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General R&D

System model for Inductive ID systems

Summary. A system model for inductive ID systems is presented which links parameters of ID tags and parameters of readers and antennas to reading ranges, including effects of external noise and interference sources. The presented model is a basic one and can be used as a guideline for testing and for comparison of systems.

0. Contents 1. Introduction 2. The loading effect on the tag antenna circuit by the power dissipation in the chipcircuit. 3. The minimum magnetic field strength. 4. The magnetic effective volume of the tag. 5. The tag conversion gain factor. 6. The magnetic dipole moment of the return signal. 7. The maximum antenna current in the reader antenna. 8. The maximum tag activation range. 9. The equivalent homogeneous magnetic field of the tag in the reader antenna. 10. The in the reader antenna induced voltage. 11. The external noise. 12. The transmitter noise. 13. The minimum signal to noise ratio of the receiver detector. 3 5 7 9 12 13 14 14 19 21 22 23 2

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14. Reading range. 15. Calculation diagram. 16. Table of parameters. Source: Nedap, Ir. T.W.H. Fockens

23 25 26

1. Introduction.
Engineering inductive ID systems calls for an ability to calculate reading ranges for various combinations of readers, reader antennas, and tags. Also the risk of interference from external radio signals or from other readers in a system needs to be assessed. Such calculations can also be used for comparison of the system properties for different values of system parameters.

For this purpose a simplified system model will be presented. First the loading effect on the tag antenna circuit by the power dissipation in the chipcircuit (2) is calculated and expressed in , the quality factor of the antenna circuit only loaded by the chip circuit. is calculated. , the quality factor of the antenna circuit itself, is easilly measured. From both quality factors the loaded quality factor Given the minimal rf voltage on the chip connectors, the dimension of the antenna coil, and the carrier frequency and the tuning capacitor the minimal magnetic field strength (3) can be calculated, as also the magnetic effective volume of the tag tag conversion gain factor (5). The effects of the tolerance on the tag resonance frequency on these parameters has been assessed. (4) and the

For calculating the magnetic dipole moment of the return signal between the unmodulated return signal (5) is computed. and the modulated signal

(6) the relation the conversion gain

From the geometry of the reader antenna and the regulated maximal magnetic field strength at 10 meters the maximum antenna current in the reader antenna (7) and the field

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strength on the axis of the antenna as a function of the distance is derived, resulting in a maximum tag activation range (8).

While the tag functioning at maximum activation range, generating a dipole moment of the return signal , an equivalent homogeneous magnetic field (9) directed through the plane of the reader antenna is calculated. Also the in the reader antenna induced voltage (10) can be calculated now.

The proper reading of the tag can also be hindered by noise and interference. The noise sources can be external (11), as well as broadband manmade noise as narrow band interference from radio signal. Also nearby situated ID readers can cause interference with a broadband appearance. Also the transmitter noise (12) is a relevant factor for determing the reading range. A direct comparison of the levels of noise and interference sources with the tag return signal is possible by writing these levels as equivalent homogeneous field strength levels. To consider the effects of noise on the reading range the noise can be expressed in a signal to external (wideband) noise ratio in transmitter noise ratio . , a signal to interference ratio , and a signal

A minimum signal to noise ratio of the receiver detector

(13) can be defined for a

reader, needed for proper functioning, and compared to the three calculated SNR's. The outcome of this comparison will be wether the reader and tag combination will function on the activation distance. In case the resulting activation range. is too low the tag will not be read at the activation distance, but

need the distance to be lowered, so that the net reading range (14) is smaller than the

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2. The loading effect on the tag antenna circuit by the power dissipation in the chipcircuit.
The quality factor dissipation of the tag antenna circuit is defined as 2 times the ratio between the and the power dissipation per period. Including the stored energy in the circuit

per second results in eq. (1):

Two kinds of power dissipation have to be considered here. First the losses in the resonance circuit itself, in the antenna coil, and in the tuning capacitor. These losses can be described by means of a fixed value parallel or series resistor. The power dissipation and the quality factor, associated to these losses, are resp. and . Secondly, the losses caused by the damping by the rectifier circuit feeding the chip. These losses cannot be described by a lineair resistor as the diode action causes a strong non linear loading of the resonance circuit. A usefull approximation is possible by equating the DC power dissipation on chip to the AC power loss from the antenna circuit. The losses in the rectifier cicuit must be included in the DC power dissipation. The power dissipation and the quality factor, associated to these losses are resp. and .

