Antennas v1 6-24-04

E&M Fundamentals Without Fields Simple Antennas
Daniel M. Dobkin Version 1 6/04
E&M w/o Fields: Antennas
www.batnet.com/enigmatics
Outline: section (4)

n
Basics
What is an antenna? currents and potentials The ideal dipole Characterizing antennas: directivity, gain Radiation resistance Reciprocity and the Friis equation
Survey of common antenna types

Real ideal dipole 1/2-wave dipole Monopoles Folded dipole Wave guide antennas (cantennas) Parabolic reflector antennas Microstrip (patch) antennas Array antennas
Azimuthally isotropic antennas Radiating cable Yagi-Uda antennas Multidirectional arrays Smart antennas
Cabling and connectors
What is an antenna?
n n
Flow of electrical current induces potential at distant points (always true) BUT: total effect is the sum of all currents
If opposing currents balance, net effect is 0 far away
Antenna = device to arrange current so effects do not cancel far away

3 E&M w/o Fields: Antennas www.batnet.com/enigmatics
On the Receiving End

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Induced voltage is the sum of magnetic coupling and electric coupling:

Magnetic coupling Electric coupling
r r r A dl = dt o = i A dl
o c 2 e ikr it = e dv 4 r
Voltage
V = +
n
Note that the complete expression for the potential must include that due to the local currents and charges as well as the potential from distant sources
Example: The Ideal Dipole

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Ideal dipole = very short current source

Length << wavelength so current is constant Charge is stored at the ends
What voltage does current in dipole 1 induce at dipole 2?
Ideal Dipole Coupling: Case I
n n
Induced voltage arises only from magnetic coupling Proportional to product of dipole lengths (from two integrations)
If peak current is fixed, small dipoles couple poorly
E&M w/o Fields: Antennas 6 www.batnet.com/enigmatics
Ideal Dipole Coupling: Case II (setup)
n n
A is always parallel to I, still along axis of dp2 :

exponentials are not equal even at infinite r
same magnetic coupling irrespective of propagation direction k
Distance to charges differs by d no matter how large r is;

7 www.batnet.com/enigmatics
Ideal Dipole Coupling: Case II (result)
Electric and magnetic coupling exactly cancel: no induced voltage
Dipoles dont couple along their axes

Ideal Dipole Coupling, Arbitrary

1
magnetic
coupling
total
electric
-1 0 30 60 90 theta (degrees)
Coupling of vertical dipoles is zero along axes (as expected), maximum perpendicular to axes n Expression suggests that each dipole contributes d sin()
n
We will see later that pattern for transmit and receive are the same, dipoles both have sin() behavior: antenna pattern
Reflections
Electric coupling and magnetic coupling are not independent r because charge and current are intimately related Along = A r r r ( r ) = c ( A long ) Lorentz gage j= t A along r n In consequence electric coupling along r always cancels magnetic coupling: only transverse A matters V = v + = iAlongr + r
n
= iAlongr ikcAlongr = 0
When r is large enough, radiated waves look like plane waves, and all distance vectors are parallel: far field condition
Note that the physics of coupling doesnt change between near and far fields, just the approximations we can use to calculate it
d2 r >>
Physics becomes simple (mostly):

A is always in the direction of J Phases depend on distance Add everything up
10
Unbundling TX and RX
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Can we characterize TX, RX antennas separately?

YES: define outgoing transmitted power per unit area at large r:
P=
r 2 k A tr 2 o
For the ideal dipole using previous expressions for potential, we find after some algebra:
okI o 2 d 2 2 P= (sin( )) r 2 2 32 r
okI o d 2 2 U= (sin ( )) r 2 32
Digression: What was that bizarre equation?

n
Start with expression for energy/volume: r r I 2 2 E I2 2 2 2 = A J = o Jr J = o J r = o 2 r = o 2 r volume r
Multiply by velocity of light to get power/area, by area to get power:
power E I2 = c = o 2 c total power = o I 2c area volume r

n
Divide by area of a sphere to get power/area for uniform radiation

Scale size by wavelength; numerical factor from integration
o I 2c d 2 P= 2 2 4 r
n
power size [ numerical factor] area wavelength
Which is the same as the expression given previously (after a bit of algebra)
Views of U
n
U is often shown as a two-dimensional surface with radial distance r(,)= U(,)

