreases the
pai n of bei ng j abbed by the spi nes and the chance of i nfec
ti on. They represent no great danger to humans. Some
tenrecs from Madagascar exhi bi t the same behavi or as
hedgehogs.
1 54
AFRICAN HEDGEHOG
Erinaceus albiventris
to lJV2 i n (350 mm)
central Africa
Young hedgehogs lick toxins from their mother's spines and
self-anoi nt themselves even before thei r eyes are open.
1 55
BOOKS FOR FURTHER STUDY
Campbel l , Jonathan A. , and Wi l l i am W. lamar. Venomous Reptiles of Latin
America. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1 989.
Caras, Roger. Venomous Animals of the World. Prenti ce Hal l , Engl ewood
Cl iffs, NJ , 1 974.
Freiberg, Marcos A. , and Jerry G. Wal l s. The World of Venomous Animals.
TFH Publ ications I nc . , Neptune Ci ty, NJ , 1 984.
Habermehl , Gerhard G. Venomous Animals and Their Toxins. Springer
Verl ag, New York, 1 981 .
Hal stead, Bruce W. Poisonous and Venomous Morine Animals of the World.
2nd ed. rev. Darwin Pr. , I nc . , Pri nceton, NJ, 1 978.
Minton, Sherman A. Jr. , and Madge R. Minton. Venomous Reptiles. rev. ed.
Charl es Scribner's Sons, New York, 1 980.
Pri ns, Andre, and Vi ncent Leroux. South Afican Spiders and Scorpions.
Anubis Press, Cape Town, 1 986.
Smi th, Hobart M. , and Edmund D. Brodi e, Jr. Reptiles of North America, A
Golden Fi el d Gui de. Golden Press, New York, 1 982.
Sutherl and, Struan K. Venomous Creatures of Australia. 2nd ed. Oxford
Uni versity Press, New York, 1 985.
MAGAZI NES wi th occasi onal popul ar arti cl es on venomous
ani mal s i ncl ude: National Geographic, Natura/ History,
National Wildlife, and Interational Wildlife.
ZOOS al ways have col l ecti ons of l ive venomous snakes, and
publ i c aquari a often di spl ay venomous fi shes. Few zoos
di spl ay other venomous ani mal s-outstandi ng excepti ons
that mai ntai n l ive col l ecti ons of venomous i nvertebrates are
the Nati onal Zool ogi cal Park i n Washi ngton, D. C. and the
Ari zona-Sonora Desert Museum i n Tuscan, Ari zona.
1 56
I NDEX
Acaci a ants,
Acanthaster, 24
Acanthophis, 1 32
Acanthurus, 80
Actinia, 1 7
Adder, 1 23
Afri can Bush Vi per, 1 3 1
Afri can Hedgehog, 1 55
Agamyxis, 73
Agapostemon, 5 1
Agkistrodon, 1 20, 1 38
;|-
s
.c,gnake, 1 4 1
A/utero, 83
Amazoni an Coral Snake,
1 43
Ambystoma, 1 04, 1 05
Ameri can Toad, 86
Amphi bi ans, 86- 1 05
Amphiporus, 22
Anemones, 1 4, 1 7
Angl ed Hydromeduso, 1 6
Annel i d worms, 23
Ant- mi mi c Spi der, 64
Ant s , 56-57
Api s, 50
Aquati c Coral Snoke,
1 43
Argiope, 37
Arilus, 49
Arizona Coral Snake,
1 2 1
Arothron, 84
Asi an Gi ant Scorpi on, 45
Asp Vi per, 1 23
Ate/opus, 92, 97
Atheri s, 1 3 1
Atrax, 29
Automeris, 59
Aviculari a, 33
Azemiops, 1 26
Backswi mmer, 49
Bal istes, 85
Bal l oonfi sh, 84
Banana Spi der, 37
Banded Centi pede, 38
Banded Krai t, 1 25
Banded Rubber Frog, 93
Banded Sea Snake, 1 35
Barba Amari l l a, 1 38,
1 39
Bot Ray, 68
Beaded li zard, 1 06, 1 07
Bees, 50-55
Beetl es, 48, 60-63
Bembi x, 55
Bi g Bend Di pl ocentrus, 43
Bi rd Snake, 1 09, 1 28
Bi rd spi ders, 30
Bitis, 1 30, 1 3 1
Bl ock-and-yel l ow Mud
Dauber, 55
Bl ock-and-yel l ow Gorden
Spi der, 37
Bl ackedge Moray, 67
Bl ack-headed Sea Snake,
1 35
Bl ack Mamba, 1 1 0, 1 29
Bl ock toi l Rattl esnake,
1 36
Bl ock Wi dow Spi der, 1 2,
28, 35
8/orino, 1 50
Bl enni es, 81
Bl ood Worm, 2 3
Bl ue Ri nged Octopus, 2 1
Bl ue-spotted Sti ngray, 69
Bl ue-tai l ed Centi pede, 39
Bl unt-nosed Vi per, 1 23
Bolitoglossa, 1 05
Bombardi er Beetl e, 63
Bombus, 5 1
Bambi no, 96
Bony fishes, 72-85
Boomsl ang, 1 09, 1 28
Bothriechis, 1 39, 1 40
Bothriopsis, 1 42
Bothrops, 1 39, 1 42
Brochinus, 63
Brachirus, 77
:n
c

