HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. Abstract Introduction History of Fuel cell Types of Fuel cell
Proton exchange membrane Fuel cells Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) Direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) SOFC(Solid oxide fuel cell) MCFC(Molten carbonate fuel cell)

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Polimer exchange membrane fuel cell Woking of hydrogen fuel cell Applications Production of Hydrogen Hydrogen storage Hydrogen safety Advantages& disadvatages of Fuel cell Conclusion References

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

Abstract
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. [1] Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they require a constant source of fuel and oxygen to run, but they can produce electricity continually for as long as these inputs are supplied. Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they require a constant source of fuel and oxygen to run, but they can produce electricity continually for as long as these inputs are supplied.

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

Introduction

You've probably heard about fuel cells. In 2003, President Bush announced a program called the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI) during his State of the Union Address. This initiative, supported by legislation in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT 2005) and the Advanced Energy Initiative of 2006, aims to develop hydrogen, fuel cell and infrastructure technologies to make fuel-cell vehicles practical and cost-effective by 2020. The United States has dedicated more than one billion dollars to fuel cell research and development so far. So what exactly is a fuel cell, anyway? Why are governments, private businesses and academic institutions collaborating to develop and produce them? Fuel cells generate electrical power quietly and efficiently, without pollution. Unlike power sources that use fossil fuels, the by-products from an operating fuel cell are heat and water. But how does it do this? In this article, we'll take a quick look at each of the existing or emerging fuel-cell technologies. We'll detail how polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) work and examine how fuel cells compare against other forms of power generation. We'll also explore some of the obstacles researchers face to make fuel cells practical and affordable for our use, and we'll discuss the potential applications of fuel cells. If you want to be technical about it, a fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. A fuel cell converts the chemicals hydrogen and oxygen into water, and in the process it produces electricity. The other electrochemical device that we are all familiar with is the battery. A battery has all of its chemicals stored inside, and it converts those chemicals into electricity too. This means that a battery eventually "goes dead" and you either throw it away or recharge it. With a fuel cell, chemicals constantly flow into the cell so it never goes dead -- as long as there is a flow of chemicals into the cell, the electricity flows out of the cell. Most fuel cells in use today use hydrogen and oxygen as the chemicals.

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

History of Fuel cell

In 1889, the term fuel cell was first coined by Ludwig Mond and Charles Langer, who attempted to build a working fuel cell using air and industrial coal gas. Another source states that it was William White Jaques who first coined the term "fuel cell." Jaques was also the first researcher to use phosphoric acid in the electrolyte bath. In the 1920s, fuel cell research in Germany paved the way to the development of the carbonate cycle and solid oxide fuel cells of today. In 1932, engineer Francis T Bacon began his vital research into fuels cells. Early cell designers used porous platinum electrodes and sulfuric acid as the electrolyte bath. Using platinum was expansive and using sulfuric acid was corrosive. Bacon improved on the expensive platinum catalysts with a hydrogen and oxygen cell using a less corrosive alkaline electrolyte and inexpensive nickel electrodes. It took Bacon until 1959 to perfect his design, when he demonstrated a five-kilowatt fuel cell that could power a welding machine. Francis T. Bacon, a direct descendent of the other well known Francis Bacon, named his famous fuel cell design the "Bacon Cell." In October of 1959, Harry Karl Ihrig, an engineer for the Allis - Chalmers Manufacturing Company, demonstrated a 20-horsepower tractor that was the first vehicle ever powered by a fuel cell. During the early 1960s, General Electric produced the fuel-cell-based electrical power system for NASA's Gemini and Apollo space capsules. General Electric used the principles found in the "Bacon Cell" as the basis of its design. Today, the Space Shuttle's electricity is provided by fuel cells, and the same fuel cells provide drinking water for the crew. NASA decided that using nuclear reactors was too high a risk, and using batteries or solar power was too bulky to use in space vehicles. NASA has funded more than 200 research contracts exploring fuel-cell technology, bringing the technology to a level now viable for the private sector. The first bus powered by a fuel cell was completed in 1993, and several fuel-cell cars are now being built in Europe and in the United States. Daimler Benz and Toyota launched prototype fuel-cell powered cars in 1997. Maybe the answer to "What's so great about fuel cells?" should be the question "What's so great about pollution, changing the climate or running out of oil, natural gas and coal?" As we head into the next millennium, it is time to put renewable energy and planet-friendly technology at the top of our priorities. Fuel cells have been around for over 150 years and offer a source of energy that is inexhaustible, environmentally safe and always available. So why aren't they being used everywhere already? Until recently, it has been because of the cost. The cells were too expansive to make. That has now changed. In the United States, several pieces of legislation have promoted the current explosion in hydrogen fuel cell development: namely, the congressional Hydrogen Future Act of 1996 and

