Gender Dimensions of Employment in India

Neetha N. Centre for Womens Development Studies New Delhi, INDIA

The views expressed in this paper are the views of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), or its Board of Governors, or the governments they represent. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this paper and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The countries listed in this paper do not imply any view on ADB's part as to sovereignty or independent status or necessarily conform to ADB's terminology.

Overview
Jobless growth- Unimpressive growth rate in employment with considerable fluctuations.

During the period 1988 to 1994, annual rural aggregate employment grew at 2.03 percent, but in the subsequent period the rate slipped sharply to 0.66 percent while the urban employment growth rate declined from 3.39 per cent to 2.27 per cent.
The annual rate of employment growth, however, did show recovery between 2000 and 2005, increasing to 1.97 per cent and 3.22 per cent for the rural and urban sectors respectively further declined drastically in the recent years- 0.17% per annum between 2004-05 and 2007-08 .

The subject of women, work and globalization has been an important area of debate and analysis in India.

 Recent data indicates a crisis in female employment. Three broad aspects

Extent of the decline both total and paid employment Sectoral and industrial dimensions of the decline Implications and future policy

Trends in Female Work Participation Rates

(UPS and UPSS)

 Annual rate of decline of about 2.9 per cent of female labour force with an average growth rate of female population at 1.9 per cent. A long-term downward trend in the FWPR for rural areas Downslide is more pronounced in the case of UPS workers. Male participation rates stagnant with small increase. The reduction in female work force across all age groups maximum being in the age group of 30-34. 72 per cent those dropped are above 25 years. For men largely in the younger age groups and above 60 years. Larger proportion of drop outs are from rural areas belonging to economically poor households.

Percentage Distribution of Employment by StatusUPSS- Rural

Percentage Distribution of Employment by StatusUPSS- Urban

Characteristics of Rural Self-employed Women Workers (UPSS)

Characteristics of Urban Self-employed Women Workers (UPSS)

Percentage Distribution of Rural Female Workforce by Employment Status (UPSS)

Percentage Distribution of Urban Female Workforce by Employment Status (UPSS)

Usual (PS+SS) Paid Work Participation Rates

Usual (PS+SS) Work Participation Rates

Estimated numbers of UPSS workers (rural + urban) across broad industrial categories, 1993-94 to 2009-10 [000s]

Industry 1993-94 Agriculture

F M 94,188 (77.4) 1,44,638 (57.3) 480 (0.4) 2,232 (0.9) 11,524 (9.5) 28,336 (11.2)

Female and Male Workers 1999-00

92,365 (75.1) 1,45,619 (53.1) 361 (0.3) 1,869 (0.7) 12,376 (10.7) 31,583 (11.5)

2004-05
1,07,772 (72.5) 1,51,107 (48.9) 409 (0.3) 2,229 (0.7) 17,313 (11.7) 38,629 (12.5)

2007-08
99,681 (73.7) 1,63,141 (50.2) 400 (0.3) 2,058 (0.6) 13,970 (10.3) 38,852 (12.0)

2009-10
87,566 (68.7) 1,56,224 (47.1) 382 (0.3) 2,653 (0.8) 13,766 (10.8) 36,817 (11.1)

Mining and Quarrying F

M

Manufacturing

F M F M

Electricity , water etc

Construction Trade, hotels & rest. Trans. and comm. Other services All Workers

86 (0.1)
1,331 (0.5) 1,598 (1.3) 10,378 (4.1) 3,893 (3.2) 24,610 (9.8) 280 (0.2) 10,446 (4.1) 9,664 (7.9) 30,380 (12.0) 1,21,713 2,52,350

45 (0)
1,056 (0.4) 1,969 (1.6) 15,475 (5.6) 5,215 (4.2) 35,924 (13.1) 436 (0.4) 14,241 (5.2) 10,292 (8.4) 28,220 (10.3) 1,23,038 2,73,980

62 (0)
1,240 (0.4) 2,728 (1.8) 23,305 (7.5) 6,101 (4.1) 43,433 (14.0) 528 (0.4) 17,950 (5.8) 13,677 (9.2) 31,418 (10.2) 1,48,589 3,09,310

