Seawater Composition Almost anything can be found in seawater.

This includes dissolved materials from Earth's crust as well as materials released from organisms. The most important components of seawater that influence life forms are salinity, temperature, dissolved gases (mostly oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutrients, and pH. Each of these is discussed below along with how it varies (or does not vary) and its influence on marine life. Salinity The salinity of seawater is usually 35 parts per thousand (also written as o/oo) in most marine areas. This salinity measurement is a total of all the salts that are dissolved in the water. Although 35 parts per thousand is not very concentrated (the same as 3.5 parts per hundred, o/o, or percent) the water in the oceans tastes very salty. The interesting thing about this dissolved salt is that it is always made up of the same types of salts and they are always in the same proportion to each other (even if the salinity is different than average). The majority of the salt is the same as table salt (sodium chloride) but there are other salts as well. Variations occur in ocean salinity due to several factors. The most common factor is the relative amount of evaporation or precipitation in an area. If there is more evaporation than precipitation then the salinity increases (since salt is not evaporated into the atmosphere). If there is more precipitation (rain) than evaporation then the salinity decreases. Another factor that can change the salinity in the ocean is due to a very large river emptying into the ocean. The runoff from most small streams and rivers is quickly mixed with ocean water by the currents and has little effect on salinity. But large rivers (like the Amazon River in South America) may make the ocean have little or no salt content for over a mile or more out to sea. The freezing and thawing of ice also affects salinity. The thawing of large icebergs (made of frozen fresh water and lacking any salt) will decrease the salinity while the actual freezing of seawater will increase the salinity temporarily. This temporary increase happens in the first stages of the freezing of seawater when small ice crystals form at about minus 2 degrees Centigrade. These tiny, needle-like ice crystals are frozen freshwater and the salts are not part of them so the liquid between these crystals becomes increasingly salty to the point of it being a brine. Eventually though, as seawater freezes, the ice crystals trap areas with brine and the entire large piece of frozen seawater (ice floe) is salty. Many marine organisms are highly affected by changes in salinity. This is because of a process called osmosis which is the ability of water to move in and out of living cells, in response to a concentration of a dissolved material, until an equilibrium is reached. In general the dissolved material does not easily cross the cell membrane so the water flows by osmosis to form an equilibrium. Marine organisms respond to this as either being osmotic conformers (also called poikilosmotic) or osmotic regulators (or homeosmotic). Osmotic conformers have no mechanism to control osmosis and their cells are the same salt content as the liquid environment in which they are found (in the ocean this would be 35 o/oo salt). If a marine osmotic conformer were put in fresh water (no salt), osmosis would cause water to enter its cells (to form an equilibrium), eventually causing the cells to pop (lysis). If a marine osmotic conformer were put in super salty water (greater than 35 o/oo salt) then osmosis would cause the water inside the cells to move out, eventually causing the cells to dehydrate (plasmolyze). These marine osmotic conformers include the marine plants and invertebrate animals which do not do well in areas without a normal salinity of 35 o/oo. Osmotic regulators have a variety of mechanisms to control osmosis and the salt content of their cells varies. It does not matter what the salt content is of the water surrounding a marine osmotic regulator, their mechanisms will prevent any drastic changes to the living cells. Marine osmotic regulators include most of the fish, reptiles, birds and mammals. These are the organisms that are most likely to migrate long distances where they may encounter changes in salinity. An excellent example of this is the salmon fish. The fish is about 18 o/oo salt so in seawater it tends to dehydrate and constantly drinks the seawater. Special cells on the gills (called chloride cells) excrete the salt so the fish can replace its lost water. When a salmon migrates to fresh water its cells start to take on water so the salmon stops drinking and its kidneys start working to produce large amounts of urine to expel the water. Temperature The temperature of seawater varies with the amount of sun that hits that area. This includes the length of time as well as the angle of the sun's rays. The longer the time and the more direct the rays of the sun fall on the ocean, the greater the temperature of seawater. Thus, tropical areas that get more year-round sun and more direct sun (almost 90 degrees, straight down for most of the year at noon) have warmer surface waters than polar areas that may have no sun at all for several months each year and then very steep angles of the sun's rays (never directly overhead at noon). Knowing this about ocean water helps us understand that surface ocean temperatures are warm in the tropics (up to 30 or more degrees C) and cooler at the poles (down to -2 degrees C).