s
+:+t.
Bri stl e worms, 23
: F: 3
6
8ufo, B7, 88, 89, 90
Bul l Ant, 57
Bungoris, 1 25
Bushmaster, 1 42
Buthus, 47
Coeci l i ons, 86
Cal i forni a Cone, 1 8, 1 9
Cal i forni a Mountai n
Ki ngsnoke, 1 44
Cal i forni a Sti chopus, 27
Calleselosmo, 1 26
Col/imorpha, 60
Canti l , 1 38
Cape Burrowi ng
Scorpi on, 45
Cape Cobra, 1 29
Cope Thi ck-toi led
Scorpi on, 46
Cordi otoxi n, 1 0
Cari nated Thi ck-toi l ed
Scorpi on, 47
Cot-eyed Snake, 1 22
Castianeiro, 64
Caterpi l l ars, 48, 58, 59,
60, 63
Catfi shes, 72-75
Cove Sal amander, 1 05
Centi pedes, 5, 38
Central Ameri can Cor al
Snake, 1 4 1
Centruroides, 42
Cephal aspi domorphi , 66
Cerostes, 1 27
Ceruro, 63
Chelymorpha, 6 1
Chevron Amphi porus, 2 2
Chilomycterus, 84
Chi l i on Pi nk Tarantul a,
32
Chi maeras, 68, 71
Chironex, 1 6
Chondri chthyes, 68
Ci cada Ki l l er, 55
Ci nnabar Moth
Caterpi l l ar, 60
Cni dori ans, 1 4- 1 7, 20
Cobras, 1 1 0, 1 24
Coel enterates, See
Cni dari ons
Col orado Potato Beetl e,
60
Col orado Ri ver Toad, 88,
89
Col ors of venomous
ani mal s, 1 1
Col ubri dae, 1 08, 1 09,
1 28
Common Yel l ow
Co
o
|.i
Conus, 1 9
Copperhead, 1 2, 1 20
Coral s, 1 4
Coral snakes, 1 1 0, 1 1 4,
1 2 1 , 1 36, 1 37, 1 4 1 ,
1 42, 1 43
mi mi cry, 1 44, 1 45
Cottonmouth, 1 20
Couch's Spadefoot, 91
Cow Ki l l er, 54
Crotal i dae, 1 1 2
Crotalus, 1 1 4, 1 1 5, 1 1 6,
1 1 8, 1 36, 1 37, 1 38,
1 47
Crown-of-thorns Starfi sh,
24
Crypti c col orati on, 1 1
Cupiennius, 37
Curl y-hai red Tarantul a,
33
Cyanea, 1 6
Cynops, 1 0 1
Donaus, 6 1
Darkl i ng Beetl e, 63
Darwi n' s Frog, 92
Dasymutilla, 54
g-+