Recall that U is really a scalar value defined on the surface of a sphere
Cross-sections in the direction of current flow (E plane) and perpendicular to current flow (H plane) are common 2D methods of displaying the same information
Note that scale can be linear or logarithmic
13
Characterizing Antennas 1: Directive Gain

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Directive gain:
Extent to which antenna output is directed vs. isotropic Directive gain defined for any angle
BUT: most commonly only the direction of maximum power density Umax is of interest Maximum directive gain = directivity Antenna gain unqualified always refers to maximum directive gain
Directivity may be called directive gain or just antenna gain

Potentially misleading:total output total input; passive antenna does not have power gain! Just refers to re-allocation of power over solid angle Maximum implied when no direction is provided Confusion possible about whether efficiency is included (more later)
14
Characterizing Antennas 2: Beam Solid Angle

n
Approximate radiation pattern as:

Maximum power in beam of solid angle A Zero energy elsewhere
Reasonable if directivity large
<a> = average over sphere
Directivity and antenna gain are inversely related:

Beam width in radians is approximately:
A A =
Dmax A = 4
4 Dmax
Large directivity => small beam width!
15
Characterizing Antennas 3: Gain and Efficiency

n n
Radiated power input power

Resistive losses
We can define radiation efficiency as ratio of radiated power to input power: P e rad Pin n Antenna power gain = ratio of maximum power density to average power density of lossless antenna:
Thus equal to directivity reduced by efficiency
G = eDmax
Parameter
D(,) D G
Name
Directive gain Directivity Power gain
Definition
Power in (,) /Average power Maximum value of directive gain Maximum power density / input power radiated uniformly
16
Characterizing Antenna Systems 4: EIRP

n
Effective isotropic radiated power: power gain of antenna multiplied by input power EIRP GPrad
Same as power radiated by isotropic antenna with the same peak power as the actual antenna
EIRP = 4 U max
17
Example: Ideal Dipole

n
Radiation intensity:
function only of
okI o d 2 2 U= (sin ( )) r 2 32
2
Average value of U:
normalized to maximum
U ( , ) =
sin 2 ( ) sin( )dd

0 0
2 = 3
Directivity:
power gain if lossless
Dmax =
1 3 = 1.8 dB 23 2
n n
Solid angle: EIRP for 1 watt out:
8 2 A = ( sphere surface) 3 3
3 EIRP = Prad = 1.5 W 2
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Radiation Resistance
n
Total radiated power:

okI o 2 d 2 okI o 2 d 2 P= A = 2 12 32
Set equal to input power:

1 okIo 2 d 2 2 P = RIo = 2 12
Infer radiation resistance due to power out:

Rrad d 2 okd 2 = = 80 2 (after some algebra) 6
Example: for 2.4 GHz = 12.5 cm; if d = 0.6 cm, R = 2 ohms

Recall input from 50 ohm load: difficult match
E&M w/o Fields: Antennas 19 www.batnet.com/enigmatics
Antennas as Receivers
n
How much power is transferred between a pair of antennas?

Received power = local power density * effective aperture of receiving antenna
assumed in direction of maximum directive gain
PRX
A RX = PTX G 4 r 2 TX
We can rewrite by imposing reciprocity:

(1 => 2) is the same as (2 => 1) True in most cases of interest Implies that gain of an antenna employed as a transmitter is proportional to its effective area when employed as a receiver:
A A Pin TX2 G RX = Pin RX2 GTX 4 r 4 r

GRX ATX = GTX A RX
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or
GRX A RX = GTX ATX

Directive Gain and Effective Aperture

n n
Find A for one antenna

Use ratio of Gs to find A for all other antennas
Lets use ideal dipole (its what weve got!):