But, when we look below the surface we find that the oceans are also vertically stratified and marine scientists recognize a basic three layered ocean - the upper mixed layer, the main thermocline, and deep (bottom) water. The upper mixed layer is all one temperature but that temperature can vary from -2 degrees C, at the poles, to +30 degrees C, in the tropics. It all depends on the latitude and effects of the sun's heat and may be highly seasonal. The depth of this layer can be anything between the surface and 200 meters deep - usually the 200 meter depth is near the equator. The volume of this upper mixed layer is only about two percent of the volume of the ocean water. The main thermocline is an area of rapidly decreasing temperature with depth. This changes with latitude and may begin at 200 meters (the bottom of the mixed layer) in the tropics where it may end at close to 1,000 meters (or anywhere above that depending on the strength of the sun). It may also begin right at the surface of the ocean in high temperate areas and extend to a variety of depths. This layer shifts up and down with the seasons in the temperate areas. The main thermocline comprises only 18 percent of the volume of the ocean water. Deep (or bottom) water is always one cold temperature ranging between -2 to +5 degrees C. It is below the main thermocline (at the bottom of the thermocline there is no longer a decrease in water temperature with depth ... it is all one cold temperature). It is not affected by the seasons. This layer has most of the seawater and comprises close to 80 percent of all ocean water by volume. It is under the tropical areas, most temperate areas when there is a main thermocline, and is all the way to the surface in the polar areas (where there is no thermocline). Seawater temperature affects marine organisms by changing the reaction rates within their cell(s). Although each species has a specific range of temperature at which it can live, the warmer the water gets the faster the reactions and the cooler the water the slower the reactions. An organism's response to water temperature is considered to be cold blooded (or poikilothermic) or warm blooded (homeothermic) depending on their ability to control their internal body temperature. If any species is moved out of its temperature tolerance range it may die in a short time although temperatures on the cool side of the range are easier for organisms to tolerate than temperatures on the warm side because cell reactions just slow down in the cold but may speed up over six times the normal levels for each 10 degrees C of heat. Cold blooded (poikilothermic) marine organisms lack any temperature controls. These include marine plants, invertebrates, most fish and marine reptiles. These species each have their specific temperature tolerance range within which they must live (some are adapted to polar temperatures, some to tropical temperatures). Some have a narrow range (and are thus very restricted) and some have a wide range (and are thus less restricted). Warm blooded (homeothermic) marine organisms have some type of internal temperature controls to maintain a constant body temperature. These organisms include a few fish, all sea birds and mammals. This ability allows these warm blooded marine species to migrate over vast distances through various temperatures without problems and include some of the animals on Earth with the longest migrations. Density Temperature, salinity and pressure affect the density of seawater. Large water masses of different densities are important in the layering of the ocean water (more dense water sinks). As temperature increases water becomes less dense. As salinity increases water becomes more dense. As pressure increases water becomes more dense. A cold, highly saline, deep mass of water is very dense whereas a warm, less saline, surface water mass is less dense. When large water masses with different densities meet the denser water mass slips under the less dense mass. These responses to density are the reason for some of the deep ocean circulation models. Dissolved Gases The concentration of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide are very important for marine life forms. Although both oxygen and carbon dioxide are a gas when outside the water, they dissolve to a certain extent in liquid seawater. Dissolved oxygen is what animals with gills use for respiration (their gills extract the dissolved oxygen from the water flowing over the gill filaments). Dissolved carbon dioxide is what marine plants use for photosynthesis. The amount of dissolved gases varies according to the types of life forms in the water. Most living species need oxygen to keep their cells alive (both plants and animals) and are constantly using it up. Replenishment of dissolved oxygen comes from the photosynthetic activity of plants (during daylight hours only) and from surface diffusion (to a lesser extent).