Figure 1 is showing the tag circuit. L, C and Rp represent the components of the resonating tag antenna circuit (although C can be situated on chip). The parts inside the box represent the chip, containing a power rectifier part (D), a powersupply capacitor Csupply and the active circuit.

Figure 1.

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The stored energy in the tag antenna circuit will be concentrated in the capacitor C when the voltage over C is maximal (and the current through L is zero). The relation between the voltage over C and the stored energy in C is:

When relating to measured magnetic field strenght it is useful to take the rms value of eq. (2) becomes:

, so

Combining eq. (1) and (3) results in:

Assuming

Assuming no losses in the antenna circuit,

So:

and

is the result of losses in the antenna coil and in the capacitor which maybe on chip. can be measured in a simple way using a spectrum or network analyser and a suitable fixure. The condition must be met that during that measurement powered, thus level of . is depending on the drivelevel (the ) this drivelevel should be specified, for example the level on which the chip can be specified by the chip manufacturer. As is so low that the chip is not

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just starts functioning :

. Rearranging eq. (6) results in an expression for

3. The minimum magnetic field strength.

Let's make the following assumptions about the tag antenna: the antenna is rectangular with sides and an area and . resulting in a circumference

the windings are concentrated on the outline, so all magnetic flux passes the enclosed area of all windings, and the magnetic coupling between the windings is 100%. In most applications the tuning capacitor coil can be calculated: has a fixed value, so the self inductance of the

When

is the selfinductance per winding and

is the selfinductance per

meter, the number of windings can be calculated:

The voltage with strength wherein

generated over tuning capacitor C by the magnetic field from the reader is given by:

is given as rms value.

Substituting eq. (10), (11) in (12) results in:

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Tolerance on the resonance frequency of the tag. The tolerance on the resonance frequency of the tag is caused by deviations in the selfinductionce and in the capacitance . It is usually specified as % of the specified tag resonance frequency . In this study we assume that this specified frequency equals the carrier frequency deviation of the reader. This means for the frequency that it can have a positive value as well as a negative value given by:

The frequency deviation has an influence on the minimum magnetic field strength circuit. This can be modelled by an extention to eq. (12):

in

two ways. First on the working position on the amplitude resonance curve of the tag antenna

The second influence is on the product is originated by deviations in the values of as well as

in eq. (13). The frequency deviation as and . But as the actual

deviations on each separate parameter are not known, because they are not indenpendently measured, we can substitude the frequency tolerance for the tolerance of the total product . From eq. (10) can be derived:

Again applying eq. (10) removes

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Applying the same substitions in (14) results in:

Analogous to eq. (19):

Together with applying eq. (16) the final result for the minimal field strength including the effects of the tolerance on the tag resonance frequency is given by:

4. The magnetic effective volume of the tag

The equivalent circuit of the antenna of the tag:

Figure 2.

The induced voltage of the tag is:

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Let the nominal resonance frequency coil current :

be equal to the carrier frequency

, and take the

tolerance on the actual resonance frequency in effect in computing the absolute value of the

The magnetic dipole moment generated by the current Eq. (24), (25) inserted into (26):

through the tag antenna coil is:

Under the assumption: the windings are concentrated on the outline, so all magnetic flux passes the enclosed area of all windings, and the magnetic coupling between the windings is 100%. the self inductunce and self inductance per (winding)2 can be defined:

Also applies:

and:

Eq. (28), (29), and (30) inserted in (27) results in:

The effective volume of the tag is defined as:

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5. The tag conversion gain factor

A subcarrier or data modulation signal is generated by switching the Q-factor between two states. This means that the originating waveform of the subcarrier/data signal is a square wave. We assume a symmetrical square wave. The shape of the signal on the coil of the tag is shown in figure 3. corresponds with the unloaded state wherein state, . , is defined as: and with the loaded

The modulation depth,

see eq. (12). The amplitude of the square wave will be:

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Figure 3. The receiver is tuned to the fundamental frequency of the subcarrier/data signal with a bandwidth that is smaller then the subcarrier frequency, or equal to the data signal frequency in case of direct manchester encoding. That means that the harmonics are not received and are not relevant for the propagation calculations. Thus the amplitude of the fundamental signal component of the subcarrier or data modulation is:

This counts for both sidebands together. Per sideband we get an attenuation factor relative to :

The frequency response of the tag resonance gives a further attenuation of the subcarrier/data signal. It depends on the bandwidth, so the Q-factor of the tag. The result for the tag conversion gain factor which results for both sidebands in: is:

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As the Q-factor is modulated, the amplitude response is not symmetrical, that means that the falling slope is steeper than the rising slope. For the purpose of calculating the net amplitude of the fundamental wave of the subcarrier a good approximation is possible by using the mean value of and :

Eq. (33) can be rewritten as: Substitution in eq. (37) results in:

Remarks: In the calculation above we used the amplitude values of and . The RMS . :

values can be substituded in eq. (28) resulting in the same value for In the technical application it is usefull to take the logarithmic number of

Tolerance on the resonance frequency of the tag. The effect of tolerance on the resonance frequency of the tag on the tag conversion gain factor can be modelled by adding the frequency deviation to . but now we have : to discriminate between the lower sideband and upper sideband

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Figure 4 explanes the difference which arises between the tag conversion gain at the lower sideband and that on the upper sideband.

Figure 4.

6. The magnetic dipole moment of the return signal

The magnetic dipole moment of tag return signal, in this case the level the subcarrier/data signal in one sideband, can now be calculated:

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In case both sidebands are received in a coherent way (normal diode detection) the level is doubled: Substituting values for the case of minimum magnetic field strength in eq. (39) using in eq. (32) using ( in eq. (23) using in eq. (8) where: , ; ;

wherein eq. (9) the value of .

produces;

results in the magnetic dipole moment of the single sideband return signal, using eq. (43),

7. The maximum antenna current in the reader antenna.

The maximum antenna current through the reader antenna is determining the maximum field strength on the axis of the reader antenna, and so the maximum range wherein On the other side the maximum antenna current is limited by the field strength at the regulatory measuring ranges, for example at 10 m for the CEPT, and at 30 m for the FCC. The input parameters for this calculation are: The carrier frequency The regulatory magnetic field strength limit The measuring distance The radian wavelength . ; .

is defined by:

Wherein

is the speed of light,

the wavelength in free space and

the carrier frequency.

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For measuring distances

, under the assumption that

and

are the .

dimensions of the reader antenna, a magnetic dipole moment which is corresponds with the field strength limit For the lower frequencies, for which is valid: thus:

can be calculated

at measuring distance

the magnetic field strength maximal on the axis of the loop antenna and results in:

For the higher frequencies, for which is valid: thus:

the magnetic field strength is maximal in the plane of the loop antenna and results in:

By definition the magnetic dipole moment of the reader antenna is: wherein antenna coil. Rearranging eq. (53) gives the maximal antenna current : is the number of windings, is the current, is the area of the reader

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8. The maximum tag activation range.

For a reactangular reader antenna with dimensions axis of the coil at distance the magnetic field strength on the

from the plane of the coil is given by:

Inverting eq. (55) is not possible, so the maximum tag activation range of the antenna current

as a function

has to be calculated applying eq. (55) in a recursive way.