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

several state laws promoting zero emission levels for cars. Worldwide, different types of fuel cells have been developed with extensive public funding. The United States alone has sunk more than one billion dollars into fuel-cell research in the last thirty years. In 1998, Iceland announced plans to create a hydrogen economy in cooperation with German car maker Daimler Benz and Canadian fuel cell developer Ballard Power Systems. The 10year plan would convert all transportation vehicles, including Iceland's fishing fleet, over to fuelcell-powered vehicles. In March, 1999, Iceland, Shell Oil, Daimler Chrysler, and Norsk Hydro formed a company to further develop Iceland's hydrogen economy. In February, 1999, Europe's first public commercial hydrogen fuel station for cars and trucks opened for business in Hamburg, Germany. In April, 1999, Daimler Chrysler unveiled the liquid hydrogen vehicle NECAR 4. With a top speed of 90 mph and a 280-mile tank capacity, the car wowed the press. The company plans to have fuel-cell vehicles in limited production by the year 2004. By that time, Daimler Chrysler will have spent $1.4 billion more on fuel-cell technology development. In August, 1999, Singapore physicists announced a new hydrogen storage method of alkali doped carbon nanotubes that would increase hydrogen storage and safety. A Taiwanese company, San Yang, is developing the first fuel cell powered motorcycle.

Types of fuel cell

The fuel cell will compete with many other energy conversion devices, including the gas turbine in your city's power plant, the gasoline engine in your car and the battery in your laptop. Combustion engines like the turbine and the gasoline engine burn fuels and use the pressure created by the expansion of the gases to do mechanical work. Batteries convert chemical energy back into electrical energy when needed. Fuel cells should do both tasks more efficiently. A fuel cell provides a DC (direct current) voltage that can be used to power motors, lights or any number of electrical appliances. There are several different types of fuel cells, each using a different chemistry. Fuel cells are usually classified by their operating temperature and the type of electrolyte they use. Some types of fuel cells work well for use in stationary power generation plants. Others may be useful for small portable applications or for powering cars. The main types of fuel cells include: Polymer exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) The Department of Energy (DOE) is focusing on the PEMFC as the most likely candidate for transportation applications. The PEMFC has a high power density and a relatively low operating temperature (ranging from 60 to 80 degrees Celsius, or 140 to 176 degrees Fahrenheit). The low operating temperature means that it doesn't take very long for the fuel cell to warm up and begin generating electricity. We?ll take a closer look at the PEMFC in the next section.

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) These fuel cells are best suited for large-scale stationary power generators that could provide electricity for factories or towns. This type of fuel cell operates at very high temperatures (between 700 and 1,000 degrees Celsius). This high temperature makes reliability a problem, because parts of the fuel cell can break down after cycling on and off repeatedly. However, solid oxide fuel cells are very stable when in continuous use. In fact, the SOFC has demonstrated the longest operating life of any fuel cell under certain operating conditions. The high temperature also has an advantage: the steam produced by the fuel cell can be channeled into turbines to generate more electricity. This process is called cogeneration of heat and power (CHP) and it improves the overall efficiency of the system. Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) This is one of the oldest designs for fuel cells; the United States space program has used them since the 1960s. The AFC is very susceptible to contamination, so it requires pure hydrogen and oxygen. It is also very expensive, so this type of fuel cell is unlikely to be commercialized . Molten-carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) Like the SOFC, these fuel cells are also best suited for large stationary power generators. They operate at 600 degrees Celsius, so they can generate steam that can be used to generate more power. They have a lower operating temperature than solid oxide fuel cells, which means they don't need such exotic materials. This makes the design a little less expensive. Phosphoric-acid fuel cell (PAFC) The phosphoric-acid fuel cell has potential for use in small stationary powergeneration systems. It operates at a higher temperature than polymer exchange membrane fuel cells, so it has a longer warm-up time. This makes it unsuitable for use in cars. Direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC) Methanol fuel cells are comparable to a PEMFC in regards to operating temperature, but are not as efficient. Also, the DMFC requires a relatively large amount of platinum to act as a catalyst, which makes these fuel cells expensive.

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

Polymer Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

The polymer exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is one of the most promising fuel cell technologies. This type of fuel cell will probably end up powering cars, buses and maybe even your house. The PEMFC uses one of the simplest reactions of any fuel cell. First, let's take a look at what's in a PEM fuel cell: In Figure 1 you can see there are four basic elements of a PEMFC:
The anode, the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that they can be used in an external circuit. It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen gas equally over the surface of the catalyst. The cathode, the positive post of the fuel cell, has channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also conducts the electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water. The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane. This specially treated material, which looks something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap, only conducts positively charged ions. The membrane blocks electrons. For a PEMFC, the membrane must be hydrated in order to function and remain stable. The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum nanoparticles very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so that the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the PEM.

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

Working of Hydrogen fuel cell

What do batteries and fuel cells have in common? They are both electrochemical energy conversion devices that produce electricity. Also, they both have anodes, cathodes, and an electrolyte. There are also big differences. Batteries produce electricity until completely discharged, then they have to be replaced or recharged. A fuel cell continues to produce electricity as long as it is supplied with fuel and oxygen. In the typical fuel cell used in transportation, that's hydrogen and air. A battery produces essentially no emissions and little heat, while a hydrogen fuel cell emits water and more heat. While there are several different types of fuel cells, they all work on the same basic principle. The proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell will be discussed here. With rare exception, this is the technology being developed for use in cars, trucks, and buses. PEM fuel cells appear to be the most promising for vehicles because the reactions are about the simplest of any fuel cell design. They also have a high kilowatts-per-cubic-inch power density. Their relatively low operating temperature of 140 to 176 degrees F means they start to produce electricity quickly and don't require expensive cooling systems. In a PEM fuel cell, pressurized hydrogen gas enters on the anode side and is forced through the catalyst. Here, H2 molecules come in contact with catalyst, splitting it into two H+ ions (protons).and two electrons. The proton exchange membrane and electrolyte let positively charged proton through and block negatively charged electrons.