Coupling in direction of maximum gain (case I):
Power density P=U/r2 in the same direction:
oIo d 2 Vo = 4 r
okI o 2 d 2 P= 32 2 r 2
Set equal (remembering that internal resistance Rrad drives matched load Rrad, so voltage is split between the two loads):
1 Vo P A = 2 4 Rrad
after some algebra
2 3 3 3 2 A= 2 = = 2 8 2 2k
Note A is independent of the size of the dipole
Decreasing radiation resistance compensates smaller voltage
21
Received Power from Directive Gain

n
Conventional to refer gain to (non-existent) isotropic antenna with maximum directive gain = 1; lets find aperture: 3 (1) 2 2 G A 8 Aiso = iso ideal = = 3 Gideal 4 2
( )
Received power can then be found for any transmit and receive antennas, since G/1=G: 2 1 1 G RX PRX = PTX A = PTX G G G 4 r 2 TX Giso iso 4 r 2 TX RX 4 After a bit of simplification we obtain the Friis equation:
PRX
2 = PTX GTX G RX 4 r
NOTE: the Friis equation is often taken to imply that vacuum propagation is frequencydependent : wrong. Dependence on lambda is a statement about antenna aperture scaling, not power at location r.
22
Reflections (II)Now we know everything (sort of)

Link loss = ratio of received power to transmitted power n To find it:
n
Find TX and RX antenna power gain

(relatively easy if current distribution is known and we can ignore antenna losses) OR measure directivity OR look it up on antenna datasheet
Insert in Friis equation

n
To hook up:
We still need to match to antenna cable (50 or 75 ) Helps a lot if Rrad is close to cable impedance and reactive part of load small
Thus antenna selection reduces to:

Directive gain Frequency for good impedance match Cost, size, durability, appearance
23
Some Antenna Examples

n Principles
of operation, directive gain, frequency behavior, practical issues, for several common antenna types:
1/2-wave dipole Monopoles Folded dipole Wave guide antennas (cantennas)
24
Half-Wave Dipole: Setup

A dipole without top-hat or other capacitive loading will no longer have uniform current along its length n For length = /2 it is apparent by symmetry that current will be a maximum in the center, go to zero at ends; reasonable guess is sinusoidal distribution
n
standing wave, harmonic time dependence

n
Knowing current distribution we can find potential as before (but integrals are harder)
25
Half-Wave Dipole: Directive Gain

n
After some laborious algebra: o I m d e i(t kr) 1 A= z cos cos( ) 2 2 2 r 2 (sin( ))

similar to ideal dipole complex geometry factor
A bit more labor produces:

2 kI 2 d 2 cos 2 cos( ) o m U = 4 8 (sin( )) 2
By integrating the angular dependence we arrive at the average and thus the maximum directive gain:
Dmax 1.64 = 2.2 dB

E-plane cross-section
Dipoles: Why /2?

n
Half-wave dipole is convenient because:

Input reactance vanishes Input (real) impedance moderate
Tweak length slightly depending on wire diameter to get Y=0 R 73 for infinitely thin wire, slightly lower for real wires Easy to drive with e.g. 75 coaxial line
but a balanced-unbalanced transformer (balun) is needed to avoid unbalanced current flow in the coaxial ground
Easy to fabricate:
n
Just two pieces of thin wire bolted together to a feed point
Disadvantages:
Too big for PC card or compact flash form factor Not very directional
/2 = 6.2 cm @ 2.4 GHz, 2.7 cm @ 5.5 GHz
D = 2.4 (3.8 dB) achievable using full-wave dipole
Narrowband
Longer dipoles have additional lobes in pattern, gain decreases
Feed offset towards one end to achieve convenient input impedance
13% BW at 2:1 VSWR for e.g. 0.005 wire (narrower for thinner wire) Fine for 2.4 GHz ISM band (3% BW), just makes UNII (5.2-5.8 GHz, 11% BW)
VSWR = voltage standing wave ratio (measure of mismatch)
27
Monopole Antennas
n n
A wire above a conducting ground plane can be regarded as (wire + image) Thus a quarter-wave monopole above a ground plane is very similar to a conventional half-wave dipole for <90
Directivity D = 2x(dipole) since no radiation to bottom (5.3 dB) Input resistance = 1/2(dipole) since total power radiated for fixed current is 1/2 of dipole (36 )
n n
Extra feature: no balun required Good solution if big ground plane available, horizontal pattern desired
BUT: small ground plane causes reduced radiation in horizontal directions, finite radiation below ground plane
28
Folded Dipole
Unbalanced transmission line antenna n For length of /2, input impedance is 4 times larger than conventional dipole (thus about 280 ) => easy to drive from 300 twin-lead line n Radiation pattern, directivity like a dipole n Commonly used as driver for Yagi-Uda antenna; FM radio antenna
n
n n n n n
Treat as sum of transmission line pair and composite dipole TL draws no current (short thru /4 = open) Composite dipole: same radiation resistance as /2 dipole, but V/2 => total current = 1/2 of /2 dipole Only the current on the left branch is seen by the input : another factor of 2 Result: 4x lower current = 4x higher input resistance
29
Waveguide Antennas (Cantennas)