If there are a large number of plants in a marine water mass then the oxygen levels can be quite high during the day. If there are few plants but a large number of animals in a marine water mass then the oxygen levels can be quite low. Oxygen is measured in parts per million (also called ppm) and levels can range from zero to over 20 ppm in temperate waters. It only reaches 20 when there are a lot of plants in the water, it is very sunny with lots of nutrients, and the wind is whipping up the surface into a froth. In any water mass there is a maximum amount of dissolved gas that can be found (after which the gas no longer dissolves but bubbles to the surface). This maximum amount increases with a decrease in temperature (thus cold water masses can hold more dissolved gases ... but they can also have none if it has been used up). So, just because a water mass is cold it does not mean it has a lot of dissolved gases. This concept is a little tricky but just remember that the amount of dissolved gases in seawater depends more on the types of life forms (plants and animals) that are present and their relative proportions. Dissolved Nutrients Fertilizers, like nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K), are important for plant growth and are called 'nutrients.' The level of dissolved nutrients increases from animal feces and decomposition (bacteria, fungi). Surface water often may be lacking in nutrients because feces and dead matter tend to settle to the bottom of the ocean. Most decomposition is thus at the bottom of the ocean. In the oceans most surface water is separated from bottom water by a thermocline (seasonal in temperature and marginal polar regions, constant in tropics) which means that once surface nutrients get used up (by the plants there) they become a limiting factor for the growth of new plants. Plants must be at the surface for the light. Nutrients are returned to surface waters by a special type of current called 'upwelling' and it is in these areas of upwelling that we find the highest productivity of marine life. Silica and iron may also be considered important marine nutrients as their lack can limit the amount of productivity in an area. Silica is needed by diatoms (one of the main phytoplanktonic organisms that forms the base of many marine food chains. Iron is just recently being discovered to be a limiting factor for phytoplankton. pH pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance and is one of the stable measurements in seawater. Ocean water has an excellent buffering system with the interaction of carbon dioxide and water so that it is generally always at a pH of 7.5 to 8.5. Neutral water is a pH of 7 while acidic substances are less than 7 (down to 1, which is highly acidic) and alkaline substances are more than 7 (up to 14, which is highly alkaline). Anything either highly acid or alkaline would kill marine life but the oceans are very stable with regard to pH. If seawater was out of normal range (7.5-8.5) then something would be horribly wrong. In summary, the salinity and pH of seawater are relatively stable measurements whereas temperature, dissolved oxygen, and nutrients may vary. 5. Water Movements The principal movements in enclosed waters are waves, currents and seiches. The tides are of less import in inland waters, but in the case of coastal aquaculture systems the tides, which flush the ponds, are of maximum importance and would be dealt with separately. From the needs of small farm ponds perhaps these water movements are of lesser significance, but some may be of interest in aquaculture of larger water bodies and floating and deep water aquacultural installations. 5.1 Waves: These are wind produced. The greater the expanse of water height, wave length and wave velocity. Whipple and Welch give the following equation to calculate the wave height. h = 0.025 f where h = height in feet of wave, and f = fetch or clear distance, in feet, over which the wind blows. In a wave which is formed in open water each water particle moves in a vertical circular path and returns to the same position from which it started - therefore the wave moves along producing rise and fall at successive positions without any horizontal movement of water such a wave is called a wave of oscillation. Such a wave when pushed by wind velocity does move horizontally causing it fall forward, producing a white cap.