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

Electrons are conducted through the anode and travel through the external circuit as DC (direct current) electric power, which can useful for purposes such as powering an electric motor, and then they reach the cathode. Here they combine on the cathode's catalyst with the proton coming through the membrane and with oxygen gas, or air, forced through the catalyst, where they form two oxygen atoms with a strong negative charge. This negative charge attracts the two H+ ions, which combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons to form a water molecule. The proton exchange membrane is a specially treated material that looks somewhat like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap. The membrane must be hydrated to transfer protons and remain stable. Thus, fuel cell systems must be designed to operate in sub-zero temperatures, low humidity environments, and high operating temperatures. At about 70 degrees F, hydration is lost without a high-pressure hydration system. Catalysts play the crucial role of separating hydrogen into ions and protons at the anode and combining them, plus water, at the cathode. Typically these use a platinum group metal or alloy with platinum nanoparticles very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous to expose maximum surface area to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the membrane.

Precious metal catalysts plus proton exchange membranes, gas diffusion layers, and bipolar plates make up about 70 percent of a current fuel cell's Because of this, plus the rarity of precious metals and competition from other uses such as catalytic converters, some critics say platinum is the PEM fuel cell's Achilles heel. Research is under way to solve this potential impediment. For example, researchers are looking at ways to use less of the precious metals and to find alternatives. Recycling platinum, especially from catalytic converters, is already common practice. More abundant gold, reduced to nanometer size,

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

could be used as a catalyst as well. Enhancing a catalyst with carbon silk can also reduce the amount of precious metals required.cost. Another problem with PEM fuel cells is that impurities can poison the catalysts, resulting in reduced efficiency and activity so more dense catalysts are required and more platinum is used. Again, research is underway to solve the problem with various promising techniques being explored, like using a gold-palladium coating that may be less susceptible to poisoning.

Since a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7 volts, many separate fuel cells are combined to form a fuel cell stack. They can be connected in a parallel circuit for higher current and in series for higher voltage. Fuel cells are very efficient. If supplied with pure hydrogen they can convert 80 percent of the hydrogen's energy content to electric power. If the electricity is used by an electric motor and inverter in a fuel cell vehicle - which are about 80 percent efficient - the overall efficiency is 64 percent. This compares to the approximate 20 percent energy conversion efficiency of the typical gasoline-fueled vehicle, providing yet another reason why fuel cell vehicles hold such promise for the future.

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

10

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

Applications

Power Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and residential primary and backup power generation. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, communications centers, rural locations including research stations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability. This equates to less than one minute of downtime in a six year period. Since fuel cellelectrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example. There are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary, but most are between 40% and 60% energy efficient. However, when the fuel cells waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%. This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third energy efficient. Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20-40% on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems. Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution (other than CO2) for every 1,000 kW produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems. Fuel Cells also produce 97% less nitrogen oxide emissions then conventional coalfired power plants. Coca-Cola, Google, Walmart, Sysco, FedEx, UPS, Ikea, Staples, Whole Foods, Gills Onions, Nestle Waters, Pepperidge Farm, Sierra Nevada Brewery, Super Store Industries, Brigestone-Firestone, Nissan North America, Kimberly-Clark, Michelin and more have installed fuel cells to help meet their power needs. One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiativehas built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500 US gallons (1,900 L) at 200 pounds per square inch (1,400 kPa), and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. Another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in Hempstead, NY. Cogeneration Combined heat and power (CHP) fuel cell systems, including Micro combined heat and power (MicroCHP) systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes (see home fuel cell), office building and factories. The system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

11

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

produces hot air and water from the waste heat. MicroCHP is usually less than 5 kWe for a home fuel cell or small business. The waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during the summer directly into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building. The University of Minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system. Co-generation systems can reach 85% efficiency (40-60% electric + remainder as thermal). Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%. Molten Carbonate (MCFC) and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) are also used for combined heat and power generation and have electrical energy effciences around 60%. Automobiles Although there are currently no Fuel cell vehicles available for commercial sale, over 20 FCEVs prototypes and demonstration cars have been released since 2009. Demonstration models include the Honda FCX Clarity, Toyota FCHV-adv, and MercedesBenz F-Cell. As of June 2011 demonstration FCEVs had driven more than 4,800,000 km (3,000,000 mi), with more than 27,000 refuelings.Demonstration fuel cell vehicles have been produced with "a driving range of more than 400 km (250 mi) between refueling".] They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes. The U.S. Department of Energy's Fuel Cell Technology Program claims that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved 5359% efficiency at power and 4253% vehicle efficiency at full power, and a durability of over 120,000 km (75,000 mi) with less than 10% degradation, double that achieved in 2006. In a Well-to-Wheels simulation analysis, that "did not address the economics and market constraints", General Motors and its partners estimated that per mile traveled, a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could use about 40% less energy and emit 45% less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle. A lead engineer from the Department of Energy whose team is testing fuel cell cars said in 2011 that the potential appeal is that "these are full-function vehicles with no limitations on range or refueling rate so they are a direct replacement for any vehicle. For instance, if you drive a full sized SUV and pull a boat up into the mountains, you can do that with this technology and you can't with current battery-only vehicles, which are more geared toward city driving." Some experts believe that fuel cell cars will never become economically competitive with other technologies or that it will take decades for them to become profitable. In July 2011, the Chairman and CEO of General Motors, Daniel Akerson, stated that while the cost of hydrogen fuel cell cars is decreasing: "The car is still too expensive and probably won't be practical until the 2020-plus period, I don't know." Analyses cite the lack of an extensive