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Circular waveguide large enough for wavelength of interest to propagate: diameter 2 / 3.41 Terminate in reflector (can bottom), place monopole antenna guide/4 from termination
image of antenna is guide/2 away and inverted phase Currents of antenna and image are in phase at distant points
Power gain may be estimated from physical aperture

Better calculation would include actual current distributions near edge => complex diffraction effects Better gain from a flare (horn)
2 R can 2 3.4 4 2 = = = 5 dB 2 2 11.6 4 4
G par
Acan A ideal
30

Antennas v1 6-24-04

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E&M Fundamentals Without Fields Simple Antennas

Daniel M. Dobkin Version 1 6/04

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Outline: section (4)

Survey of common antenna types

Cabling and connectors

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Antenna = device to arrange current so effects do not cancel far away

On the Receiving End

Induced voltage is the sum of magnetic coupling and electric coupling:

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Example: The Ideal Dipole

Ideal dipole = very short current source

What voltage does current in dipole 1 induce at dipole 2?

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Ideal Dipole Coupling: Case I

Ideal Dipole Coupling: Case II (setup)

A is always parallel to I, still along axis of dp2 :

same magnetic coupling irrespective of propagation direction k

Distance to charges differs by d no matter how large r is;

Ideal Dipole Coupling: Case II (result)

Electric and magnetic coupling exactly cancel: no induced voltage

Dipoles dont couple along their axes

Ideal Dipole Coupling, Arbitrary

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Physics becomes simple (mostly):

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Can we characterize TX, RX antennas separately?

Digression: What was that bizarre equation?

Start with expression for energy/volume: r r I 2 2 E I2 2 2 2 = A J = o Jr J = o J r = o 2 r = o 2 r volume r

Multiply by velocity of light to get power/area, by area to get power:

power E I2 = c = o 2 c total power = o I 2c area volume r

Divide by area of a sphere to get power/area for uniform radiation

power size [ numerical factor] area wavelength

U is often shown as a two-dimensional surface with radial distance r(,)= U(,)

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Characterizing Antennas 1: Directive Gain

Directivity may be called directive gain or just antenna gain

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Characterizing Antennas 2: Beam Solid Angle

Approximate radiation pattern as:

<a> = average over sphere

Directivity and antenna gain are inversely related:

Large directivity => small beam width!

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Characterizing Antennas 3: Gain and Efficiency

Radiated power input power

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Characterizing Antenna Systems 4: EIRP

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Example: Ideal Dipole

sin 2 ( ) sin( )dd

Solid angle: EIRP for 1 watt out:

3 EIRP = Prad = 1.5 W 2

E&M w/o Fields: Antennas

Total radiated power:

Set equal to input power:

Infer radiation resistance due to power out:

Example: for 2.4 GHz = 12.5 cm; if d = 0.6 cm, R = 2 ohms

How much power is transferred between a pair of antennas?

We can rewrite by imposing reciprocity:

A A Pin TX2 G RX = Pin RX2 GTX 4 r 4 r