e,
4
? 32
1 57
m
Deaths from Fi re Sal amanders, 1 03 Heterodon, 1 47
bee and wosf sti ngs, 9 Fi re worms, 23 Heterodontus, 70
snakebi tes, , 9 Fi rst ai d, 1 0 Heterametrus, 45
Deinagkistrodon, 1 26 Fi shes, 66-85 Heteroneustes, 75
Dendroospi s, 1 29 Flabellinopsis, 20 Honey ees, 50
m
Dendrabates, 94 Formi ca, 57 Hornshark, 70
Dermosteri as, 25 Frogs, 86, 91 -97 House Scorpi on, 47
Diodemo, 26 Freshwater Sti ngray, 69 Hydroi ds, 1 5
Dicamptodon, 1 05 Funnel web spi ders, 29 Hydrolagus, 71
Di gger Wasp, 55 Hydrophi doe, 1 1 0
Diodon, 84 Gaboon Vi per, 1 30 Hydrophis, 1 35
Diplocentrus, 43 Garden si ders, 37 Hylo, 91
Di sholidus, 1 28 Geograp er Cone, 1 8, Hypsigleno, 1 22
Do l's Cl earwi ng Moth, 1 9
65 Giant Desert Hai ry I ndi an Catfi sh, 75
C
Drone Fl y, 65
Gi emone,
I ndo-Paci fi c Smooth
Dytiscus, 49 Sti ngray, 68
1 7 I nsects, 48-65
G Eastern Coral Snake,
Gi ant Hornet, 52 1 0 Moth caterpi l l ar, 59

1 2 1
Gi ant North Ameri can
g u
Centi pede, 39 Jefferson's Sal amander, ~
Eastern Di amondback
u
Rattl esnake, 1 1 4
Gi ant Red Urchi n, 26 1 05

o Eastern Newt, 99
Gi ant Water Bug, 49 Jel l yfi shes, 1 4, 1 6
Z
Eastern Sand Wasp, 55
Gi l a Monster, 1 06, 1 07 Jumpi ng Pi tvi per, 1 39
u
Glaucus, 20 Jumpi ng spi ders, 36
wL
Echi dna, 1 48
C Echi noderms, 2427
Glycera, 23
Z
Echinotriton, l 02
Golden Netwing Beetl e, Ki l l er Bee, 50
^
Echis, 1 27, 1 46
60 Ki ng Brown Snake, 1 32,

Eel s, 66-67
Gol den Northern 1 33

g u
Egypti an Cobra, 1 27
Bumbl ebee, 5 1 Ki ng Cobra, 1 24
~
Gonionemus, 1 6 Krai t, 1 1 0, 1 24, 1 25 u
Egg-eati ng Snake, 1 46

El api dae, 1 08, 1 1 0, 1 2 1

Gonometa, 58

El opi ds, 1 1 0, 1 27, 1 29,
Grommostola, 32 Lachesis, 1 42
1 32 , 1 36, 1 38, 1 42
Granul ated Thi ck tai led Lactophrys, 85

El egant Eol i d, 20
Scorpi on, 46 Lampetra, 66
Eleodes, 63
Greater Gray Treefrog, lampreys, 66
u
91 Lampropeltis, 1 44
<
Emperor Newt, 1 0 1
Emperor Scorpi on, 44
Greater Weeverfi sh, 78 lancehead, 1 42
v
Ensatina, 1 05
Great Pl ai ns Toad, 90 Lapemis, 1 34
L
Ensati na Sal amander,
Green Fi re Worm, 23 Laphria, 65
Z
1 05
Guatemal an Pal m Laticauda, 1 35