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

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2011-2012

hydrogen infrastructure in the U.S. as an ongoing challenge to Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle commercialization. In 2006, a study for the IEEE showed that for hydrogen produced via electrolysis of water: "Only about 25% of the power generated from wind, water, or sun is converted to practical use." The study further noted that "Electricity obtained from hydrogen fuel cells appears to be four times as expensive as electricity drawn from the electrical transmission grid. ... Because of the high energy losses [hydrogen] cannot compete with electricity." Furthermore, the study found: "Natural gas reforming is not a sustainable solution. The large amount of energy required to isolate hydrogen from natural compounds (water, natural gas, biomass), package the light gas by compression or liquefaction, transfer the energy carrier to the user, plus the energy lost when it is converted to useful electricity with fuel cells, leaves around 25% for practical use." Despite this, several major car manufacturers have announced plans to introduce a production model of a fuel cell car in 2015. Toyota has stated that it plans to introduce such a vehicle at a price of around US$50,000. In June 2011, Mercedes-Benz announced that they would move the scheduled production date of their fuel cell car from 2015 up to 2014, asserting that "The product is ready for the market technically. ... The issue is infrastructure." In 2003 US President George W. Bush proposed the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI). This aimed at further developing hydrogen fuel cells and infrastructure technologies with the goal of producing commercial fuel cell vehicles. By 2008, the U.S. had contributed 1 billion dollars to this project. The Obama Administration has sought to reduce funding for the development of fuel cell vehicles, concluding that other vehicle technologies will lead to quicker reduction in emissions in a shorter time. Steven Chu, the US Secretary of Energy, stated that hydrogen vehicles "will not be practical over the next 10 to 20 years". He told MIT's Technology Review that he is skeptical about hydrogen's use in transportation because of four problems: "the way we get hydrogen primarily is from reforming [natural] gas. ... You're giving away some of the energy content of natural gas. ... [For] transportation, we don't have a good storage mechanism yet. ... The fuel cells aren't there yet, and the distribution infrastructure isn't there yet. ... In order to get significant deployment, you need four significant technological breakthroughs.]Critics disagree. Mary Nichols, Chairwoman of California's Air Resources Board, said: "Secretary Chu has firmly set his mind against hydrogen as a passenger-car fuel. Frankly, his explanations dont make sense to me. They are not based on the facts as we know them." Forklifts Fuel cell powered forklifts are one of the largest sectors of fuel cell applications in the industry.[89] Most fuel cells used for material handling purposes are powered by PEM fuel cells, although some direct methanol fuel forklifts are coming onto the market. Fuel cell fleets are currently being operated by a large number of companies, including Sysco Foods, FedEx Freight, GENCO (at Wegmans, Coca-Cola, Kimberly Clark, Sysco Foods, and Whole Foods), and H-E-B Grocers. Fuel cell powered forklifts provide significant benefits over both petroleum and battery powered forklifts as they produce no local emissions, can work for a full 8 hour shift on a single tank of hydrogen, can be refueled in 3 minutes and have a lifetime of 810 years. Fuel cell powered forklifts are often used in refrigerated warehouses as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. Many companies do not use petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead are

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

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2011-2012

turning towards electric forklifts. Fuel cell forklifts offer green house gas, product lifetime, maintenance cost, refueling and labor cost benefits over battery operated fork lifts. Airplanes Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane, as it was called, used a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller. In 2003, the world's first propeller driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown. The fuel cell was a unique FlatStackTM stack design which allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the aerodynamic surfaces of the plane. There have been several fuel cell powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). A Horizen fuel cell UAV set the record distance flow for a small UAV in 2007. The military is especially interested in this application because of the low noise, low thermal signature and ability to attain high altitude. In 2009 the Naval Research Laboratorys (NRLs) Ion Tiger utilized a hydrogen-powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes. Boeing is completing tests on the Phantom Eye, a high-altitude, long endurance (HALE) to be used to conduct research and surveillance flying at 20,000 m (65,000 ft) for up to four days at a time. Fuel cells are also being used to provide auxiliary power in aircraft, replacing fossil fuel generators that were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs. Fuel cells can help airplanes reduce CO2 and other pollutant emissions and noise. Boats The world's first Fuel Cell Boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net output. Iceland has committed to converting its vast fishing fleet to use fuel cells to provide auxiliary power by 2015 and, eventually, to provide primary power in its boats. Amsterdam recently introduced its first fuel cell powered boat that ferries people around the city's famous and beautiful canals. Submarines The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface. The latest in fuel cell submarines is the U212Aan ultra-advanced non-nuclear sub developed by German naval shipyard Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft, who claim it to be "the peak of German submarine technology." The system consists of nine PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) fuel cells, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each. The ship is totally silent giving it a distinct advantage in the detection of other submarines. Fuel cells offer other advantages to submarines in addition to being completely silent; they can be distributed throughout a ship to improve balance and require far less air to run, allowing ships

