Foams can be defined as colloidal systems in which air bubbles are dispersed into an aqueous continuous phase (Damodaran,

1997b). Essential for the formation of protein-based foams is a rapid diffusion of protein to the air-water interface to reduce surface tension, followed by partial unfolding of the protein (De Wit, 1989). The most important foaming characteristics of proteins are foam volume (% overrun) and foam stability (Arendt & Dal Bello, 2008). The stability of a foam may be measured in terms of loss of foam volume over a period of time. When a liquid is whipped to form a foam, the volume of the liquid increases due to incorporation of air. If the foam is stable, the volume does not change very much. However, loss of air from an unstable foam may cause a considerable reduction in volume. Foam stability depends on the ability of the foaming agent to produce a stable interfacial film and a viscous continuous phase (Vaclavik, Christian, 2008). Factors Affecting Milk Foam Sugar increases the stability of whipped cream, but it should be added gradually, toward the end of the whipping period. If added earlier, it will increase the whipping time and reduce overall volume and rigidity by delaying the clumping of dat. Sugar has the benefit, however, of lessening the likelihood of overbeating the cream. For the best stability, powdered sugar instead of granulated sugar should be used (Brown, 2011). The addition of an acid, like lemon juice or cream of tartar, at the end of whipping also increases the foam stability. The addition of gelatin further increases the stability and volume, making the foam useful in quantity food production (Gilmore, 2002). Gelatin is a good foaming agent, and a warm gelatin sol can be whipped to three times its original volume. When cooled, the gelatin solidifies or forms a gel, which traps the air bubble and stabilizes tha foam (Vaclavik, Christian, 2008). The solubility of air in liquid decreases with increased temperature, so steam injection offers good compromise between foam formation and stability. Air is more soluble in cold milk and this favors the formation of foam. Then, as the foam is heated via steam injection, and the solubility of the air in the liquid decreases, proteins are mildly heated, which favors their mobility on the bubble surface, As the milk is heated further, proteins open up, or denature, and start to associate with one another, creating an elastic protein network on the surface of the bubbles. This significantly increases the stability of the foam. However, hot milk can have a negative effect on many aspects of both foam formation and stability. When hot, milk becomes less viscous and therefore the liquid drains faster from within the bubbles. Second, the solubility of air in hot milk decreases, inhibiting foam formation. Last but not least, and relevant only for whole or part skim milk, fat globules are liquid and able to cause film rupture as already described. All this means that, at least in principle, heated and then cooled milk should be suitable for foaming. However, milk that has been ultra-high temperature treated produces weaker foams, presumably because the extremely high processing temperature (286F[131C]) have reduced the ability of proteins to adsorb to and stabilixe the bubbles (Vega, Ubbink & Van Der Linden, 2012). The higher the fat content of the cream, the more stable the whipped cream will be. Solid fat particles create a more rigid foams. Heavy ehipping cream beats more easily than lower-fat

whipping creams, but becomes lumpy and buttery when overbeaten. An advantage using heavy whipping cream (39 to 40% butterfat) is that its lower moisture content will prevent pastry crust from becoming soggy when it is filled with cream fillings. Whipping creams with a 30 to 36% fat content result in a softer, less stable foam (Brown, 2011).

Treatment Chilled Heavy Cream Chilled Evporated Milk Standard NFDM

Beating time (min) 6.3 3.1

% Drain 10 48

Specific Gravity 0.76 0.63

Appearance Thick Runny

Flavor Creamy Milky

2.45

80

0.17

Water, Foamy Slightly milky

Raw data: Weight of water = 117g Treatment Chilled Heavy Cream Chilled Evaporation Milk Standard NFDM RnD In this experiment, the stability of different kinds of milk was tested. Milk will from a foam when agitated. Foaming is due to the trapping of air in liquid. (Manay, 2011). An electric mixer was used. Foaming capacity can be maeasured by simple methods using domestic mixers with milk solutions at set times and temperatures and measuring the resultant foam generated (Phillips et al., 1987). Stability of the foam was measured by finding how much liquid drains from it on standing. This was done by transferring the foam to a funnel and measuring the liquid that drains from it. The more liquid that drains means less stable foam (Srilakshmi, 2003). Milks are better suited to foaming than others. Because the whey proteins are the crtitical stabilizers, milks that are fortifies with added protein---usually reduced-fat and skim milks--are most easily foamed. Full-fat foams, on the other hand, are fuller in texture and flavor. Milk should always be as fresh as possible, since milk that has begun to sour can curdle when heated (McGee, 1984 & 2004). Weight (g) 89.4 72.5 19.9 Volume of Drained Liquid (ml) 12.5 60 100 Volume of Unbeaten (ml) 125 125 125

Cream whips into foam if it has a minimum milk fat content of about 28%. Both whipping cream and heavy cream can be whipped satisfactorily, but heavy cream, because of its higher fat content, produces a more stable (but denser) foam. Besides using cream with a higher fat content, you can stabilize whipped cream by first chilling the cream to solidify some of the milk fat; by slowly adding sugar while whipping; or by folding in a gelatin solution or other stabilizer (Figoni, 2011). Undiluted evaporated milk foams makes the most stable foam when the mlk has been chilled in an ice cube tray to the point where some ice crystals are forming in it. An evaporated milk foam is stabilized primarily by the viscous nature of the concentrated milk protein dispersion. The fat content is only about 7.5 %, well below the 30 to 23 percent found in whipping cream; the protein content is about three times that in whipping cream (McWilliams, 2006). Nonfat dried milk powder can actually be whipped into a foam. This whipped milk product is very unstable, but it is much less expensive and lower in both calories and fat than whipped cream. Stability is increased by adding lemon juice or sugar during beating, which continues until the peaks bend over slightly on top (Brown, 2011). Materials Heavy cream, Evaporated milk, Nonfat dry milk solids (NFDM), Vanilla extract, white sugar, 500mL graduated cups, graduated cylinder, electric mixer, and mixing bowl. Method Prepared whipped foams were measured in graduated 2 cups (500mL) liquid measures. Electric mixer was used to produce foam that forms mounds (Note: overbeating should be avoided). First, whipped foams were prepared using cup (125mL) heavy cream at room temperature was chilled, even the beaters and the cup to the refrigerator/freezer. Then the cream was whipped. Next, whipped foam was prepared using cup (125mL) of undiluted evaporated milk using room temperature (Note: Whip until peaks stand in mounds.) And then, whipped foam was prepared using cup (125mL) NFDM and 1/3 cup (75mL) iced water using standard temperature, whipped until foam stands in mounds.

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McWilliams, M., (2006). Nutrition and Dietetics. Singapore: Pearson Education, Inc.. McGee, H., (1984, 2004). On Food and Cooking . New York: Simon & Schuster. Figoni, P., (2011). How Baking Works. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Brown, A., (2011). Understanding Food: Principles & Preparation. United States of America: Cengage Learning, Inc.. Srilakshmi, B. 2003. Food Science. India: New Age International.

Manay, Shakuntala. 2001. Food: Facts and Principle. India: New Age International Phillips, L.G., Haque Z. and Kinsella J.E. 1987. A Method for the measurement of foam formation and stability. Journal of Food Science 52. 1074-1077.