fpicauta, 62
Pi tvi per, 1 39 Latrodectus, 35

Erinaceus, 1 55
Guatemal an Tarantul a, leather Star, 25
= "
Eristalis, 65
3 1 lesser E l ectri c Ray, 69
u
fumenes, 55
Gymnothorax, 67 Leptodeiro, 1 22
Euproctus, 1 00
Gyrinus, 60 Leptodactylus, 92
European Water Shrew,
Lethocerus , 49
m
1 50, 1 5 1 Hodrurus, 43
Limenitis, 64
furyceo, 1 05 Hagfi sh, 66
li onfi sh, 77
Eurythoe, 23 Hai ry mygal omorphs, 30
li on's Mane, 1 6
Euscorpius, 47 Hai ry Sea Cucumber, 27
li zards, 1 06- 1 07
futholus, 32, 33 Hai ti an Sol enodon, 1 53
long-eared Desert
m Eyel ash Pal m Pi tvi per, Hapalochloena, 2 1
Hedgehog, 1 54
1 40 Hardwicke's Sea Snake,
longspi ned Urchi n, 26
1 34
Lo)ocefes, 34
Fai thful leaf-cutti ng Bee, Harl equi n Frog, 92, 97
Lycostomus, 60
51 Harvester ants, 56
Lygaeus, 6 1
Fal se-eyed Frog, 93 Hedgehogs, 7, 1 54- 1 55
lyre Snake, 1 22
Fea's Vi per, 1 26 Heloderma, 1 07
Lystrophi s, 1 45
Fi ddl ebock, 34 Hemochotus, 1 29
Lytto, 62
Fi l efi sh, 83 Hemiechinus, 1 54
Fi re ants, 56 Hemotoxi n, 1 0 Modtom, 72
Fi re-bel l i ed Toad, 96 Hermodice, 23 Mal ayan Pi t Vi per, 1 26
1 58
Mammal s, 1 48- 1 55
Many-bonded Coral
Snoke, 1 4 1
Marbl ed Newt, l 00
Morine Catfi sh, 75
Mari ne Toad, 88, 89
Massosouga, 1 1 9
Mastigoproctus, 4 1
Megachile, 5 1
Megolopyge, 59
Meiocanthus, 8 1
Melonophyniscus, 97
Mexi can Bol i togl ossa,
1 05
Mexi can Pi gmy Rattl e
snake, 1 37
Mexi can Red-l egged
Tarantul a, 32
Mexi can Smal l -headed
Rattl esnake, 1 37
Mexi can West-Coast
Rattl esnake, 1 36
Micruroides, 1 2 1
Micrurus, 1 2, 1 37, 1 4 1 ,
1 43
Mi l k Snoke, 1 44
Mi l kweed Tortoi se Beet l e,
61
Millepora, 1 5
Mi l l i pedes, 40
Mi mi cry, 1 1 , 64, 1 46
Moccasi ns, 1 1 4, 1 20
Mochokiello, 74
Moj ave Rattl esnake,
1 1 4, 1 1 7
Mol l uscs, 1 8- 21
Monaconthus, 83
Monarch, 6 1
Monotremes, 1 48
Moths, 48, 60, 65
Moray Eel , 67
Mottled Eel , 67
Mygal omorphs, 28
Myliobatis , 68
Myrmecia, 57
Myxine, 66
Myxi ni , 66
Naja, l l l , 1 24, 1 27,
1 29
Norcine, 69
Nematocysts, 1 4
Nemerteon worms, 22
Neotropi col Rattl esnake,
1 38
Neomys, 1 5 1
Neurotoxi n, 1 0
Newts, 98- l 02
Ni ght Snoke, 1 22
Northwestern Sal aman-
der, 1 04
Nose-horned Vi per, 1 23
Notechis, 1 32
Notonecta, 49
Notophtholmus, 99
Notorus, 72
Nudi bronchs, 20
Nuttal l Bl i ster Beet l e, 62
Octopuses, 1 8, 2 1
Oki nawa Hobu, 1 26
Ophiophogus, 1 24
Opisthophthalmus, 45
Opsanus, 79
Orange Fire Worm, 23
Orgyio, 59
Ornithorhynchus, 1 49
Ostei chthyes, 72
Ottoman Vi per, 1 23
Oxyuranus, 1 33
Paci fi c Gi ant Sal aman-
der, 1 05
Paci fi c Sol e, 8 1
Pol e legged Scorpi on, 45
Pondinus, 44
Parabuthus, 46
Poromesotriton, 1 0 1
Paranthrene, 65
Parastichopus, 27
Pordachirus, 81
Peckhamia, 64
Pel agi c Sea Snake, 1 34
Pelomis, 1 34
Pel l enci o Di pl ocentrus,
43
Pepsis, 54
Phidippus, 36
Phrynomerus, 93
Phyllobotes, 95
Physalaemus, 93
Physolio, 1 5