9. The equivalent homogeneous magnetic field of the tag in the reader antenna.
Knowing the magnetic dipole moment of the tag enables us to calculate the magnetic field strength of the tag signal at each place in the three dimensional space. Of our interest is the amount of magnetic flux flowing through the plane of the reader antenna loop. As the distance from tag to the antenna of the reader is in the same order of magnitude as the dimensions of the antennna, the magnetic field of the tag will not be homogeneous in the plane of the antenna. This means that we need to make an integration of the magnetic field vectors, directed through the plane, over the area of the antenna plane. Figure 5 shows the reader antenna with dimensions symmetrically placed around origin reader antenna at a distance above and in the horizontal x/y plane,

, and the tag coil horizontally placed on the axis of the . This is the most simple formation because it

shows the formation wherein the tag is optimally coupled with the reader antenna, and this formation is normally used for measurements on system performance.

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Figure 5.

For the integration process we need to calculate the field strength the magnetic dipole:

at the position

in the plane of the reader antenna. This field strength is given by the definition of

see figure 6.

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The resulting magnetic field vector

can be decomposed in a vector

along the unity , and a vector

vector , which is directed outwards from the magnetic dipole at point

Figure 6.

perpendicular to unity vector axis . The detail around point

and in the common plane through the line

and rotation

in this plane is shown in figure 7:

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Figure 7. From eq. (56) we derive:

and

In the next decomposition step we calculate the vertical components figure 7:

and

, see

and:

Adding results gives the wanted total magnetic field strength at point

Remark that the definitions of

and

are opposed in the vertical direction.

Refering back to figure 5 we conclude:

and:

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also:

and:

This results in:

This delivers a value for

for every point

in the plane of the loop. For

is

substituded the height of the tag above the plane of the reader antenna loop. Now the integration process over the whole area inside the reader antenna loop can be executed. The total magnetic flux through the loop plane, generated by the tag, given by: is

To compare the signal strength of the tag signal to external noise and interfering signals, which strength we normally can express as field strength of an homogeneous magnetic field, an equivalent homogeneous field strength of the tag signal need to be defined:

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Using computer programming it is simple to solve this integral in a numeric way. Therefore we rewrite the integral as a summation:

The number of the finite steps and accurate results. Note:

and their values,

and

, wherein will give sufficient

, determine the accuracy of the approxamation of the integral. The

accuracy will also depend on the geometry. In general

10. The induced voltage in the reader antenna.

The by the tag signal induced voltage in the reader antenna can be calculated from the equivalent homogeneous field strength: wherein the Q-factor of the reader antenna.

Three remarks: When the subcarrier/data signal frequency is relative high compared to the carrier frequency, some corrections can be made, first because of the actual signalfrequency :

and secondly because of resonance curve:

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When considered at the 50 ohm impedance interface of the reader a transformation has to be made from the antenna parallel impedance to 50 ohm. These points do not effect the signal/interference ratio as interfering signals and external noise are affected in the same way as the signal of interest. When the transmitting and receiving is performed on the same reader antenna loop a ratio can be computed between the received signal voltage antenna loop caused by the transmitter antenna current and the voltage : over the

The selfinductance of the reader antenne depends on the number of turns and the length of one turn:

The selfinductance per meter

is strictly taken depending on the wire diameter, but a

general accepted approximation for a lineair piece of wire is a value of 1 H/m. Leaving some room for a not perfect coupling between individual windings, a good and practical proven approximation for the selfinductance of these kinds of loops appears to be 0.9 H/m. Using eq. (71), (74), and (75) we arrive at the signal/carrier ratio :

Expressed in dB's:

When we take into acount the effect of the difference in induction voltage for both sidebands, formula (72), and the effect of the resonancecurve of the reader antenna on the tag induced voltage in the antenna circuit, formula (73), we must extend formula (77) for the lower sideband:

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and for the upper sideband:

11. The external noise.

An ID reader will receive external noise and depending on the signal to noise ratio the identification can be disrupted. Sources of external noise are: Manmade noise. The level depends on the environment. The ITU-R Recommendation P.372, as well as the ERC Report 69, give information about manmade noise levels in general for the rural, residental, and business areas, expressed in field strength normalized to a certain receiver bandwidth like 1 Hz. Inside buildings these manmade noise levels can be very much higher. As this kind of noise has a wideband nature the effective noise bandwidth of the receiver involved: is

Interfering radio signals. These signals have a small bandwidth compared to the receiver bandwidth of the reader. Interference can occur when the frequency of a strong radio signal coincides with the sensitive frequency band of the reader. In that case the signal to interference ratio is given by:

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Noise from other readers, non synchronized. Modulation sidebands of these readers fall in the receiving bandwidth of the interfered reader. Depending on the knowledge of the actual spectrum of the interfering reader a noise field strength can be computed, using eq. (55). A distance should be substituted for between both reader antennas . A limitation is that eq. (55) is only usefull for the

case that both reader antennas are positioned at one common axis.

12. The transmitter noise.

Various parts of the transmitter circuit generate noise, like the oscillator, modulation stages and the power amplifier stage. This noise shows up as well as phase noise and as amplitude noise. This transmitter noise is generally measured relative to the carrier level, and normalized to a bandwidth of 1 Hz: in [dBc/Hz]. The strength depends on the distance in frequency between the carrier frequency and the measuring frequency. Generally the larger the distance the lower the transmitter noise. The signal to transmitter noise ratio can be deduced now from the SCR:

wherein

is the effective noise bandwidth of the receiver.

For a direct comparison an equivalent homogeneous noise field strength in the plane of the reader antenna can be computed too. Eq. (74) and (75) result in:

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wherein:

Thus:

Note: this is the noise in one sideband per Hz receiver bandwidth. Now we can define the signal to transmitter noise ratio also as:

13. The minimum signal to noise ratio of the receiver detector.

For a reader a minimum signal to noise ratio can be defined, which is needed for functioning. Depending upon the working principles this wideband noise and for narrow band interfering signals. In case of wideband noise it is important that the is defined in relation to the (effective noise) bandwidth of the receiver, and that this bandwidth is stated. can be different for

14. Reading range.

When and are larger than the minimun , the tag will be read. In that case the reading range is limited by the activation range. If one of the signal level, thus 's is lower than the tag will not be read. An increase of the tag will increase by lowering .

, is needed. This is generally accomplished by decreasing the distance

between tag and reader antenna. Eq, (70) shows that

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A second effect of lowering (24)), but the increase of voltage over

will be that the magnetic field strength of the reader signal will increase also (eq. over (figure 1) will increase the dc supply voltage

will increase according eq. (55). The induction voltage

and rise the dc current drawn by the chip. The relationship between the supply

voltage and the current is non-lineair, especially when at higher voltage levels the supply voltage will be clamped. So, generally spoken, relation or will decrease at higher field strength levels. This effect on the versus can be described in a function . The according eq. (31), , and is now a

manufacturer of the chip can supply that function. An increase in function from will also increase the magnetic dipole moment , described by: but this increase is not quite proportional due to the decrease of the net

resulting in a function for the effective volume:

Also the modulation depth manufacturer as a function factor:

is generally not constant and can be supplied by the . This results in a function for the conversion gain

which equation can be extended according eq. (41) and (42) for So this results in a function for the tag magnetic dipole moment of the subcarrier/data signal: This function can be substituded for depending on . in eq.(70), producing an effective

homogeneous field strength

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Conclusion: When both (non-linear) functions limited by noise factors. and are available we can predict the reading range for the case that the reading range is not set by the tag activation range but is

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Figure 8.

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15. Table of parameters.