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

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to be submerged for longer periods of time. Fuel cells offer a good alternative to nuclear fuels. Other applications Providing power for base stations or cell sites Off-grid power supply Distributed generation Fork Lifts Emergency power systems are a type of fuel cell system, which may include lighting, generators and other apparatus, to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular systems fail. They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to hospitals, scientific laboratories, data centers, telecommunication equipment and modern naval ships. An uninterrupted power supply (UPS) provides emergency power and, depending on the topology, provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility power is not available. Unlike a standby generator, it can provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption.

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

15

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

2011-2012

Production of Hydrogen

Hydrogen production is the family of industrial methods for generating hydrogen. Currently the dominant technology for direct production is steam reforming from hydrocarbons. Many other methods are known including electrolysis and thermolysis. The following methods are mainly used to produce hydrogen fuel. 1. Steam reforming Fossil fuels are the dominant source of industrial hydrogen.Hydrogen can be generated from natural gas with approximately 80% efficiency, or from other hydrocarbons to a varying degree of efficiency. Specifically, bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of methane or natural gas At high temperatures (7001100 C), steam (H2O) reacts with methane (CH4) to yield syngas. CH4 + H2O CO + 3 H2 + 191.7 kJ/mol In a second stage, further hydrogen is generated through the lower-temperature water gas shift reaction, performed at about 130 C: CO + H2O CO2 + H2 - 40.4 kJ/mol Essentially, the oxygen (O) atom is stripped from the additional water (steam) to oxidize CO to CO2. This oxidation also provides energy to maintain the reaction. Additional heat required to drive the process is generally supplied by burning some portion of the methane. CO2 sequestration Steam reforming generates carbon dioxide (CO2). Since the production is concentrated in one facility, it is possible to separate the CO2 and dispose of it properly, for example by injecting it in an oil or gas reservoir (see carbon capture), although this is not currently done in most cases. A carbon dioxide injection project has been started by a Norwegian company StatoilHydro in the North Sea, at the Sleipner field. This is disputed in The Hype about Hydrogen: Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate, a book by Joseph J. Romm, published in 2004 by Island Press and updated in 2005. Romm says that directly burning fossil fuels generates less CO2 than hydrogen production. Integrated steam reforming / co-generation - It is possible to combine steam reforming and co-generation of steam and power into a single plant. This can deliver benefits for an oil refinery because it is more efficient than separate hydrogen, steam and power plants. Air Products recently built an integrated steam reforming / co-generation plant in Port Arthur, Texas.

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

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2011-2012

2.Other production methods from fossil fuels

Partial oxidation

The partial oxidation reaction occurs when a substoichiometric fuel-air mixture is partially combusted in a reformer, creating a hydrogen-rich syngas. A distinction is made between thermal partial oxidation (TPOX) and catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX). The chemical reaction takes the general form: CnHm + n/2 O2 n CO + m/2 H2 Idealized examples for heating oil and coal, assuming compositions C12 H24 and C24H12 respectively, are as follows: C12H24 + 6 O2 12 CO + 12 H2 C24H12 + 12 O2 24 CO + 6 H2 Plasma reforming

The Kvrner-process or Kvaerner carbon black & hydrogen process (CB&H)[6] is a plasma reforming method, developed in the 1980s by a Norwegian company of the same name, for the production of hydrogen and carbon black from liquid hydrocarbons (CnHm). Of the available energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is contained in activated carbon and 10% in superheated steam. CO2 is not produced in the process.A variation of this process is presented in 2009 using plasma arc waste disposal technology for the production of hydrogen, heat and carbon from methane and natural gas in a plasma converter Coal

Coal can be converted into syngas and methane, also known as town gas, via coal gasification. Syngas consists of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Another method for conversion is low temperature and high temperature coal carbonization.

3.From water
Many technologies have been explored but it should be noted that as of 2007 "Thermal, thermochemical, biochemical and photochemical processes have so far not found industrial applications." Only high temperature electrolysis of alkaline solutions finds some applications.

Govt. Polytechnic College Perinthalmanna

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

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2011-2012

Electrolysis

Approximately 5% of industrial hydrogen is produced by electrolysis. Two types of cells are popular, solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOEC's) and alkaline electrolysis cells (AEC's) . These cells optimally operate at high concentrations electrolyte (KOH or potassium carbonate) and at high temperatures, often near 200 C. Typical catalysts are yttriumstabilized zirconium together with nickel. Thermolysis

Water spontaneously dissociates at around 2500 C, but this thermolysis occurs at temperatures too high for usual process piping and equipment. Catalysts are required to reduce the dissociation temperature. Photocatalytic water splitting

The conversion of solar energy to hydrogen by means of water splitting process is one of the most interesting ways to achieve clean and renewable energy systems. However if this process is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water instead of using photovoltaic and an electrolytic system the reaction is in just one step, therefore it can be more efficient. Sulfur-iodine cycle