Pi gmy rattl esnakes, 1 1 4,
1 1 9
Pimelodus, 73
Pi nk-toed Bi rd-eati ng
Tarantul a, 33
Pi t vi pers, 1 1 2
Pl oneheod F i l efi sh, 83
Pl atypus, 1 48, 1 49
Plotosus, 75
Pogonomyrmex, 57
Poi son Dart frogs, 94
Polistes, 53
Pol ybi ne Paper Wasp, 53
Porcupinefi sh, 84
Porlhidium, 1 38, 1 39
Portuguese Mon-o-War,
1 5
Potamotrygon, 69
Potter Wasp, 55
Predaceous Diving Beetle
larva, 49
Pseudechis, 1 33
Psolus, 27
Pteroi s, 77
Pterygoplichthys , 73
Puff Adder, 1 30
Puffers, 82, 83, 84
Puss Moth Caterpi l l ar, 59
Pyrenean Mountai n
Newt, 1 00
Rai nforest Hognosed
Ro
i
i
r, 1 38
Raffi sh, 71
Rottl ebox Moth, 60
Rattl esnakes, 1 1 4, 1 47
Rays, 68-69
Rear-fanged snakes, 1 22
Red Ant, 57
Red-bock Spi der, 35
Red-bel l i ed Bl ock Snoke,
1 33
Red Mi l kweed Beetl e, 6 1
Red Sea Sol es, 8 1
Red-spotted Toad, 90
Red Stomphi o, 1 7
Red-toi l ed Bumbl ebee,
5 1
Repti l es, l 06- 1 47
Rhechostica, 32
Rhinecanthus, 85
Rhi noceros Vi per, 1 3 1
Rhinoderma, 92
Rhynchostraci on, 85
Ri bbon worms, 22
Ri dgenose Rattl esnake,
1 1 8
Ri nghol s, 1 29
Rock Rattl esnake, 1 1 8
Rough Harvester Ant, 56
Russel l s's Vi per, 1 24, 1 25
Socken's Bee Hunter, 65
Soddl ebock Caterpi l l ar,
59
Sahara Sand Vi per, 1 27
Sal amanders, 86, 98-
1 05
Solomandra, 1 03
Solomandrina, 1 00
Sa/ti cus, 36
Sand dol l ars, 24
Sandhi l i s Hornet, 53
Sow-scal ed Vi per, 1 24,
1 27, 1 46
Scarl et Psol us, 27
Scaphiodontophis, 1 45
Scaphiopus, 91
Scarl et Snake, 1 44
Sceliphron, 55
Sclerodoctylo, 27
Scal i a, 55
Scolopendro, 38
Scol opendromorphs, 38
Scorpi onfi shes, 76
Scorpi ons, 7, 42-47
1 59
Scorpi ons, whi p, 41 Stichoplostus, 3 1
Unken refl ex, 96, 97
m
Scul ptured Centruroi des, Sti ngi ng Caterpi l l ar, 58 Uronoscopus, 80
43 Sti ngi ng cel l s, 6 Urolophus, 69
Sea anemones, 1 4, 1 7 Sti ngi ng Coral , 1 5 Uroplectes, 47
Sea Bl ubber, 1 6 Sti ngi ng hai rs, 58 Urt i cati ng Caterpi l l ar, 59
Sea cucumbers, 24, 27 Sti ngi ng i nsects, 50 Utetheisa, 60
Sea Cl own Nudi branch, Sti ngrays, 68-69
20 Stone Fi sh, 1 2, 76
Vagrant Shrew, 1 52
Sea li zard, 20 Squalus, 70
Vari abl e Coral Snake,
Sea sl ugs, 20 Stri ped Bl i ster Beetl e, 62
1 37
Sea snakes, 1 1 0, 1 34, Stri pe-tai l ed Vej oni s, 43
Vejovi s, 43
1 35 Strongylocentrotus, 26
Venom, 4
Sea urchi ns, 24, 26 Sun Star, 25
apparatus, 6
Sea Wasp, 1 6 Surgeonfi shes, 80
danger, 8
<
Sebastes, 76 Sword-tai l ed Newt, 1 01
fi rst ai d, 1 0
Segmented worms, 23 Synanceja, 76
types of, 1 0
Sharks, 68, 70 Sydney Funnel web
uses, 6, 1 2, 1 3
Sharp-nosed Vi per, 1 26 Spi der, 29
Venomous sal iva
Short-handed Thi ck- Synodontis, 74
( i nsects), 49
tailed Scorpi on, 46
Vespa, 52
Shrews , 1 50- 1 5 1
Vespulo, 53
Short-tai l ed Shrew, 1 50 Tochyglossus, 1 48
Vi ceroy, 64
Sibine, 59 Toeniura, 69
Vi negoroon, 41
z
Si bon, 1 45 Tai l - spotted Newt, 1 0 1
u Vipero, 1 23