39(0)
1,145 (0.4) 3,144 (2.3) 26,611 (8.2) 5,209 (3.9) 42,307 (13.0) 544 (0.4) 19,146 (5.9) 12,301 (9.1) 3,1682 (9.8) 1,35,288 3,24,942

127 (0.1)
995 (0.3) 6,501 (5.1) 37,481 (11.3) 5,481 (4.3) 44,446 (13.4) 510 (0.4) 19,569 (5.9) 13,129 (10.3) 33,500 (10.1) 1,27,462 3,31,686

F M F M F M F M F M

Sectoral Distribution and Trends

Widening the gap between the number of male and female workers both paid workforce as well as in the standard estimate.
While the number of male workers in agriculture has been increasing, the female workforce reduced by around 20 million between 2004-05 and 2009-10. Manufacturing the second largest employer -despite having pushed out around 3.5 million women. Construction - absorbed maximum drop outs- 3 million additions. Temporary and partial employment in construction with the prominence of contractor-based circular migration regime The number of women working in trade, hotels and restaurants fell by 10%. Transport, storage and communications and, surprisingly, other services saw a reduction in the number of women, although to a lesser degree.

 A comparison of the figures for only paid workers and standard estimates of the workforce gives some insight into changes in different sectors.

Decline in unpaid work in agriculture and manufacturing.

The declining income from agriculture and shift to non farm wage work of male workers - possible explanations for the decline in womens employment in agriculture. The fallout of the 2007-08 global financial crisis and the closing down of many traditional household industries - loss of unpaid work opportunities in manufacturing This could also be on account contraction in subcontracting part-processes to home-based workers

 Decline in the number of women reflected in womens paid employment as well. While the overall decline largely centred on agriculture and manufacturing- the distribution of paid workers show a slightly different picture.
Decrease in the number of paid women workers is not large, but apart from agriculture and construction, every other major industry show reduction in the absolute numbers of paid women workers.

On the whole, a grim picture of womens employment at the turn of the first decade of the 21st Century

Female share in paid employment broad sectors

 Importance of service sector as the engine of growth - the most highlighted aspect About 7 per cent of total female employment in rural areas and 51 per cent in urban areas in 2009-10.

Stagnating share of service sector, in the context of its projected potential in terms of female employment, raises serious concerns.
Growth within the service sector and its employment prospects are not uniform, or its implications on different categories of workers. 32 per cent in community social and personal services. Financial and business services accounting for 1.36 percent of women workers 0.26 in rural areas and 5.5 per cent in urban areas. Slow but steady increase from 2.4 % in 1999-00 to 3.3 % in 2004-05 to 5.5 % in 2009-10

Rural

Urban

 Service sector though contributes for substantial proportion of women workers, the degree of concentration points to the broad contours of change The sub-sectoral data shows a stagnating share of public administration. Education occupies the most important position both in rural and urban areas Nature of jobs is an issue largely contractual. Growing share of women in education could be linked to individual and family aspirations resulting from the social acceptability of the sector. Private household with employed persons, next to education indicative of desperate entry of women into paid work. Working conditions of domestic workers (in terms of wage earnings and other benefits) are one of poorest

To sum up
Overall volatility and marginalization of women - Decline in WPR and sectoral concentration. Womens work still dependent on male employment. Male employment shifts from self employment to casual labour or regular work leads to women losing as unpaid helpers. Need to look at paid work and its changes. - a large section still remaining out of paid employment and their share is increasing.

This alters the nature of cooperation or interdependence and power relations in families or households.
The scale of such economic and financial dependence is perhaps the most significant factor in the continuing subordinate status of women

Suggestions for Policy

Generation of jobs at the middle level alongside opportunities of skill development better presence in upper and lower ends.
Creation of conducive environment with enabling conditions enhance visibility as well as participation in productive employment. Special focus on sectors of higher concentration regulations required for domestic workers ,women in education sector and own account workers.

Supportive social institutions that lessen womens care and domestic responsibilities enabling their entry and competitiveness in the labour market.