The sulfur-iodine cycle (S-I cycle) is a thermochemical process which generates hydrogen from water, but at a much higher efficiency than water splitting. The sulfur and iodine used in the process are recovered and reused, and not consumed by the process. It is well suited to production of hydrogen by high-temperature nuclear reactors or by concentrating solar power systems (CSP). Biohydrogen routes

Although of no industrial significance,[2] biomass and waste streams can in principle be converted into biohydrogen with biomass gasification, steam reforming or biological conversion like biocatalysed electrolysis or fermentative hydrogen production.
Fermentative hydrogen production

Fermentative hydrogen production is the fermentative conversion of organic substrate to biohydrogen manifested by a diverse group of bacteria using multi enzyme systems involving three steps similar to anaerobic conversion. Dark fermentation reactions do not require light energy, so they are capable of constantly producing hydrogen from organic compounds throughout the day and night. Photofermentation differs from dark fermentation because it only proceeds in the presence of light. For example photo-fermentation with Rhodobacter sphaeroides SH2C can be employed to convert small molecular fatty acids into hydrogen.

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Fermentative hydrogen production can be done using direct biophotolysis by green algae, indirect biophotolysis by cyanobacteria, photo-fermentation by anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria and dark fermentation by anaerobic fermentative bacteria. For example studies on hydrogen production using H. salinarium, an anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria, coupled to a hydrogenase donor like E. coli, are reported in literature. Biohydrogen can be produced in bioreactors that utilize feedstocks, the most common feedstock being waste streams. The process involves bacteria feeding on hydrocarbons and exhaling hydrogen and CO2. The CO2 can be sequestered successfully by several methods, leaving hydrogen gas. A prototype hydrogen bioreactor using waste as a feedstock is in operation at Welch's grape juice factory in North East, Pennsylvania (U.S.).
Enzymatic hydrogen generation

Due to the Thauer limit (four H2/glucose) for dark fermentation, a non-natural enzymatic pathway was designed that can generate 12 moles of hydrogen per mole of glucose units of polysaccharides and water in 2007.[ The stoichiometric reaction is: C6H10O5 + 7 H2O 12 H2 + 6 CO2 The key technology is cell-free synthetic enzymatic pathway biotransformation (SyPaB). A biochemist can understand it as "glucose oxidation by using water as oxidant". A chemist can describe it as "water splitting by energy in carbohydrate". A thermodynamics scientist can describe it as the first entropy-driving chemical reaction that can produce hydrogen by absorbing waste heat. In 2009, cellulosic materials were first used to generate high-yield hydrogen. Furthermore, the use of carbohydrate as a high-density hydrogen carrier was proposed so to solve the largest obstacle to the hydrogen economy and propose the concept of sugar fuel cell vehicles.
Biocatalysed electrolysis

Besides dark fermentation, electrohydrogenesis (electrolysis using microbes) is another possibility. Using microbial fuel cells, wastewater or plants can be used to generate power. Biocatalysed electrolysis should not be confused with biological hydrogen production, as the latter only uses algae and with the latter, the algae itself generates the hydrogen instantly, where with biocatalysed electrolysis, this happens after running through the microbial fuel cell and a variety of aquatic plants can be used. These include reed sweetgrass, cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines, algae. 4.Renewable hydrogen Currently there are several practical ways of producing hydrogen in a renewable industrial process. One is to use landfill gas to produce hydrogen in a steam reformer, and the other is to use renewable power to produce hydrogen from electrolysis. Hydrogen fuel, when produced by renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a renewable fuel.

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Hydrogen storage

Hydrogen storage describes the methods for storing H2 for subsequent use. The methods span many approaches, including high pressures, cryogenics, and chemical compounds that reversibly release H2 upon heating. Hydrogen storage is a topical goal in the development of a hydrogen economy.Most research into hydrogen storage is focused on storing hydrogen as a lightweight, compact energy carrier for mobile applications. 1.Compressed hydrogen Compressed hydrogen is the gaseous state of the element hydrogen which is kept under pressure. Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for in hydrogen vehicles. Car manufacturers have been developing this solution, such as Honda[7] or Nissan.[8] 2.Liquid hydrogen BMW has been working on liquid tank for cars, producing for example the BMW Hydrogen 7 3.Proposals and research Hydrogen storage technologies can be divided into physical storage, where hydrogen molecules are stored (including pure hydrogen storage via compression and liquefication), and chemical storage, where hydrides are stored. 3.1 Chemical storage
Metal hydrides