Parameter

Description Dimensions of the reader antenna. Dimensions of the tag antenna. Deviations in the dimensions of the tag antenna, connected to the tolerance in the resonance frequency of the tag. Area of the tag antenna. Tuning capacitance of the tag circuit. Deviation in the tuning capacitance of the tag circuit, connected to the tolerance in the resonance frequency of the tag. Distance from the reader antenna for regulatory measurements. Distance from the reader antenna to the tag. Energy stored in the tag antenna circuit. Electric induction in the tag antenna. Frequency. Deviation in the resonance frequency of the tag. Carrier frequency of the reader interrogating signal. Frequency of the subcarrier. Tag conversion gain factor. Tag conversion gain factor for the tag signal on the lower sideband. Tag conversion gain factor for the tag signal on the upper sideband. Tag conversion gain factor expressed in dB's. Magnetic field strength of the interrogating field. Z-component of the magnetic field strength of the tag signal in the plane of the reader antenna coil.

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Z-component of the magnetic field strength of the tag signal in the plane of the reader antenna coil at the position P(x,y). Equivalent homogeneous magnetic field strength of the tag signal in the plane of the reader antenna. Current in the tag antenna circuit. Current in the reader antenna circuit, generated by the interrogating signal. Selfinductance of the tag coil. Deviation in the selfinductance of the tag circuit, connected to the tolerance in the resonance frequency of the tag. Selfinductance of the tag coil per winding squared. Selfinductance of the tag antenna coil per meter length. Deviation in the selfinductance of the tag antenna coil per meter length, connected to the tolerance in the resonance frequency of the tag. Selfinductance of the reader antenna coil. Selfinductance of the reader antenna coil per meter length. Wavelength of the carrier frequency. Radian wavelength of the carrier frequency. Magnetic dipole moment of the tag. Modulation index of the tag signal. Magnetic dipole moment of the tag signal subcarrier components. Magnetic dipole moment of the tag signal subcarrier component in one sideband. Magnetic dipole moment of the reader antenne. Number of windings of the tag antenna. Number of windings of the reader antenna. The distance between a point P(x,y,0) in the plane of the reader antenna coil and the center of the reader antenna. Total power dissipation in the tag circuit. Power dissipation in the tag antenna circuit.

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Power consumption of the chip, measured at the antenna terminal. Power dissipation per period. Momentary Q-factor of tag circuit including losses antenna circuit, dc-power consumption of the chip, and loading by modulation. The Q-factor of the tag antenna circuit with tuning capacitor but without loading by the chip circuit. Momentary Q-factor of tag circuit including losses antenna circuit, dc-power consumption of the chip, in the modulation state "unloaded". Momentary Q-factor of tag circuit including losses antenna circuit, dc-power consumption of the chip, and loading by modulation in the modulation state "loaded". An equivalent Q-factor of the tag circuit, representing the loss caused by the dc-power consumption of the chip. Q-factor of the reader antenna. Spatial distance between a point P(x,y,0) in the plane of the reader antenna coil and the tag. Parallel loss resistance, representing the loss in the tag antenna ciruit. Serial loss resistance, representing the loss in tag antenna circuit. Ratio between the tag signal voltage and the interrogating signal voltage over the reader antenna coil. scr, expressed in dB's. related to the lower sideband, resp. upper sideband components. Ratio between the tag signal voltage and the noise voltage caused by external noise sources, expressed in dB's. Ratio between the tag signal voltage and the voltage caused by external interfering signals. Ratio between the tag signal voltage and the noise voltage caused by internal noise sources in the reader transmitter circuits. The tolerance in the resonance frequency of the tag.

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Permeability of vacuum. Electrical effective volume of the tag. AC voltage over the antenna terminal of the chip. AC voltage over the antenna terminal of the chip in the modulation state "unloaded". AC voltage over the antenna terminal of the chip in the modulation state "loaded". Amplitude of the fundamental wave of the subcarrier modulation on V_chip. Amplitude of the fundamental wave of the subcarrier modulation on V_chip regarded in one sideband. Half of the difference between the amplitude of V_open and V_closed. Voltage over the reader antenna from the tag signal. Voltage over the reader antenna from the reader interrogating signal. Minimal AC voltage over the antenna terminal of the chip for functioning of the chip.

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