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Asep Suryahadi & Widjajanti Isdijoso SMERU Research Institute www.smeru.or.id Workshop on Education, Employment, and Entrepreneurship ADB & OECD Manila 27-28 February 2012
The views expressed in this paper are the views of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), or its Board of Governors, or the governments they represent. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this paper and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The countries listed in this paper do not imply any view on ADB's part as to sovereignty or independent status or necessarily conform to ADB's terminology.
Policy Area
Formal Institution: Biased laws/regulations Informal Institution: Social norms on care and market works Market: Differential access to labor market Household: Differential allocation of time and resources
Elasticity -0.112** -0.065 -0.307** -0.066 -0.307** -0.017 -0.196** 1.000* -0.140 -0.086* -0.364*
t-value -3.031 -1.874 -4.642 -1.801 -3.349 -0.480 -3.787 -2.086 -0.699 -2.248 -2.560
Recommendations:
Explicit prohibition of both horizontal and vertical sex segregation and discrimination of work Stipulation on threshold limit values, physical work loads, and risks within female-dominated occupations Requirement for provision of information and education about womens occupational health and safety risks Establishing law on domestic workers
low representation of
Recommendations:
Supporting and facilitating womens equal access to unionization
Union-sponsored activities should take into account womens special needs, such as family-friendly schedules
Within unions, womens committees should be formed to stimulate discussion on womens specific needs
Recommendations:
Strengthening cooperation with receiving countries in providing protection for women working in domestic works
Ratifying UN convention on the protection of the rights of migrant workers (in progress)
Formal Institution: Biased laws/regulations Income Tax Law No. 36/2008 (1)
Based on assumption that women are secondary earners Serious implication for female headed households (many of
them are not officially divorced from their husbands)
Recommendations:
Developing a system that provide more flexibility for husband and wife to have own tax account and decide who should have discounted tax rate (taking into account the dependents)
Formal Institution: Biased laws/regulations Income Tax Law No. 36/2008 (2)
Formal Institution: Biased laws/regulations Income Tax Law No. 36/2008 (3)
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Women are viewed as responsible for care work, while earning family income is the responsibility of men
Recommendations:
11
12
Womens participation in the labor force (51%) is far below mens (84%)
Underemployment is much more common among women (37%) than among men (22%)
A large majority of overseas migrant workers are women (74% ), most of them work as domestic helpers (90%) Ratio of unemployment rate between women and men is improving but still higher than one
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Recommendations:
Strengthening family-friendly policies such as providing support for child care, maternity and paternity leave, support for women during maternity and on return to work, facilities for nursing infants, flexible working hours, flexible leave arrangements and career-break schemes, teleworking, and home-working. Preventing irregular and unpredictable work schedules, over which the employee has little control Imposing quotas on the number of women on company boards Promoting gender equality in education
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0 out of 6 0 out of 6
Percentile 25
Percentile 50
Percentile 75
Percentile 90
-15
-20 -25 -30 -35
Control variables: Experience, age, education, marital status Source: Toth (2010)
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Age 19%
Gender wage gap has declined by 15% between 1996 and 2009
Education 51%
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Double burdens for women who do market work as they are still responsible for all or most household works
Working as unpaid family workers is more pervasive among women (32.4% ) than among men (8.1%) Providing child- and out-of-school hours care support
Development of an integrated set of work-family balance supports for families with children
Recommendations:
Investing in physical and social infrastructure to help women access labor markets
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Thank You
It is through gainful employment that woman traversed most of the distance that separated her from the male; and nothing else can guarantee her liberty in practice. (Simone de Beauvoir, 1949)
Asep suryahadi@smeru.or.id
Widjajanti anti@smeru.or.id