Metal hydrides, such as MgH2, NaAlH4, LiAlH4, LiH, LaNi5 H6, TiFeH2 and palladium hydride, with varying degrees of efficiency, can be used as a storage medium for hydrogen, often reversibly. Some are easy-to-fuel liquids at ambient temperature and pressure, others are solids which could be turned into pellets. These materials have good energy density by volume, although their energy density by weight is often worse than the leading hydrocarbon fuels. Most metal hydrides bind with hydrogen very strongly. As a result high temperatures around 120 C (248 F) 200 C (392 F) are required to release their hydrogen content. This energy cost can be reduced by using alloys which consists of a strong hydride former and a weak one such as in LiNH2, NaBH4 and LiBH4. These are able to form weaker bonds, thereby requiring less input to release stored hydrogen. However if the interaction is too weak, the pressure needed for rehydriding is high, thereby eliminating any energy savings. The target for onboard hydrogen fuel systems is roughly <100 C for release and <700 bar for recharge (20-60 kJ/mol H2).
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Currently the only hydrides which are capable of achieving the 9 wt. % gravimetric goal for 2015 (see chart above) are limited to lithium, boron and aluminum based compounds; at least one of the first-row elements or Al must be added. Research is being done to determine new compounds which can be used to meet these requirements. Proposed hydrides for use in a hydrogen economy include simple hydrides of magnesium or transition metals and complex metal hydrides, typically containing sodium, lithium, or calcium and aluminium or boron. Hydrides chosen for storage applications provide low reactivity (high safety) and high hydrogen storage densities. Leading candidates are lithium hydride, sodium borohydride, lithium aluminium hydride and ammonia borane. A French company McPhy Energy is developing the first industrial product, based on magnesium hydrate, already sold to some major clients such as Iwatani and ENEL. New Scientist stated that Arizona State University is investigating using a borohydride solution to store hydrogen, which is released when the solution flows over a catalyst made of ruthenium. 3.2 Physical storage
Cryo-compressed

Cryo-compressed storage of hydrogen is the only technology that meets 2015 DOE targets for volumetric and gravimetric efficiency (see "CcH2" on slide 6 in). Furthermore, another study has shown that cryo-compressed exhibits interesting cost advantages: ownership cost (price per mile) and storage system cost (price per vehicle) are actually the lowest when compared to any other technology.For example, a cryo-compressed hydrogen system would cost $0.12 per mile (including cost of fuel and every associated other cost), while conventional gasoline vehicles cost between $0.05 and $0.07 per mile. Alike liquid storage, cryo-compressed uses cold hydrogen (20.3 K and slightly above) in order to reach a high energy density. However, the main difference is that, when the hydrogen would warm-up due to heat transfer with the environment ("boil off"), the tank is allowed to go to pressures much higher (up to 350 bars versus a couple of bars for liquid storage). As a consequence, it takes more time before the hydrogen has to vent, and in most driving situations, enough hydrogen is used by the car to keep the pressure well below the venting limit. Consequently, it has been demonstrated that a high driving range could be achieved with a cryo-compressed tank : more than 650 miles (1,050 km) were driven with a full tank mounted on an hydrogen-fueled engine of Toyota Prius.[30] Research is still on its way in order to study and demonstrate the full potential of the technology. As of 2010, the BMW Group has started a thorough component and system level validation of cryo-compressed vehicle storage on its way to a commercial product.

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Carbon nanotubes

Hydrogen carriers based on nanostructured carbon (such as carbon buckyballs and nanotubes) have been proposed. Despite initial claims of greater than 50 wt% hydrogen storage, it was later accepted that a realistic number is less than 1 wt%.

4.Stationary hydrogen storage

Unlike mobile applications, hydrogen density is not a huge problem for stationary applications. As for mobile applications, stationary applications can use established technology:

Compressed hydrogen (CGH2) in a hydrogen tank Liquid hydrogen in a (LH2) cryogenic hydrogen tank Slush hydrogen in a cryogenic hydrogen tank

5.Underground hydrogen storage Underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in underground caverns, salt domes and depleted oil and gas fields. Large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in underground caverns by ICI for many years without any difficulties. The storage of large quantities of hydrogen underground can function as grid energy storage which is essential for the hydrogen economy.

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Hydrogen safety
The Hindenburg Disaster - Is Hydrogen Really Dangerous?
The May 1937 explosion of the German airship Hindenburg has dogged the development of hydrogen as a fuel since those first terrifying images played out across newspapers and newsreels throughout the world. For years, the hydrogen gas that filled the airship and allowed it to float in the atmosphere was blamed for the raging inferno that consumed the craft in just seconds. Turns out thats not the case at all.

So What Really Happened With the Hindenburg?

Theories aboundeverything from sabotage by operatives to a fuel leak and overheating enginesas to the cause of the initial fire. While speculation about conspiracies will always exist on the periphery, the hydrogen gas that provided lift to the craft was not the main contributor to the fire. Thorough investigation has boiled it down to a fairly well agreed-upon scenario. The surface skin of the airship was covered with a layer of iron oxide and a coating of reflective aluminum paint. These two chemical compounds are highly flammable and burn at a very aggressive rate. The skin most likely ignited from an atmospheric discharge (a spark) or perhaps a lightning strike as the airship was docking during the waning phases of an electrical storm. Reasonable corroboration of this theory was demonstrated in an experiment by retired NASA engineer Addison Bain in which remnants of the actual surface skin of the ship were set ablaze some 60 years after the accidentand they still burned as ferociously as they did that fateful day. While the hydrogen gasbags in the ship did eventually succumb to the heat and rupture, the escaping gas caught fire as the surrounding skin burned. But being lighter than the air around it, the burning gas rose quickly and burned well above the passenger compartment and crew quarters below, and completely burned itself out within 60 seconds. As the craft and the hydrogen inside it was consumed by the initial inferno and the skeletal frame of the ship plummeted, the on-board stores of diesel fuel (which powered the maneuvering engines) caught fire and those continued to burn as the wreckage lay on the ground. Had the Hindenburg been filled with non-flammable helium instead of hydrogen, the same basic sequence would still quite likely have ensued. The skin still would have ignited, the lifting gas would have escaped and the crippled dirigible would have plunged to the ground with the onboard diesel fuel aflame. The tragedy of this accident is multifaceted. Not only was there terrible loss of life, but also the burgeoning and successful airship industry was dismantled and a stigma was attached to hydrogena frankly unjust stigma that lasts to this day.