Likewise when the wave approaches shallow water the wave height increases and the top pitches forward in a forward rolling motion, forming surf. Waves in which there is a definite forward movement of water are known as waves of translation. In the sea wave action is said to exert an influence down to 100 metres depth. 5.2 Currents: Currents occur only in large water bodies and of course in the coastal areas; the latter should be a separate discussion and is indeed of interest to coastal aquaculture. We have already referred to the moving up of thermocline due to upwelling in the coastal areas. In large lakes there are currents namely, vertical, due to upwelling, horizontal and returning (or undertow). In man-made reservoirs over the rivers it is an entirely different situation. During rains and floods there is considerable flow of water through the reservoirs, though after a temporary stagnation of reduction of current speed at the collection basin. At the upper reaches of reservoirs the conditions may be more like the river with swifter currents. Inside the collection basin the current pattern would be different and would be largely determined by the outflow of water as demanded by overflow and water release for hydroelectric or irrigation purposes. There will be in addition considerable level changes also in the reservoir water, even though one may find occasional stagnation of water (thermocline formation has been described in some tropical reservoirs) depending on the season and the other human demands, i.e. besides fish culture, on the reservoir water. The man-made reservoir though young is a mixture between the lotic (riverine) and lentic (lake) systems. The aquaculturist using the reservoir for stocking fish and also the reservoir margins for fish farm and nursery (of floating hapas) and also cage and other aquacultural installations must make himself familiar with the current patterns and level differences of the reservoir so as to modify the culture installations (More under Stocking Open waters - in the present series). In larger lakes, besides the vertical current caused by upwelling horizontal currents, occur mostly caused by wind action. The wind pushing the water horizontally in its direction causes an upper horizontal current in the surface which returns as it strikes the shore and flows in opposite direction above the themocline and sets up a recirculation, thereby forming a shearing plane where no water movement occurs (Fig. 8.3). Below the themocline the water is still, as it appears, in the hypolimnion. 5.3 Currents prevailing in the immediate area of the fish farm (brackishwater): Information on the currents is important for planning erosion control measures (soil conservation) to protect the bunds (dikes) and main gate and also to determine the probability of sediment deposition in water control structures. Shifting mud or sand can block water supply canals and sluice gates. Again one should get information on shifting sand or mud at the site by local enquiry, if a survey is difficult. Here one should consider changing wind and current patterns over the year as well.This aspect though more important in the coastal and brackish water region should be studied with reference to river beds in the freshwater region as well. Seasonal flood patterns should be also studied if not by direct observation, from earlier records. 5.4 Tide: In the case of coastal and tide affected inland waters, the tidal characteristics in relation to land elevation at the proposed farm site should be determined. Places where tidal fluctuation is moderate, between 2 and 3 metres, are most suitable for farms using tidal flow to fill the ponds. If tidal fluctuations are larger than 4m the place is unsuitable because very high and expensive dikes (bunds) will have to be then made to prevent flooding during high tide. Also it would be difficult to hold water during the low tide, since due to high pressure of the high water column water loss and seepage, crab holes etc. would be greater. Areas with a narrow tidal range of 1 metre or less is also unsuitable, as it would be difficult to fill the pond properly, without recourse to artificial pumping. Use of pumps are advised in areas where tide is less than 2m or more than 3m. Before siting farms actual measurements of tides consulting Tide tables, especially revieweing the maximum and minimum fluctuations over the year, should be made, to determine the high and low tide bench marks. Also the highest tides during past floods and storms and wave action during normal tides, storms and floods should be known, perhaps by enquiring with local residents, if no other information access is possible. (See also Ground elevation and Tides discussed separately).

Tides in many places cause damage too. At places, tides erode away the coastal land. Ocean Currents The surface temperature of sea water is not the same everywhere. It varies from place to place giving rise to movement of waters on a large scale. This is being explained by an experiment as shown in Fig. 5.4. However, other factors are also responsible for the movement of ocean water. Oceans are said to be great distributors and moderators of temperatures. How do cold and warm currents help in this regard? Moves from one place to another in broad streams in the oceans. Such more or less permanent streams of water which flow in a definite direction are known as ocean currents. They are like rivers in the ocean. There are two kinds of ocean currents the warm currents and the cold currents. Generally, the currents which originate near the equator are warm currents. They carry warm waters from low latitudes and spread them over the cold waters in the high latitudes. The cold currents generally originate in the high latitudes and move towards the low latitudes. Cold currents also from the upwelling of cold ocean water in tropical regions to com-pen sate for warm water carried away from the equatorial region. This results in general circulation of the sea water. Of the various causes of ocean currents, the most important are the prevailing winds and the difference in density of ocean waters due to variation in temperature or salinity. The slow movements of ocean waters, caused by prevailing winds, are known as drifts. Some deflection in the direction of currents is caused by the rotation of the earth. The direction to the ocean currents is also influenced by the shapes of the continental coasts.