Si dewi nder, 1 1 4, 1 1 6 Tai pan, 1 32, 1 33

Vi peri dae, 1 08, 1 1 2
m

Si strurus, 1 1 9 Tantillo, 1 45
Vi pers, 1 1 2, 1 30
4 Skates, 68 Tarantel l a, 36
mi mi cry, 1 46

Sl ugs, 1 8 Tarantul a Hawk, 54

Vi rescent Green Metal l i c

Smal l Eastern Mi l kweed Tarantul as, 30-33

Bee, 5 1

Bug, 61 Toricho, 98

Smal l Whi rl i gi g Beetl e, Tentacl ed Caterpi l l ar, 63

Wanderi ng spi ders, 37
I
60 Tetraopes, 61
Snai l s , 1 8 Textrodotoxi n, 82
Warni ng col orati on, 1 1

Snakebi te, deaths from, Texas Brown Tarant ul a,

Wasps, 52-55

8, 9 32
Weeverfi shes, 78

Snakes, 1 08- 1 47 Texti l e Cone, 1 8, 1 9

Western Di amondback
Soloster, 25 Thelotornis, 1 28
Rattl esnake, 1 1 4, 1 1 5
0
Solenodon, 1 53 Thi stl edown Velvet-ant,
Western Hognose Snoke,

m
Sol enodons, 1 53 54
1 47
f
Solenopsis, 56 Tiger Rattl esnake, 1 1 4,
Western Newt, 98

Sol es, 8 1 1 1 7
Western Rattl esnake,
Z Sonoran Green Toad, 90 Tiger Rockfi sh, 76
1 1 4, 1 1 5, 1 47
Sorex, 1 52 Ti ger Sal amander, 1 04
Western Toad, 88
South Ameri can Bul l frog, Ti ger Snake, 1 32
Wheel Bug, 49
92 Ti mber Rattl esnake, 1 1 4,
Whi p scorpi ons, 41
Sout h Ameri can Hog- 1 1 5
Whi te-marked Tussock
nosed Snoke, 1 09 Toadfi shes, 79
Moth, 59
Southern Coral Snoke, Toads, 86, 88-90, 96
Wi dows, 35
1 43 Toxopneustes, 26
Wol f spi ders, 36
Spani sh Fl y, 62 Trachinus, 78
Wood Frog, 91
Spectacled Newt, 1 00 Trebacoso, 36
Woodhouse's Toad, 90
Sphoeroides, 83 Tree-dwel l i ng Funnel web
Worms, 22, 23
Sphecius, 55 Spi der, 29
Spi ders, 28-37 Trimorphodon, 1 22
Yomokogoshi , 1 09
Spi ney Newt, 1 02, 1 03 Trimeresurus, 1 26
Yel l ow and Bl ack
Spi ny Dogfi sh, 70 Tri ggerfi sh, 85
Mi l l i pede, 40
Spi ny-ski nned ani mal s, Triopho, 20
Yel l ow-bel l i ed Toad, 96
24 Triturus, 1 00
Yel l ow-bl otched Pal m
Spi ny Sun Star, 25 Tropi cal Centruroi des, 42 Pi tvi per, 1 40
Spi tti ng Cobra, 1 1 0 Tropi cal Fi re Ant, 56
Yel l ow Spotted Mi l l i pede,
Spotted Moray, 67 Trunkfi sh, 85
40
Spotted Trunkfi sh, 85 Two-stri ped Forest
Yel l ow Sti ngray, 69
Starfi shes, 24 Pi tvi per, 1 42
Stargazers, 80 Tylototriton, 1 0 1
Zebrafi sh, 77

F
VENOMOUS ANIMALS
PLLLPLL'
FDMUND D. RODlF, JR. , Ph. D. , Professor and
Chairman of the Biology Department at The Unver
sity of Texas at Arlington, is the author of more than
1UUpublications and two books on the behavior, ecol
ogy, and evol ut i onary bi ol ogy of rept i l es and
amphibians. Dr. Brodie has had extensive field expe
rience throughout the United States and in Canada,
Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Kenya, and China.
JOHN D. DAWSON, noted wildlife artist, is a grad
uate of the Art Center College of Design. His beauti
ful, scientifically accurate paintings appear regularly
in 0|!0n0| Lc0

r0h!t, .uJu00n, National Wildlife

Federation and other publications, and through the
U. S. Postal Service/Philatelc Division. He has illus
trated several Golden Guide covers. Dawson works
from a studio in his home on the Big Wood River in
the mountains of Idaho, and from various locations
uthe Hawaian Islands.
COLOLNFRL55 NLWYORK
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LLLN UL