The Basic Nature and Characteristics of Hydrogen

Hydrogen is non-toxic.

It is a naturally occurring, basically benign element found freely in the atmosphere. By comparison, petroleum fuels are extremely toxic.

Hydrogen is less flammable than gasoline. The auto-ignition temperature of hydrogen is 932 degrees Fahrenheit. Compare that to gasolines auto-ignition temperature of 536 degrees Fahrenheit (auto-ignition temperature is the minimum

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temperature at which a fuel will ignite without a spark or flame). Yes, its actually easier for gasoline to spontaneously combust.

Hydrogen disperses quickly in the atmosphere.

Because hydrogen is so light (about 15 time lighter than air) it easily dissipates and if a leak or spill does occur, the hydrogen becomes rapidly sparse and difficult to ignite. And even if it does catch fire, it burns itself out very quickly. By contrast, heavier fuels such as diesel oil and gasoline do not rapidly dissipate and remain a fire threat for a longer period of time.

Hydrogen stores safely.

The tanks used to store hydrogen, whether in its gaseous or liquid form, undergo demanding testing procedures. They must endure extreme heat and external pressure forces as well as collision impacts. Conventional gasoline and diesel fuel tanks are, in most instances, simple stamped steel shells that do not undergo these stringent stress tests.

Hydrogen is clean.

The single emission from burned hydrogen is water vaporthats it. Compare that to particulate matter (soot), NOx, CO, CO2 andamong other toxic emissionsfrom burned petroleum fuels.

It Really Boils Down to Common Sense

Think about it. The world that weve created for ourselveswith all of our technological developmentsis fraught with hazards. But its also filled with potentiala cornucopia of good ideas that can make our lives better, easier and richer. The caveat here is that it isnt just automatic, it requires attention and intelligent use. We have all learned to handle dangerous but useful tools in our daily lives. We dont think twice about slicing a loaf of bread with a sharp knife, striking a hot match to light a candle or driving down the road in a car filled with a tank of explosive gasoline. We dont think about their dangers because weve learned to be smart and judicious in their use. It is much the same case with hydrogennew to us as a motor fuel, proper handling and safety techniques will require a learning curve. Engineers have done their part and developed safe and effective processes for transporting, storing and dispensing the fuel. Its up to us as users to be cognizant of the rules and to follow them.

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Fuel cell advantages/disadvantages

Advantages
High efficiency conversion

Fuel cells convert chemical energy directly into electricity without the combustion process. As a result, a fuel cell is not governed by thermodynamic laws, such as the Carnot efficiency associated with heat engines, currently used for power generation. Fuel cells can achieve high efficiencies in energy conversion terms, especially where the waste heat from the cell is utilised in cogeneration situation. High power density

A high power density allows fuel cells to be relatively compact source of electric power, beneficial in application with space constraints. In a fuel cell system, the fuel cell itself is nearly dwarfed by other components of the system such as the fuel reformer and power inverter Quiet operation

Fuel cells, due to their nature of operation, are extremely quiet in operation. This allows fuel cells to be used in residential or built-up areas where the noise pollution is undesirable.

Disadvantages
Conceptually, replacing the current oil-based infrastructure with hydrogen would cost billions, maybe trillions, of dollars. Although abundant in the universe, hydrogen is fairly rare in our atmosphere, meaning that it has to be extracted (for example through electrolysis, as explained above) and currently, the process is cost prohibitive and inefficient Although abundant in the universe, hydrogen is fairly rare in our atmosphere, meaning that it has to be extracted (for example through electrolysis, as explained above) and currently, the process is cost prohibitive and inefficient. Its production at energy plants creates excessive carbon dioxide. When it burns, a hydrogen flame is virtually invisible; coupled with the gass propensity for escaping, in small amounts, almost any tank, there are concerns about explosions. On the plus side, hydrogen is so light it typically is dispersed in the air very quickly. On-board storage is a major issue; a hydrogen tank would currently be too large for a car. It is a very flammable gas (think of the Hindenburg), which further adds to the onboard storage problems.

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Conclusion
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they require a constant source of fuel and oxygen to run, but they can produce electricity continually for as long as these inputs are supplied. There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode (negative side), a cathode (positive side) and an electrolyte that allows charges to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. Electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. As the main difference among fuel cell types is the electrolyte, fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use. Fuel cells come in a variety of sizes. Individual fuel cells produce very small amounts of electricity, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in series or parallel circuits, to increase the voltage and current output to meet an applications power generation requirements. In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40-60%, or up to 85% efficient if waste heat is captured for use.

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References

www.google.com www.wikipedia.com http://www.eia.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/hydro/appendixc.html. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/production/natural_gas.html. https://www.hfpeurope.org/infotools/energyinfos__e/hydrogen/main03.html http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/production/coal_gasification. html. http://www.practicalphysics.org/go/Experiment_677.html. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=18 66174.

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